CONCISE A.

LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

TAXONOMY
OBJECTIVES OF ADVANCED LEVEL TAXONOMY
In studying advanced level taxonomy, students are expected to be able to perform the following;
- To identify the characteristics features of organisms so that they can be placed in their correct taxonomic
groups.
- Pick out features which adapt the organisms to their habitat.
- Make careful drawings of specimens and annotate points of biological significance.
- Identify organisms by means of biological key such as dichotomous key.
- Establish possible ecological relationships between specimens.
- Note should be taken on the general and diagnostic features of the organisms with emphasis on the
external view of each of the organisms in relationship to its environment and its mode of life
Introduction
- For the millions of living organisms found on earth, only about 1.5 million different species of them have been
classified and documented.
Principle of Taxonomy/Classification.
- Taxonomy is the branch of science which deals with systematics and nomenclature.
- Systematics is the orderly arrangement of living organisms into groups based on their similarities and
differences.
- Nomenclature is the giving of names to a living organisms for identification, that is, the common name and the
scientific name.
- Common names are usually related to a unique characteristic present in the organism e.g. sweet potato, bitter
leaf, water leaf, spear grass, etc and they vary from language to language and from one locality to another.
- Scientific names are universal and standard.
Reasons for classifying living organisms
- To create order out of disorder.
- For easy identification.
- For convenience of studies.
- To understand the evolutionary relationship between living organisms.
- In order for scientists to understand the details of the anatomy and physiology of living organisms.
- In order attribute a common and universally recognized name to an organism e.g. Papio anubis refers to
Baboons all over the world.
- To create a chart so that newly discovered organisms can be neatly fitted.
- In order to know their inter-relationship.
- To ease communication between taxonomist world over
Types of classifications
Artificial system of classification
- This is a type of classification scheme based on few observable characteristics. Here, the classification scheme is
aimed at satisfying the interest or purpose of the classifier e.g. a timber exploiter will classify wood base on how
hard or soft it is, herbalist will classify plant base on their medicinal value and etc.
- The limitation of this type of classification include:
 It fails to bring out the evolutionary relationship that exist among organisms.
 It completely ignores structural, physiological and genetic constitution of the organism.
 It has a very low predictive value as knowledge about an organism cannot be generalized.
 It is fixed and not subject to revision.
 It concentrates only on analogous structures (i.e. structures of different origin but which perform the same
function, e.g wings of housefly and wings of bat all used for flying but have different embryonic origin) e.g.
snakes and earthworm are placed in the same group based on the mode of locomotion. However, snakes
are vertebrate while earthworm are invertebrate.

1
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

 It ignores the genetic constitution of an organism.

Numerical system of classification
- This is a system of classification that deals with massive collection of data on characters which are later
compared using a computer.
- The characters are based on massive collection of data on different degrees of similarities between the different
organisms.
- The degree of similarities is gotten by calculation involving the use of a computer.
- The closeness between groups is determined by the number of observable characteristics they have in common.
- This system of classification was proposed by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath.
- Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath later divided this system of classification into phonetic and Cladistics.
Phenetic system of classification
- This classification system was derived from the Greek word called phainein which means to see or visible.
- This classification system is based on only observable features.
- It takes into account similarities and differences between living organisms.
- All characteristics chosen are of equal importance and are basically observable.
- This type of classification was proposed by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath.
The limitation of this type of classification scheme:
- It avoids taken into consideration the evolutionary relationship that exist among living organisms.
- It does not make use of fossil evidence hence can be very controversial
Phylogenetic system of classification.
- This system of classification is based on the evolutionary relationship that exist between organisms.
- In this system of classification, organisms found in the same group are believed to have a common ancestor
and possess similar genetic constitution.
- The phylogeny of living organisms resemble a family tree or evolutionary tree in which the kingdom Monera
represent the root, kingdom Protoctista represent the main stem or trunk arising from the root while
kingdom Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are the main branches arising from the stem.
- This type of classification was proposed by Engler and Prantl
Natural system of classification
- It is a system of classification based on a natural relationship that exist between organisms.
- This system of classification involves both internal and external characteristics irrespective of size, color and
function of body parts or habitat.
- It is based on natural features as well as data gotten from other branches of Biology such as Anatomy,
physiology, morphology, ecology, embryology and Biochemistry.
- It is based on Homologous structures (structures that have the same embryonic origin and same structural
arrangement but may perform different functions in different organisms eg the forelimbs of bat, whale and
humans for flying, swimming and manipulation of objects respectively).
- This is the most acceptable system of classification and was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus.
Advantages of natural classification.
- It uses available data to each organism.
- It open to constant modification.
- Many data are compared instead of choosing a few characteristics.

