HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Module 6: Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids and Bases
IQ1: What is an acid and what is a base?

Students:
- investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common
inorganic acids and bases
- conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of indicators
as illustrators of the characteristics and properties of acids and bases and
their reversible reactions
- predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to
represent:
– acids and bases
– acids and carbonates
– acids and metals
- investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and
industrial processes
- conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation
- explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time
to explain the limitations of each model, including but not limited to:
– Arrhenius’ theory
– Brønsted–Lowry theory

Naming Inorganic Compounds

IUPAC has developed rules for determining the name and formula of ionic and
molecular compounds.

So far, majority of ionic compounds learnt have been binary compounds, these are
compounds containing only 2 elements.

The positive ion has the same name as the element, while for the
negative ion the ending of the element is changed to -ide.

E.g. NaCl  Sodium ChlorIDE

MgO  Magnesium OxIDE

Naming binary acids

1. Use the normal element name for the first element and an –ide name for the
second, for example hydrogen sulf[IDE]

2. The first element is the one with lower electronegativity, this is generally the
one furthest left on the periodic table.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

3. The number of atoms of each type if given by using the prefixes “mono-”,
“di-”, “tri-”, “tetra-“, “penta-“, “hexa-“, and so on in front of each part of the
name. however, mono- is usually omitted from the first names element.

Some common inorganic acids are:

- hydrochloric acid (HCL)
- sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
- nitric acid (HNO3)
- phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

There are also organic acids which are organic compounds with acidic properties.
The most common organic acids usually have a -COOH group attached to the end of
a carbon chain. Examples of common organic acids are citric acid, acetic acid, lactic
acid and ascorbic acid.

Organic acids essentially contain carbon-hydrogen bonds in their structure whereas

inorganic acids may or may not contain carbon.

Naming inorganic acids

The compositional name of an inorganic acid is derived from the anion (A) that is
formed when the acid, HA dissociates in water to form H+ and A-.
The anion may be monatomic (Cl^-) or polyatomic (SO4^2-).
The exception to this is acetic acid (CH3COOH). This is a common organic acid, so
its formula is written using organic nomenclature.

Most acids are oxyacids: they have oxygen attached to an element such as sulfur,
nitrogen, phosphorus or carbon.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Naming inorganic bases

Examples of inorganic bases:
- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
- Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2)
- Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis. Common alkalis are sodium and
potassium hydroxides, calcium and barium hydroxides and ammonia.

There are also organic bases, the most common organic bases contain a nitrogen
atom bonded to carbon groups. One important class is known as amines. Those with
a -NH2 group attached to the end of the carbon chain are called primary amines.

A base is a substance that contains either a hydroxide (OH-) or an oxide (O2-) ion,
or, which in solution produces the hydroxide ion.

Metallic oxides and hydroxides are ionic compounds that contain the oxide or
hydroxide ion respectively and so are bases. Therefore, these bases are named
using the rules for naming ionic compounds.

Weak bases may be ionic, molecular or organic compounds. Therefore, they are
named using the relevant naming rules for each of those classifications.

Polyatomic ions
The name for polyatomic ions is mainly memorised. Oxyanions are named with -ate
for a greater quantity of oxygen and -ite for a lesser quantity of oxygen. If four
oxyanions are possible, the prefixed hypo- and per- are used.

E.g.
Hypochlorite  CLO-
Chlorite  ClO2-
Chlorate  CLO3-
Perchlorate  CLO4-

Common polyatomic ions

Ammonium – NH4+ Sulfate – SO4 2-

Hydroxide – OH- Sulfite – SO3 2-
Nitrate – NO3- Carbonate – CO32-
Nitrite – NO2- Peroxide – O2 2-
Acetate – CH3COOH- Chromate – CrO4 2-
Hydrogen Carbonate – HCO3 – Dichromate – Cr2O7 2-
Cyanide – CN- Oxalate – C2O4 2-
Cyanate – CNO- Hydrogen Phosphate – HPO4 2-
Thiocyanate – SCN- Phosphate – PO4 3-
Permanganate – MnO4- Phosphite – PO3 3-
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Hydrates
Hydrates are ionic compounds that have absorbed water.
The name of hydrates is the name of the ionic compound followed by the numerical
prefix and the suffix – hydrate.

The numerical prefixes are:

1. Mono 4. Tetra 7. Hepta
2. Di 5. Penta 8. Octa
3. Tri 6. Hexa
For example,
CuSO4 * 5H2O is copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate.

Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds are named with the more electronegative element written last
and ending in the suffix -ide.

However, there are exceptions such as ammonia which is written as NH3 even
though nitrogen is more electronegative than hydrogen.
Each element is given a prefix (same as hydrates) which corresponds to the number
of atoms of that element in the atomic ratio. However, -mono is omitted for the first
element.
e.g SO2 = Sulfer DIoxide not Monosulfur dioxide

IUPAC Nomenclature of Inorganic Acids

There are two different naming rules depending on the type of acid.

1) Where the H+ is bonded to a non-oxygen element [binary acids]

Naming rule:
The name of the acid begins with the prefix hydro- and ends with the suffix -ic,
with the root of the name of the anion in between.

Some common binary acids:

Formula IUPAC Nomenclature
HF Hydrofluoric acid
HCL Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
HI Hydroiodic acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid
H2S Hydrosulfuric acid

2) Where the H+ is bonded to an oxygen atom of a polyatomic anion (oxoacids).

Naming rule:
If the name of anion ends in the suffix -ate, then the name of the acid replaces
that suffix with -ic.
If the name of the anion ends in the suffix -ite, then the name of the acid
replaces that suffix with -ous.

An anion ends in the suffix -ite when it loses an oxygen.

HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Relationship between oxoanion and oxoacid

BrO4- ; Perbromate H+ HBrO4, Perbromic acid

BrO3- ; Bromate H+ HBrO3, Bromic acid
BrO2- ; Bromite H+ HBrO2, Bromous acid
BrO- ; Hypobromite H+ HBrO, Hypobromous acid

Some common oxoacids:

Formula IUPAC Nomenclature
HNO2 Nitrous acid
HNO3 Nitric acid
H2SO3 Sulfureous acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
HClO Hypochlorous acid
HClO4 Perchloric acid

IUPAC Nomenclature of Inorganic Bases

Most bases are ionic compounds and are named following the rules for naming ionic
compounds.
Some bases are molecular compounds and are therefore named following the rules
for molecular compounds. Some also have a common name which is not derived
systematically.

Some common bases:

Formula IUPAC Nomenclature
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
CsOH Caesium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
NH3 Ammonia

Properties Of Common Inorganic Acids And Bases

Common properties of acids:

- Sour taste
- Conducting electricity in solution
- Turning blue litmus red
Common properties of bases:
- Soapy feel in aqueous solution
- Bitter taste
- Conducting electricity
- Turning red litmus blue
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The effects of acids and bases on vegetable dyes such as litmus was initially used to
help classify substances such as acids and bases. Litmus can be found and
extracted from different species of liches such as Pamelia Sulcate.

There are many different plants that are sources of dyes that act as acid-base
indicators. Anthocyanins are a class of organic compounds found in many plants
including red cabbage, red onion, blueberries, red grapes and violet leaves that
change colour in the presence of acids and bases.

Natural sources of acid-base indicators:

- Hydrangea
- Geranium
- Petunia
- Red rose petals
- Turmeric

Definitions

An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution. More
strictly, the hydrogen ion attaches to a water molecule and forms hydronium ions
(H3O+).
e.g. HCL  H+ + Cl- or HCL + H2O  H3O+ + Cl-

A base is a substance that either contains the oxide (O2-) or hydroxide ion (OH-) or
produces hydroxide ion in aqueous solution.

e.g. NaOH  Na+ + OH- or K2O + H2O  2K+ + 2OH-

Not all oxides are basic. Most oxides formed between a non-metal and oxygen
(CO2, SO3) are acidic or neutral, however, oxides formed between a metal and
oxygen (CaO, MgO) are basic or amphoteric (can act as an acid and a base).

e.g. Aluminium oxide reacting with an acid

AL2O3 + 6HCL  2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Aluminium oxide reacting with a base

Al2O3 +2NaOH + 3H2O  2Na[Al(OH)4] (sodium tetrahydroxyaluminate)

Reactions of Acids

Acid-Base reactions
Neutralisation: Acids and bases react to form compounds called salts and water.