2
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Differences between natural and artificial classification systems.

Natural classification system Artificial classification systems
It is a more efficient system of classification Less efficient system of classification
It considers both internal and external characteristics. considers only external characteristics
Makes use of many characteristics. Makes use of few characteristics
Makes use evolutionary relationship (it is phylogenetic) It is not phylogenetic
It does not change with time It changes with time
It based on homologous structures It is based on analogous structures

Levels of classification or Taxonomic hierarchy/Taxonomic rank

- Taxonomists have arranged living organisms into specific groups called taxa (singular = taxon) in order of
hierarchy.
- Each taxon is made up of organisms that share a common or the same characteristics.
- This taxon also indicates that the organisms must have originated from a common ancestor.
- The largest taxon is at the top of the taxonomic hierarchy while the smallest is at the bottom.
- Each organism is placed in a particular taxon based on its diagnostic features.
- There are seven taxonomic hierarchies in a descending order of specificity, they includes: kingdom, Phylum,
Class, Order, Family, Genus and species.
- The largest taxon is the kingdom. Each kingdom is made up of several Phyla (in singular Phylum).
- Each Phylum is made up of several classes, each class has several orders and so on down to species.
A species is a group of organisms which are similar in nearly all aspects and can interbreed with each other to produce
fertile offspring.
Or it is the smallest unit of classification (taxonomic hierarchy)
Taxon Man Maize
Man Maize
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Class Mammalia Monocotyledoneae
Order Primates Cyperales
Family Hominidae Poaceae
Genus Homo Zea
Species sapiens mays
Scientific name Homo sapiens Zea mays

Binomial Nomenclature
The Swedish Botanist called Carolus Linneaus (1709-1779), now referred to as the father of Taxonomy (classification)
proposed the binomial system of classifying living organisms in his book titled “Systema Naturae”
- This is a system of naming an organism in which each organism is given a scientific name made up of two words.
- The first word is the name of the genus (the generic name or the name of the general while the second word
is the name of the species (or the specific name) . for example the scientific name of maize is Zea mays.
- The generic name always begins with a capital letter (upper case) while the specific name always begins with a
small letter (lower case).
- When scientific names are hand written, it must be underline separately. However, when scientific names are
typed in a journal, it is usually written in italics and not underline.
- When a generic name is used as common name, it is written in small letter [Link] amoeba
Guide lines in writing scientific names
- The species name is always written in full while the generic name may be abbreviated
- The species name is never written on its own without the generic name.

3
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

The five kingdom classification system

- This is a system of classification that was proposed by Robert H whitaker in 1969, in which organisms were
classified into five kingdoms. His proposals were based on three criteria which include;
 The number of cells in an organism.
 The presence or absence of nuclear membrane.
 The mode of nutrition carries out by the organism
- Based on these, all living organisms are placed in the five kingdoms with each having the following features
Kingdom Monera
- They are prokaryotes. Examples Bacteria and blue-green algae.
- They practice either Autotrophic or Heterotrophic nutrition.
- They may be unicellular or colonial, either motile or non-motile.
- They carry out chiefly asexual reproduction which may be by binary fission or budding.
- They lack membrane bound organelles.
Kingdom Protoctista
- They may be unicellular or multicellular and are mostly motile organisms.
- They resemble the ancestors of plants (algae), ancestor of animals (protozoans) and the ancestor of
fungi (Phytophthora)
Kingdom Fungi
- They may be unicellular or multicellular.
- Their nucleus is found in septate mycelium.
- They practice both sexual and asexual reproduction.
- They lack photosynthetic pigments.
- They are mostly heterotrophic and carry out extra-cellular digestion.
- They are eukaryotic.
Kingdom Plantae
- They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
- They possess chlorophyll a and b hence are autotrophic.
- They are non-motile living permanently attached to their substrate.
- They all practice a phenomenon called “alternation of generation”
Kingdom Animalia
- They are multicellular organisms which are eukaryotic and practice heterotrophic nutrition.
- They are generally motile and show high degree of tissue differentiation.
Some limitations/disadvantages of the five kingdom classification:
- The kingdom Monera is made up of bacteria and cyanobacteria which are very unrelated organisms.
- The kingdom Protoctista is made up of groups of organisms some of which resemble Fungi e.g. Phytophthora,
some resemble the animal e.g. Protozoans and some resemble the plant e.g. algae. These set of organisms
are unrelated.
- Viruses are yet to be included into any of the classification scheme though they cause huge economic loss
Dichotomous key
- A dichotomous key is a method used to identify an organism.
- It is made up of pair of statements called the lead.
- Each lead deals with a particular observable characteristic.
- The pair statements that made up the lead must be mutually exclusive or contrasting.
- Also, all the features used must be observable and external.
- Color and size of the organisms are exempted.
An example of a dichotomous key.
Make a simple dichotomous key to separate specimens B, C, D, E and F ( excluding
colour and size ). Liver fluke (B), Groundnut (C), Earthworm (D), Millipede (E), Tilapia (F)

4
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Root nodules present C

BCDEF bony fins present F

BDEF Clitellum present D

No root nodules absent
Fins absent BDE Many jointed legs E

Clitellum absent BE
No legs B
NB: if there are n number of organisms to be separated, then the number of ways of separating them using a
dichotomous key must be n-1 ways.
Viruses
- These are infectious organisms that fall in between living things and non-living things.
- They have a simple structure made up of nucleic acid and enzyme enclosed in a protein coat.
General characteristics
- They are very small non cellular and possibly the most primitive living creature.
- They are all microscopic that can only be seen with the used of an electron microscope.
- Some are found parasitizing on bacteria e.g. the phage.
- They all obligate parasites..
- Out of their host they become inert particles called virion
- They are very specific in action.
- They are acellular, that is lack a cell structure lack cell nucleus (akaryotic) and other cell organelles.
- They have either DNA (DNA viruses) or RNA (RNA viruses) as their genetic material but not both.
- They can be crystalized.
Reasons why viruses are considered as living.
- They contain genetic materials, either DNA or RNA but not both.
- They are parasites and all parasite are living.
- They can reproduce (replicate).
- They can be killed.
Reasons why viruses are considered as non-living.
- Cannot metabolize food.
- They can be crystalized like non-living chemicals.
- Cannot live or reproduce independently (must replicate only inside a living cell.
- They are acellular.
- They have only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA.
- They do not carry out physiological processes like nutrition, respiration etc.
Structure of viruses
- The simplest structure found in all viruses show that it is made up of a protein coat (capsid) that encloses and
protects a nucleic acid (either RNA or DNA as its nucleic acid but not both).
- Out of its host, the virus become inert and is called virion. Some viruses contain lipoprotein.
- The tail of the virus is used to adhere on the body of their host.

5
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

The bacteriophage. Structure of

bacteriophage.

DNA

Replication in Virus (Bacteriophage)

- The virus approaches the bacterium (host).
- The virus attaches on the surface of the bacterium using its tail fibers at receptor sites.
- The virus secretes enzyme that digest the bacterial cell wall.
- The tail penetrate the bacterial cell wall and the viral nucleic acid is released into the cytoplasm of the
bacterium leaving behind an empty protein coat and the tail on the surface of the bacterium.
- The viral nucleic acid then multiplies rapidly within the bacterial cell and takes over the protein synthesis
machinery of the host.
- The new viral nucleic acids then acquire the protein coat thus forming the mature viral particles.
- The viral components are assembled using energy from the host cell.
- The mature virus then secretes chemicals that ends up rupturing the bacteria cell wall allowing the content
of the cell and the mature viruses to be released to the exterior.
- The mature viruses can then attack other bacterial cells.

6
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Retrovirus eg HIV.
- These are viruses that have RNA as their nucleic acid.
- They have the ability of converting their RNA to viral DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase when they
attack the host cell.
- An example of a retrovirus is HIV. The enzyme reverse transcriptase has the ability to change a single
stranded viral RNA to double stranded viral DNA.
- The viral DNA now formed can then replicate in the host cell for generation to generation thus destroying the
host immune system.
- Retrovirus play an important role in genetic engineering.
Structure of a Retrovirus
- HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that cause the disease called AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency
syndrome or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
- It is spherical in shape and it is surrounded by a cone shaped capsid. The capsid is made up of the capsomere.

7
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- At the center or the core is a single strand of RNA and enzymes reverse transcriptase.
- The capsid is surrounded by an envelope made up of bilayer of lipid.
- This bilayer also contains glycoprotein and lipoprotein which serves as recognition site for the virus enabling
them to enter the host cell.
 AIDS. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Or Acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
 HIV is a virus that attacks immune cells called CD-4 cells.
 AIDS is the syndrome, which may or may not appear in the advanced stage of HIV infection.
 HIV is a virus while AIDS is a medical condition.
 HIV infection can cause AIDS to develop. However, it is possible to contract HIV without developing AIDS.

a. Structure of HIV.