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

General ionic eqn.
H+ + OH-  H2O
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

H3O+ + OH-  2H2O

1. The reaction between an acid and a hydroxide:

Acid + hydroxide → salt + water
For example:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2. The reaction between an acid and a basic or amphoteric oxide:
Acid + oxide → salt + water
For example:
H2SO4(aq) + MgO(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Another common but not typical acid-base reaction is the reaction between an acid
and ammonia. This reaction does not follow the generalisation as the H+ ion
attaches of the NH3 molecule to produce NH4+.

HCl + NH3  NH4Cl

While ammonia is considered to be a weak base due to the production of OH- ions
when it reacts with water,

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

The ammonium ion is considered to be a weak acid, this means it will react with a
base to produce a salt and water; however, ammonia gas will also be produced in
the reaction.

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)

Ammonium salts such as ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate are commonly
used as fertilisers.

Acid-carbonate reactions
When an acid and base react, they produce salt, carbon dioxide, and water.

Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

Examples:
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

A hydrogen carbonate ion has the formula HCO3-. Compounds containing the
hydrogen carbonate ion undergo similar reactions with acids to those containing the
carbonate ion.

Acid-metal reactions

Dilute acid + metal  salt + hydrogen gas

Examples:
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

The hydrogen ion (H+) produced by acids in aqueous solutions reacts with the metal.
Therefore, the net ionic equation is:

2H+(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Neutralisation Reactions

Enthalpy is stored in the chemical bonds of the reactants and the products. The law
of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can
only be changed from one form to another. Energy is needed to break bonds and is
released when new bonds are formed.

Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy possessed by a substance or group of

substances. The change in enthalpy = delta H, it is measured in kJ/mol-1

Delta H = enthalpy of products – enthalpy of reactants

Delta H > 0 = energy absorbed (endothermic)  product energy is greater than

energy of reactants

Delta H < 0 = energy released (exothermic)  product energy is lower than

reactants

Standard enthalpy of neutralisation is the enthalpy change when solutions of an acid

and alkali react together under standard conditions (25 degrees Celsius and 1000
kPa) to produce 1 mole of water.

Enthalpy of neutralisation = 57.6 kJ/mol

Measuring enthalpy:
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J K −1 g−1. This means that 4.18 joules of
energy is needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 K.

The total amount of energy needed to heat a substance is dependent on the:

- mass of the substance
- substance (that is, the specific heat capacity of the substance involved)
- increase in temperature required.

This can be written as a mathematical equation:

q = mCΔT

Where:
q = quantity of heat involved, measured in joules (J)
m = mass of the substance, measured in grams (g)
C = specific heat capacity of the substance, measured in J K −1 g−1
ΔT = change in temperature (final temperature – initial temperature), measured in
kelvin (K).
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

If the temperature change is positive, then the temperature has increased, and the
substance has lost energy.

If the temperature change is negative, then the temperature has decreased, and the
substance has gained energy.

Applications of neutralisation
The balance of acids and/or bases is important in maintaining the health of our body
systems and this is regulated by naturally occurring processes.

For example, our stomach produces hydrochloric acid to aid with the digestion of
food and to kill many harmful micro-organisms that may have also been swallowed.

However, if our stomach produces too much hydrochloric acid, heartburn or

indigestion occurs. This problem is usually foxed by taking an antacid which contains
a base such as magnesium hydroxide or aluminium hydroxide, which neutralises
excess acid.

Many foods also contain acid:

- apples contain malic acid
- tea contains tannic acid
- carbonated drinks contain carbonic acid
- when sugar in consumed, acid is produced in the mouth

The enamel that makes up teeth is 95% hydroxyapatite and is easily decayed in the
presence of an acid by a process called demineralisation.
The acid reacts with the enamel causing it to break down.

Ca5(PO4)3OH + 4H+ → 5Ca2+ + 3(HPO4)2− + H2O

Toothpaste is alkaline and used to neutralise the acids in the mouth and removes
food particles that produce acids as they decay.

Ant bites can also be treated with a neutralisation reaction as they produce formic
acid which can be neutralized by sodium hydrogen carbonate. This produces sodium
formate, water and carbon dioxide.