Structure of an HIV virus.

b. Reproduction and life cycle.
HIV enters the human blood stream through the various means of transmission and attacks the white blood cells to be
more precisely the T-Lymphocytes called the T-helper cells or CD4 cells. The steps HIV goes through to complete this
process are as follows:
- Binding and Fusion: HIV begins to enter a CD4 cell by binding or attaching itself to a specific point, called a CD4
receptor, on the cell's surface and later on fuses with the CD4 cell. After fusion, HIV releases its RNA (genetic
material) and enzymes (proteins that cause chemical reactions) into the CD4 cell.
- Reverse Transcription: the HIV the converts RNA into viral DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
- Integration: The newly formed HIV DNA enters the nucleus of the CD4 cell and another HIV enzyme called
integrase combines or integrates HIV's DNA with the CD4 cell's DNA.
- Transcription: Once the virus has become part of (is integrated into) the CD4 cell, it instructs the CD4 cell to
start making new HIV proteins. The proteins are the building blocks for new HIV viruses. They are produced
in long chains.
- Assembly: An HIV enzyme called protease cuts the long chains of HIV proteins into smaller pieces and new
virus is put together (assembled) as the smaller protein pieces come together with copies of HIV's RNA.

8
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- Budding: The newly assembled virus pushes ("buds") out of the original CD4 cell. This new virus is now able
to target and infect other CD4 cells.
Incubation period. Incubation period for HIV ranges from five to ten years.
Signs and symptoms.
Early symptoms of HIV infection
Some people with HIV infection have no symptoms until several months or even years after contracting the virus.
However, around 80 percent may develop symptoms 2–6 weeks after catching the virus. This is called acute retroviral
syndrome.
The symptoms of early HIV infection may include:
 fever, chills, joint pain, muscle aches, sore throat, sweats (particularly at night), enlarged glands, a red rash,
tiredness, weakness, unintentional weight loss
NB: In many cases, after the initial symptoms disappear, there will not be any further symptoms for many years.
Late-stage HIV infection
If left untreated, HIV weakens the ability to fight infection. The person becomes vulnerable to serious illnesses. This
stage is known as AIDS or stage 3 HIV.
Symptoms of late-stage HIV infection may include:

 blurred vision
 diarrhea, which is usually persistent or chronic
 dry cough
 fever of above 37 °C lasting for weeks
 night sweats
 permanent tiredness
 shortness of breath (dyspnea)
 swollen glands lasting for weeks
 unintentional weight loss
 white spots on the tongue or mouth
During late-stage HIV infection, the risk of developing a life-threatening illness is much greater. Serious conditions may
be controlled, avoided, and/or treated with other medications, alongside HIV treatment.
Means of Transmission of HIV.
- Unprotected Sexual intercourse with infected persons.
- Perinatal transmission; from mother to child during childbirth, pregnancy, and also through breastfeeding.
- Through Blood transfusion by using contaminated blood.
- Sharing of blades, needles etc with infected individuals.
- Using unsterilized syringes.
Treatment.
- Antiretroviral drugs (ARD) Antiretrovira therapy (ART) are the drugs used to prevent HIV from reproducing in
the body. HIV drugs cannot cure HIV, but they can help you stay healthy by preventing the virus from
reproducing (making copies of itself).
- If HIV is not able to reproduce, it will not infect new cells in your body and your viral load remains low. With
a low viral load, you are more likely to have a healthy immune system and less likely to spread HIV to others.
- When your viral load is undetectable, it is not possible for you to transmit HIV to a partner during sex.
- This is the foundation for HIV treatment as prevention.
Prevention of the spread of HIV
- By abstaining from sex.
- By using condoms during sex with people of unknown status.

9
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- By being faithful to your partner(s).

- Avoid sharing of syringes, blades etc.
- Sterilize all objects before use.
Economic importance of viruses Useful
effect
- It is used in the production of vaccines against diseases such as pox, mumps, polio, jaundice, etc.
- It is used as biological control of some harmful animals and insects
- Bacteriophage kill some bacteria in the human gut that may cause dysentery
- Viruses are used in treating cancer and in gene therapy
- Viruses are used in genetic research
Harmful effect
- They cause diseases such as mumps, pox, polio, yellow fever, etc.
- Ebola virus cause death
- Viruses causes death of many plants and animals

KINGDOM MONERA
General characteristics
- They are all prokaryotes
- They lack a definite nucleus
- Their nuclear material is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane
- They are the most primitive cellular organisms
- They carry out mainly asexual reproduction
- They have fewer organelles which are not membrane bound
- The kingdom contains two Phyla i.e. Phylum Schizophyta (Bacteria) and Phylum Cyanobacteria (Blue-green
algae)
Phylum Schizophyta
Features
- They have no definite nucleus
- They have cell wall made up of protein and polysaccharides called glycoprotein also called murein.
- Membrane bound organelles such as Golgi bodies, Endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are absent
- Respiration occur in the mesosome
- They lack chloroplast but carry out photosynthesis due to the presence of bacteria chlorophyll
- They possess single stranded DNA which are usually circular in nature e.g. plasmid and lie freely in the cytoplasm
- They carry out chiefly asexual reproduction which is exclusively by binary fission, spore formation, etc.
- Some are motile while others are not
- The motile forms have flagella for locomotion

10
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Forms of bacteria

Coccus: these are spherical or ovoid shape bacteria e.g. diplococcus i.e. spherical bacteria that occur in pair, tetracoccus
i.e. spherical bacteria that occur in group of four, streptococcus i.e. spherical bacteria that occur in chain or as a string,
staphylococcus i.e. spherical bacteria that occur in bundle or bunch
Bacillus: these are rod shape bacteria e.g. Salmonella typhi the causative agent of typhoid fever
Spirallae: these are spirally shape bacteria e.g. the causative agent of syphilis
Vibro: these are comma shape bacteria e.g. Vibro cholera the causative agent of cholera
Economic Importance of bacteria
- Saprotrophic bacteria recycle matter and by so doing improve on soil fertility.
- They serve as source of antibiotic
- E. coli found in the colon of man help to produce vitamin K from the breakdown of roughage

11
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- Cellulase secreting bacteria present in the stomach and caecum of herbivores help to digest cellulose
by fermentation
- Nitrogen fixing bacteria present in the root nodule of leguminous plant help to convert atmospheric nitrogen
to soil nitrate that improve on soil fertility
- Some bacteria e.g. streptococcus thermophilus are involved in the production of dairy products in the dairy
inductries.
- Bacteria are used in the sewage treatment plan to decompose sewage.
- Bacteria causes diseases to man.
- They are involved in food spoilage.
- Bacteria are involved in genetic engineering
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
- This kingdom is made up of eukayotic organisms.
- They are mostly unicellular organisms.
- it is a diverse kingdom made up of organisms some of which resemble early plants (algae), some resemble early
animals (protozoans) and other resemble early fungi (oomycote).
Sub kingdom Algae
Characteristics
- All algae are autotrophs possessing chlorophyll and can photosynthesize their food.
- Their cell wall is made up of cellulose except for the diatoms whose cell wall is made up of silica.
- Excess food is stored in the form of starch.
- Gametes if produced are not protected by a protective jacket.
- They lack embryo.
- Vascular bundles are absent.
- They are undifferentiated
Forms of algae
Single cell: example include Chlamydomonas and chlorella
Chains of cells as in string: example spirogyra Loosely
organized clumps or colony example volvox Flat
leaf-like sheet e.g. fucus
Algae are made up of the following phyla
Phylum Chlorophyta
General characteristics
- They are autotrophic organisms containing chlorophyll a and b as their main photosynthetic pigment.
- Excess food is stored in the form of starch.
- They have a definite nucleus.
- Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
- Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation, spore formation.
- Sexual reproduction is rare but if it occurs, then it is by means of the production of isogametes.
- They are all found in fresh water.
- They may occur singly or in groups in colonies.
- Motile members possess flagella or cilia.
- Examples include filamentous green algae (spirogyra), motile unicellular algae (Chlamydomonas), non-motile
unicellular aglae (chlorella) and colonial algae (volvox).
Spirogyra
Classification of spirogyra.
Kingdom : Protoctista Phylum; Chlorophyta.
Class: Chloropyceae. SN: Spirogyra jogensis.
CN: Spirogyra. Habitat: they are found in fresh water pond, slow flowing stream.

12
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Structure
- It is made up of unbranched filament of row of cylindrical cells.
- The cell wall is made up of cellulose and pectin. Pectin swells in water to form a gelatinous slimy sheath which
is slimy to touch.
- Beneath the cell wall are the cell membrane and cytoplasm.
- The cytoplasm contain spiral chloroplast.
- Within the cytoplasm is also the nucleus which is suspended by a cytoplasmic strand.
- In the chloroplast lies some small bodies called the pyrenoid where starch is stored.