Neutralisation and industry

In agriculture, the neutralisation of soil is important since the ability of plants to take
up nutrients from the soil is affected by how acidic or alkaline the soil is.
While most plants grow well in soil that is neutral, some plants grow well in soil that
is more acidic (blueberries, azaleas, tomatoes), while other plants grow well in soil
that is more alkaline (lilac, thyme, leek).

If it is too acidic, calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate is added to the soil to

neutralise the acid. If soil is too alkaline, then substances that can act as acids such
as calcium sulfate or powdered sulfur is added to neutralise the alkaline component.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The hydrangea is unique amongst plants because the colour of the flower changes
depending on whether the soil is acidic or alkaline.
The shrub produces blue flowers when grown in acidic soil and pink or red flowers
when grown in neutral to basic soils.

Fabric is made from natural fibres that is often difficult to dye because the fibres
contain natural oils and waxes. These oils and waxes are removed by a process
called scouring. This involves treating the fabric with a strong alkali solution of
sodium hydroxide at boiling temperature for 1-2 hours. At the end, the fabric is put
through a cold rinse with acetic acid to neutralise the sodium hydroxide.

Wastewater from industrial processes is acidic or alkaline. If this water was allowed
to enter creeks and rivers untreated it could cause a significant amount of
environmental damage.

Wastewater from mine drainage contains a large amount of acidity because of the
presence of sulfuric acid produced from the oxidation of pyrite. This acid water is
neutralised with calcium oxide before the land is reclaimed after mining.

Acidic wastes are neutralised either by adding lime alkalis, usually quicklime or
slaked lime or sodium alkalis such as caustic soda. Calcium and magnesium oxides
may also be used but typically in slurries.

If freshwater is too alkaline it is neutralised using sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid or

nitric acid.

Sodium carbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is widely used to neutralise spills

while dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acid are used to neutralise base spills.
 HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Changes In Understanding Of Acids And Bases

Theory Description Limitation
th
Lavoisier In the late 18 century, a French chemist Antoine Lavoisier The main limitation of this
Acid found that non-metal oxides reacted with water to produce definition is that it does not
Theory acidic solution. agree with acids such as
From this he concluded that acids must contain OXYGEN. hydrochloric acid.

Davy’s In 1815, the English chemist Humphry Davy defined acids The main limitation of this
Acid as substances containing HYDROGEN that could be definition is that it does not
Theory REPLACED BY METAL. agree with substances which
He also concluded that compounds of metal with oxygen contain hydrogen but are not
were bases. acids.
Arrhenius Arrhenius attempted to explain acids and bases in terms of The theory could not explain
Theory the particles they produced in aqueous solution. He why ammonia was a base (does
proposed that an acid was a substance that ionised in not contain hydroxides).
solution to produce hydrogen ions (H+) and that a base It was deemed acceptable as a
was a substance that in solution produced hydroxide ions base by the definition as it
(OH-). reacted with water to produce
hydroxide ions/ however, it
So if HA is used to represent an acid and XOH a base reacts with hydrochloric acid to
then, according to Arrhenius: form ammonium chloride and no
OH- are produced.
HA(aq) → H+(aq) + A−(aq)
XOH(aq) → X+(aq) + OH−(aq) It does not explain the role of
the solvent in acidic or basic
His observation was based on the concept of particles. He properties, for example HCL is
stated that acids produced hydronium ions when dissolved acidic in water but not in
in water. He stated that bases produced hydroxide ions in benzene. While the model works
water. for aqueous solution, when an
organic solvent (benzene) is
This contributed to the concept of strong and weak acids used, many acids and bases do
and bases and also explained the relative conductivities of not dissociate.
acids and bases.
According to the model, all salts
produced by reactions of an
acid and a base should be
neutral. However, this is not the
case as a neutralisation reaction
between acetic acid and sodium
hydroxide results in a basic
solution.
Bronsted The Bronsted Lowry theory is one of the two main current It does not explain the acidic
Lowry definitions of acids and bases and defines them in terms of reactions occurring in non-
Theory proton (H+) transfer. His definition takes ammonia into protonic solvents such as
account. COCl2, SO2, N2O4. The model
An acid is a substance that donates one or more protons or requires the presence of a
hydrogen ions (H+). solvent which has a hydrogen
A base is redefined as a substance that accepts one or attached to an oxygen or
more protons. nitrogen but there are also non-
Therefore, neutralisation is the transfer of a proton aqueous solvents where a
 HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

between an acid and a base. proton is not involved.