Structure of spirogyra
Asexual reproduction
- This occurs by binary fission. Binary fission is followed by fragmentation.
- Fragmentation is the separation of cell from a chain of filament. For this to occur, the middle lamellae of the
adjacent cell swells and pushes apart. After separation the next set of binary fission may occur. During binary
fission, the protoplasm divides by mitosis. A cross wall develops that separate the daughter cells.
Sexual reproduction
- During harsh conditions sexual reproduction occurs in spirogyra by the production of identical gametes called
isogametes. Sexual reproduction in spirogyra occur by conjugation.
- For conjugation to occur, two filaments lie side by side after which a conjugation tube develop at their point of
contact.
- When most of the cell in the filament must have formed such out growths, they resemble the ladder a situation
called scalariform.
- The protoplasmic content of one cell contracts, loses water to form gamete (isogamete). This gamete then
creeps through the conjugation tube to the other cell to effect fertilization.
- The zygote then become enclosed with a thick dark wall and is now called a zygospore.
- Upon decay of the parent cell, the zygospore sink to the bottom of the water and later germinate to form a new
filament. The filament then elongates by fragmentation.
SCALARIFORM CONJUGATIOM

13
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

INDIRECT LATERAL CONJUGATION DIRECT LATERAL CONJUGATION

Types of conjugation
Scalariform: it involves two separate filaments
Lateral conjugation: it involves a single filament that adjacent cells of the filament are involved. There two types of
lateral conjugation i.e. indirect and direct lateral conjugation.
Nutrition
- Spirogyra carries out the process of photosynthesis as it possesses chlorophyll a and b. for this to occur
carbon dioxide, mineral salt and water are absorbed by the cell in a process of simple diffusion.
- Light passes through transparent water and is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast.
- Excess starch produced is stored in the chloroplast at the level of the pyrenoid in the form of starch.
Chlamydomonas
Features
- They are unicellular organisms that are generally spherical in shape.
- It possesses two flagella.
- The flagella emerge from a cup shaped chloroplast.
- At the posterior end of the organisms are found the pyrenoid where excess starch is stored.
- Its nucleus is centrally located.
- At the anterior end of the organism are found the light sensitive eye spot and contractile vacuole

14
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Classification
Phylum: Chlorophyta Class: Chlorophyceae
Scientific name: Chlamydomonas monoica Common name Chlamydomonas
Habitat stagnant water Trophic level Producers

Points of biological interest

- They are unicellular green algae that are motile.
- They are found in mainly stagnant water.
- They contain chlorophyll a and b.
- They move with the used of the flagella.
- They possess a cup shaped chloroplast with pyrenoid that serves as the site where excess starch are stored.
- The raw material for photosynthesis are absorbed by simple diffusion from the surrounding water.
- The pigmented light sensitive eye spot helps to drive this organism away from bright light.
- They carry out chiefly asexual reproduction which is by multiple fission.
- Sexual reproduction is by means of the fusion of isogametes but this is actually very rare.
- The contractile vacuole is used for excretion and osmo-regulation
Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)
General characteristics
- They are mostly marine sea weeds.
- They have the brown photosynthetic pigment called fucoxanthin
- Excess carbohydrate is stored in the form of laminarin and mannitol.
- Their body is differentiated into a root like basal disc (stipe) for attachment, a stem-like part bearing branches
and a leaf-like part.

15
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Structure of fucus

Classification
Phylum: Phaeophyta Class: Phaeopyceae
Scientific name: Fucus vesiculosus Common: Fucus
Habitat: marine water Trophic level:
producers Points of biological interest
- Focus is made up of dichotomously branched thallus.
- The thallus is differentiated into three parts i.e. the basal disc shape holds fast for attachment to the rock, a
long stem-like stipe and a flatten leaf-like frond with distinct mid rib.
- At the inflated end of the frond are found the receptacle that contain the conceptacle.
- The branches have mid rib alongside air bladder for buoyancy.
- The air bladder absorbed air and float to the surface thus allowing the focus to absorbed maximum sunlight
for photosynthesis.
- They carry out mainly sexual reproduction though in very rare situation, asexual reproduction do occur by
vegetative propagation.
- Within the receptacle are found the conceptacle that produce the reproductive organs.
- The reproductive organs are called antheridium in male and oogonium in female which produce the
antherizoids and egg cells respectively.

16
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The antherizoids possess two unequal cilia which help it to swim freely in water once they are liberated
- When the egg cells are matured, the oogonium wall bursts, discharging the eggs out of the receptacle
- The antherizoids swim towards the eggs attracted by chemicals secreted by the oogonium.
- Only one antherizoid fertilizes an egg.
- The zygote then develops immediately into a new thallus.
Adaptation of the focus to its environment
- The holds fast help to attach the thallus onto the rock thus preventing the thallus from being carry away by
water current.
- Their dichotomously branching thallus help to minimize resistance to the flow of water.
- Air bladder serves the purpose of buoyancy thus allowing the thallus to float to the surface in order to
absorbed adequate amount of light for photosynthesis.
- Their photosynthetic pigment which is fucoxanthin help to absorb the blue light that penetrate much further
in water.
- The zygote develops immediately after fertilization to minimize the risk of being swept away by water current
Economic importance of algae
- They serve as the main source of food in the aquatic food chain as they are producers.
- By carrying out the process of photosynthesis they released oxygen in water which is used by other
aerobic aquatic organisms for respiration.
- By carrying out the process of photosynthesis, they play a key role in carbon fixation.
- They act as filter in water purification plant.
- They are used in research due to their small size e.g. chlorella was used to establish the events of the
Calvin cycle of the light independent reaction of photosynthesis.
- Algal bloom produce toxins that results to death of aquatic organisms.
- Seaweeds such as brown, green and red seaweeds are used as fertilizers.
Sub kingdom Protozoans
General characteristics
- They are mostly unicellular organisms that resembles animals.
- They show no tissue differentiation.
- They move by means of pseudopodia or other structures such as cilia or flagella.
- They carry out heterotrophic nutrition.
- Reproduction is chiefly by asexual means which mostly occur through fission.
- They are all aquatic organisms found in aquatic environment
Phylum Rhizopoda
Features
- They are unicellular organisms.
- They have a distinct nucleus and cellular organelles.
- They have irregular shape.
- Movement and feeding is by means of the pseudopodia.
- Asexual reproduction is by binary fission.
- They are found growing at the base or bottom of ponds, slow moving streams.

17
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Amoaba

Classification
Phylum: Rhizopoda Class: Sarcodina
S.N:Amoeba proteus C.N: Amoeba
Habitat: fresh water in ponds Trophic level: primary consumers
Points of biological interest
- They move with the use of their pseudopodia.
- The cell membrane is selectively permeable.
- The contractile vacuole carries out osmo-regulation.
- The food vacuole stores food and serves as the site where digestion occur.
- The nucleus is centrally located and controls the activities of the cell
Phylum: Ciliophora
Features
- These are organisms that are unicellular and practice heterotrophic nutrition.
- They possess cilia which assist the organisms in locomotion and feeding.
- They have a fixed shape due to the presence of pellicle.
- They have a complex structure consisting of a micro and a mega nucleus.

18
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Classification
Phylum: Ciliophora Class: Ciliata
S.N: Paramecium caudatum C.N: Paramecium
Habitat stagnant water contain excreta Trophic level: primary consumers
Points of biological interest
- They possess pellicle which is a thin outer flexible protein membrane that offers protection and gives the cell its
characteristics rigid shape.
- They possess hair like structure called cilia that assist the organism in movement and feeding.
- The micro nucleus has heredity properties thus is concern with sexual reproduction.
- The mega nucleus is concern with the control of metabolic processes.
- They have a complex feeding structure consisting of an oral groove, cytostome and cytopharynx i.e gullet
and mouth.
- The food vacuole is involved in food storage and digestion.
- The contractile vacuole is involved in osmoregulation.
- The cilia present on the oral groove helps to sweep food particles into the cytostome from where it
passes through the gullet and is finally collected in the food vacuole.
- The food vacuole then disconnects from the gullet and circulates freely in the cytoplasm where digestion occur.
- The undigested food is sent out through the anal pore.
- Paramecium undergoes asexual reproduction by transverse binary fission.
- In the case, the micro nucleus undergoes mitotic division but the mega nucleus divides by simple constriction.
- In times of scarcity of food, sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation. Here two different mating partners lie
side by side attached to each other through their oral groove..
- The nucleus from one of the partner creep into the other where fertilization occur. The zygote developed into
a new paramecium.
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Features
- All members are endoparasite found in animals.
- They possess pellicle thus have a fixed shape.
- They lack locomotory structures but move by means of pseudopodia.

19
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They feed on soluble food material