His theory defines substances as acidic or basic depending
on its function in the acid-base reaction where a proton is Another limitation is that the
transferred from a donor to an acceptor. Bronsted- Lowry model cannot
explain reactions between acidic
In terms of ammonia, when it is in solution with HCL, oxides such as CO2, SO2, SO2
ammonia accepts a proton to form ammonium gas and is and basic oxides such as CaO,
acting as a base. HCL acts as an acid as it donates a MgO and BaO which take place
proton to form Cl-. even when there is no solvent
and there is no proton transfer
When HCL reacts with water, the water acts as a base as it but it is still a neutralisation
accepts a H+ ion while when ammonia reacts with water, reaction between an acid and a
water acts as an acid and donates a proton to ammonia, base.
creating ammonium.
 CaO + SO = CaSO4
Therefore, water in amphiprotic and can accept and donate
a proton. It does not explain why non-
protonic substances such as BF
3 AND AlCl3 are known to act as
acids but cannot donate a
proton due to the absence of
hydrogen.
Lewis Lewis proposed the definition that an acid is an electron It does not explain the
Theory pair acceptor, and a base is an electron pair donator. behaviour of well-known
The definition is broader than the Bronsted theory as it protonic acids such as HCL and
does not require either a proton or a solvent. H2SO4 which do not form
coordinate bond with bases.
This means that a Lewis acid must contain an empty
orbital, and a Lewis base must contain a filled orbital with The hydrogen ion H+ which may
electron pairs that are not involved in bonding. have come from an HCL or
They interact by the formation of coordinate covalent H2SO4 molecule is a Lewis
bonds in the acid-base adduct (product with 2 or more acid. However, HCL and H2SO4
chemical product. themselves cannot be
considered an acid under the
A coordinate covalent bond is a single covalent bond in Lewis definition.
which both electrons in the shared pair come from the
same atom. It does not explain the relative
For example, BF3 is a Lewis acid and reacts with the Lewis strengths of acids and bases,
base fluoride ion by accepting one of the lone electron which is explained by the
pairs. Here, the acid-base BF4- contains a coordinate Bronsted Lowry theory.
covalent bond because both electrons that make up the
bond between the new F atom and the original BF3 were It does not correctly predict the
donated by the original F atom rates of acid-base neutralisation
reactions.

Bronsted – Lowry Revisited

HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

An acid is a substance that donates one or more protons or hydrogen ions (H+)
A base is defined as a substance that accepts one or more protons

The Bronsted – Lowry definitions of an acid as a proton donor and a base as a

proton acceptor meant that bases became the mirror companion of acids. The
measurement of the hydronium ion is key in defining the degree of acidity.

Mirror companions and conjugate pairs

For the forward reaction, HA is an acid because it is donating a proton to the base.
The base accepts a proton from HA.

The reverse reaction is between the HB+ ion and the A- ion. In the reverse reaction
between. HB+ is the acid because it is donating a proton to the A- ion. The A- ion is a
base that accepts a proton from the HB+.

The acid (HA) on the left produces a base (A-) when it loses a proton (H+). The base
(B) on the left produces an acid (HB+) when it accepts a proton. These acid base
pairs are called conjugate pairs.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The pH Scale

Indicators are commonly used to measure acidity and alkalinity in soil and water. An
indicator can also be used to provide information on the degree of acidity and
alkalinity of a solution.

The term ‘pH’ stands for ‘hydrogen power’. This is because the pH scale is based on
the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution. In aqueous solutions the hydrogen ion
attaches to a water molecule to form the hydronium ion (H3O+). Therefore, it is also
based on the concentration of hydronium ions.

The pH scale generally goes from 0-14 however, there are values outside this range.
The lower the pH, the higher the acidity. The higher the pH, the more basic the
solution is.

An increase on 1 unit of the scale if equivalent to 10 times decrease in the hydrogen

ion concentration.

The pH of a solution is defined as:

While the pH scale is based on the hydrogen ion concentration it can also be used to
determine the alkalinity and therefore the hydroxide ion (OH-) concentration.

- As H+ ion concentration goes down, the OH- ion concentration goes up by the
corresponding number
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

- Adding the numbers in the concentration superscripts results in 14

Measuring pH
Synthetic indicators also provide a quantitative measurement for the degree of
acidity.
Some synthetic indicators are methyl orange, methyl violet, litmus, bromothymol blue
and phenolphthalein.

There is also a universal indicator that produces several colour changes depending
on the pH of the solution. It is a mixture of several indicators.

Calculating pH

- For a solution in which [H+] = 0.1 M, the pH is 1.0

- If [H+] = 0.01 M, pH is 2.0
- If [H+] = 10^-7, the pH is 7.0
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

[H+] = 10^-pH

Concentration Versus Strength of Acids and Bases

Understanding Concentration
- A concentrated solution is one in which the total concentration is high
- A dilute solution is one on which the total concentration is low

Understanding strength of acids and bases

The degree to which an acid ionises, or a base dissociates gives a measure of the
strength of that acid or base.
Acids in which all of the acid molecules ionise to produce a hydrogen ion are defined
as strong acids.
For example:
- Hydrochloric acid
- Nitric acid
- Sulfuric acid
Acids in which only some of the molecules ionise are defined as weak acids.
For example:
- Acetic acid
- Carbonic acid

Bases can be similarly defined as strong or weak depending on the number of

molecules or ionic compounds that dissociate in aqueous solution. A strong base is
one in which almost all of the species have dissociated.
For example:
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

- Sodium hydroxide
- Potassium hydroxide
Bases in which only a small proportion of the species produce hydroxide ions in
aqueous solution are defined as weak bases.
For example:
- Ammonia
- Methylamine

In aqueous solution of a strong acid, all molecules are ionised, and the reaction goes
to completion. It is written as:

However, in aqueous solutions of a weak acid, only come molecules are ionised, the
solution represents an equilibrium situation with weak acid molecules and the ions
produced from the ionisation. The equation is written as:

Comparing concentration and strength

If the concentration of a strong acid solution and a weak acid are the same, the
concentration of hydronium ions [H3O+] is higher in the strong solution than in the
weak acid solution.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

This is because while almost all of the strong acids ionise, only a small proportion of
the molecules of weak acids ionise; therefore, there is a lower concentration of
hydronium ions in aqueous solution of a weak acid. This also means that when the
concentrations of a strong and weak acid are the same, the pH of the strong acid will
be lower.

This is because pH is a measure of the hydronium ion concentration of a solution

and strong acids have higher concentrations of hydronium ions.

For weak and strong bases, the [OH-] is higher in stronger bases than weaker
bases.

Polyprotic acids
Acids such as HCL, HNO3, and HF will give up one proton (hydrogen ion) per
molecule when they ionise. These are called monoprotic acids. Some acids can give
up more than one proton. These are called polyprotic acids. This refers to the ability
to donate more than one proton. Diprotic acids can donate two protons.

pH of monoprotic acids
A strong monoprotic acid will ionise completely, so the [H3O+] will be equal to the
concentration of the acid.
For example:

However, a weak monoprotic acid will only ionise to a small extent, producing very
few [H3O+].
For example:

pH of polyprotic acids
The measured pH of a 0.1 M solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is around 0.69, not
1.0. this means that it is a more acidic solution than a 0.1 M of monoprotic HCL. The
smaller pH of the H2SO4 indicates that there are more hydronium ions than HCL of
equivalent concentration.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The pH value can be used to calculate the concentration of hydronium ions [H3O+]
as almost 0.2 M. This means there are almost twice as many hydronium ions for
H2SO4 than for HCL when these acids are in the same concentration.

H2SO4 is a strong acid and so many molecules ionise in the first equation. H2SO4 –
is a much weaker acid than H2SO4, so not many of the molecules will react with
water and ionise. This means that the total concentration of hydronium ions is the
number produced by the first equation + the number produced by the second
ionisation.

String diprotic acids have a hydronium ion concentration greater than a monoprotic
acid of the same concentration.

When a diprotic acid such as sulfuric acid reacts with a base, the number of protons
that may be donated is two protons when the reaction goes to completion and all the
acid has reacted.

When performing calculations involving polyprotic acids, the total number of protons
must be taken into account.

Other acids such as phosphoric acid are triprotic and can donate 3 protons.

Self-ionisation of Water

The pH scale can also be used to measure the concentration of hydroxide ions in
alkaline solutions.

Water amphiprotic nature means that it can react with itself to form hydronium and
hydroxide ions. This is an equilibrium reaction:
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

While this is a reversible reaction, the forward reaction only occurs to a very small
extent. Therefore, the equilibrium constant is small. The concentration of water is
very large (55M) and does not change significantly in the reaction. So, [H2O] is not
included in the equilibrium expression.

To represent this, the Kw constant is used, the ionic product constant for water is
used:

This means that at 298K:

Defining acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions

- An acidic solution is one in which [H3O+] > [OH-].

At 298K [H3O+] > 10^-7 mol L -1

- An alkaline solution is one in which [H3O+] < [OH-]

At 298K [H3O+] < 10^-7 mol L-1
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

- A neutral solution is one in which [H3O+] = [OH-]

At 298K [H3O+] = [OH-] = 10^-7 mol L-1

Calculating the pH of solutions using Kw

HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Defining and Calculating pOH

pH is a measure of the [H+], the pOH for an aqueous solution is a measure of [OH-].

Relating pH and pOH

pH + pOH = 14
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Diluting pH and pOH

As pH is a measure of [H3O+], changing the concentration by adding or removing
the solvent will change the pH.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Defining and Calculating pOH

The general equation for the ionisation reaction of a weak acid is:

The equilibrium constant for the ionisation of a weak acid is called the acid
dissociation constant and is represented by Ka.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The Ka of strong acids is very large because there is a large concentration of the
products and very little of the reactants. The conjugate base Cl- is very weak and
does not readily react in the reverse reaction, so the reverse reaction only occurs to
a very small extent. Therefore, equilibrium arrows are not used.

The larger the Ka value, the larger the value of the numerator in the equilibrium
expression – a greater concentration of ions (products) compared to the
concentration of un-dissociated molecules of the acid (reactants) and therefore, the
greater the degree of dissociation.

The pH can be used to determine the concentration of hydronium ions. For strong
acids, the concentration of acid molecules at equilibrium is negligible, so the pH will
give a direct measurement of the concentration of the acid.

However, for weak acids, the pH does not give a direct measurement of the acid
concentration.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Instead, the Ka and the concentration of the hydronium ions needs to be used to
calculate the concentration of the acid.

Determining the Ka
The Ka of an acid can be determined by measuring the pH of the sample and using
this to calculate the hydronium ion concentration.

The following assumptions are made:

1. At equilibrium, [HA] is the same as the initial concentration; the weak acid only
ionises to a small degree in water.
2. [H3O+] produced by. The self-ionisation of water is negligible and has no
effect on the calculations.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Percentage ionisation

Percentage ionisation is the percentage of acid that has ionised in water. The
general reaction for weak acids with water is:

For each proton that is donated to the water, one A- ion is formed (if it is monoprotic).
B measuring the pH, the [H3O] + can be determined and this is equal to [A-].

This can be used to calculate the percentage of the original acid that has been
ionised.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Ka of polyprotic acids

Strong polyprotic acids

For strong polyprotic acids, the Ka1 is much larger than the Ka of any subsequent
ionisation steps consider sulfuric acid, which is a strong diprotic acid, it can release
two protons, which is done in two steps. The first proton is donated very easily to
water and the conjugate base.
H2SO4 is produced:

The conjugate base HSO4- from step 1 donates a proton and acts as a weak acid by
reacting with water to form SO4 2-. The weaker a weak acid, the stronger its
conjugate base, so the reverse reaction in step 2 occurs to a higher degree.

- H2SO4 produce will ionise since it is a strong acid (large Ka)

- Only a small amount of SO4 2- will form since HSO4- is a weak acid as can
be seen by its small Ka2.
- HSO4- is amphiprotic so it is present as a product in step 1 and a reactant in
step 2
- Therefore, at equilibrium the main species present will be water, H3O+ and
HSO4-

Weak polyprotic acids

Weak polyprotic acids will also donate electrons through a series of steps, however,
smaller Ka values result in a different group of species in the final solution.

Since sulfuric acid is a weak acid in step 1, it I sin equilibrium with the conjugate
base, HSO3-. In step 2, HSO3- acts as a weak acid and donates a proton to water to
produce the conjugate base, SO3 2-.
While Ks1 is bigger than Ka2, they still represent weak acids so all three species
would be present in an aqueous solution.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Understanding pKa

A smaller pKa corresponds to greater acid strength.

Dissociation Constants for Bases

The size of Kb is a measure of the strength of the base. The larger the Kb, the larger
the value of the numerator in the equilibrium expression. Therefore, the greater the
concentration of products and therefore, the greater degree of dissociation.

The Kb of a strong base us very large because of its high percentage of dissociation.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

The pOH or pH can be used to determine the concentration of hydroxide ions.

Determining the Kb
The Kb of a base can be determined by measuring the pH of pOH of the sample and
using this to calculate the hydroxide ion concentration. Using B to represent any
base and HB+ to represent the conjugate acid, the reaction of a weak base can be
represented as:

For weak acids, the following assumptions are made:

HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

1. At equilibrium, [B] is the same as the initial concentration; the weak base only
ionises to a small degree in water.
2. [OH-] produced by the self-ionisation of water is negligible and has no effect
on the calculations.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

Revisiting Neutralisation

If an acid reacts with a base other than its conjugate base or water, it will always
react completely, provided the reaction quantities meet the required stochiometric
ratios. This means that the same calculations are used to determine the amount
need for neutralisation for both weak and strong acids.

Salts: Not necessarily neutral

Another factor that influences the pH of the final solution is the salt produced after
the reaction of an acid with a base. Salts are ionic compounds produced when an
acid neutralises a base.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

A solution pf a salt may be acidic, basic or neutral.

Strength of conjugate acid-base pairs

The strength of the conjugate acid or base produced is dependent on the strength of
the original acid or base.
Generally, a weaker acid will produce a stronger base, while a weaker base will
produce a stronger acid. A strong acid will produce a weak or neutral conjugate
base, and a strong base will produce a weak or neutral conjugate acid.

Salts produced from the neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and strong
base do not HYDROLYSE (react with water) and the pH of the solution will be
neutral.

For example:

Na + does not react with water so it will not affect the pH of the solution. HCL is a
strong acid that produces Cl- as its conjugate base. It is a considerably weak base,
so it will not react to remove a proton from water. The resulting solution will be
neutral.

When a strong acid and weak base react, the resulting salt will have a pH less than
7. While the anion (conjugate base of the strong acid) produced will not affect the
pH, the conjugate acid of the weak base (cation) will hydrolyse to produce H3O+ so
the solution will be acidic. For weak bases, the conjugate acid will react with water to
form an acidic solution.

The chloride ion that had come from the strong acid does not affect the pH of the
solution. However, the ammonium cation is the conjugate acid of a weak base. It will
react with water to produce a hydronium ion according to:
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases

When a weak acid and strong base react, the resulting solution will have a pH > 7.
While the cation produced from the base will not affect the pH, the conjugate base of
the weak acid will hydrolyse to produce OH-, so the solution will be basic. For weak
acids, the conjugate bases are stronger. They will react with water to form a basic
solution.

The salt formed from a reaction between a weak acid and a weak base will also
react with water, as shown for the weak acids and bases. Whichever salt is the
stronger acid or base will determine whether the solution is acidic or basic.

The Ka and Kb values will need to be compared.

Amphiprotic salts
Salts such as NaHCO3 and KH2PO4 will dissociate in aqueous solution to produce
the ions Na+ and HCO3- or K+ and H2PO4-. In both cases, the anion demonstrates
the amphiprotic properties. Na+ and K+ are spectator ions that do not react with the
water.

In aqueous solutions, the amphiprotic substance acts as both an acid and a base.
This means that it will donate both a proton to water and accept a proton from water.
HSC Module 6: Acids and Bases