- Asexual reproduction involves schizogony i.e. a type of multiple fission that results in the production of
many daughter cells.
- They have a complex life cycle that involves both a vertebrate and an invertebrate host.
Life cycle of a Plasmodium
- The malaria parasite has a complex life cycle involving an insect vector (mosquito) and a vertebrate
host (human).
- Four species of plasmodium infect human beings i.e. Plasmodium falciparium, plasmodium ovale
Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium malariae.
- All the four species exhibits a similar life cycle with only small variations.
- When an infected mosquito is sucking blood from a healthy person, it injects saliva containing sporozoites
into the person’s blood.
- The sporozoites are carried by the blood to the liver where the sporozoites invade the hepatocytes.
- Once in the hepatocytes (liver cells) sporozoites undergo asexual reproduction called exo-erythrocytic
schizogony producing multinucleated cells called schizonts.
- Schizonts later divide into uninucleated cells called merozoites.
- The liver cells the burst and release the merozoites which are released into the blood stream.
- Merozoites invade the red blood cells, enlarge and develop into trophozoite which then develop
into multinucleated schizonts.
- The schizonts then develop into uni-nucleated merozoites. The RBC bursts and releases the merozoites and their
metabolic waste into the blood stream.
 It is the metabolic wastes of the merozoites which is responsible for the periodic fever and chill associated with
Malaria. The plasmodium feeds on the content of the red blood cells. The busrting of the red blood cell leads to
a drop in their number resulting to anemia.
- The merozoites then invade other red blood cells thus re-initiating another rounds of replication within the
blood.
- In the red blood cells, some of the merozoites develop into male gametophyte (micro gametophyte) and
female gametophytes (mega gametophyte).
- Ingestion of the gametocytes by the mosquito vector induces gametogenesis in the stomach of the mosquito
and the male gametophyte develops into the male gamete while the female gametophyte develops into a
female gamete.
- Factors that favor gametogenesis in the mosquito includes; a drop in temperature, an increase in carbon dioxide
concentration and other mosquito metabolites.
- Micro gamete then moves by means of its flagella to fuse with the macro gametes and a zygote is formed.
- The zygote immediately develops into a motile ookinete which penetrates the stomach wall of the mosquito
from where it develops into an oocyst.
- The oocyst develops into sporozoites by asexual replication.
- The sporozoite migrates to and invade the salivary gland thus completing the life cycle.
- When the infected mosquito sucking blood from another healthy person, it injects the sporozoites into
the person’s blood stream and the cycle continues.
Classification
Phylum Apicomplexa Class: Sporozoa
S.N: Plasmodium falciparium, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale Habitat: in the blood of human
Trophic level: tertiary consumers Habitat: in the blood of
human Phylum Euglenophyta
Features
- It possesses chlorophyll as the main photosynthetic pigment.
- It stores carbohydrate as starch in the paramylom and protein in the pyrenoid.

20
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They are unicellular.

- They have the light sensitive eye spot and contractile vacuole.
- They lack cell wall but possess only cell membrane.
- They have pellicle thus enabling the organism to assume a fixed shape
- They are motile having one to three flagella per cell.
- Asexual reproduction is by mitotic division.
- Sexual reproduction is rare.
- They are found in fresh water containing excreta.
Diagram Classification
Phylum: Euglenophyta Class: Euglenophyceae
Scientific name: Euglena viridis C.N: Euglena
Habitat: fresh water containing excreta Trophic level: both producers and primary consumers

Structure of eglena
Points of biological interest
- It is greenish in nature due to the presence of a rod shaped chloroplast.
- Their anterior end is blunt while the posterior end is tapered or pointed.
- The middle portion of the organism is broad.
- The organism is unicellular having a fixed shape due to the presence of pellicle.
- Cell wall is absent but only the cell membrane is present.
- They possess a whip-like flagellum for locomotion.
- At the anterior end of the organism is a flask shape gullet for feeding.
- There is also a dark orange light sensitive eye spot at one corner of the gullet that serves as its eye.
- A contractile vacuole lies closer to the swollen base of the gullet for osmo-regulation.
- There is a centrally located nucleus.
- Paramylom and pyrenoid are present for the storage of food.
- Euglena manufacture its own food using its chloroplast.

21
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- It moves by lashing its long flagellum.

Features in Euglena that makes it resembles plants
- It has chloroplast which is used for photosynthesis.
- Excess starch is stored in the paramylom.
- They are green in color.
Features in Euglena that makes it resemble animals
- Cellulose cell wall is absent but possess only cell surface membrane
- It has an eye spot for sight.
- It has a contractile vacuole for excretion and osmo-regulation.
- It moves about with the use of its flagellum.
- It possesses a gullet and food vacuole for nutrition.
- It has myoneme (structure that helps in contraction and relaxation during movement) for movement.
- It carries out heterotrophic nutrition in the absent of light.
- Pellicle is flexible making it possible for Euglena to change its shape from time to time.
Phylum Oomycota e.g Phytophthora
Features
- They have septate hyphae i.e hyphae have cross walls.
- Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
- They undergo asexual reproduction by producing biflagellated zoospore in their sporangium.
- They are found growing on other plants i.e. eucapic.
- Sexual reproduction is by oogamy which involved the fusion of the male and female gametes to produce
an oospore.
Classification
Phylum : Oomycota Class: Oomycetes
SN: Phytophthora infestans CN: Phytophthora
Habitat: parasite on potatoe leaves Trophic level: primary consumers

Structure of phytophtora
Points of biological interest
- Phytophthora infestans is a parasite of potatoe crop causing a disease called potato blight.
- The mycelium branched to form a haustoria.
- The haustoria is specialized in penetrating and absorption of nutrients.
- The mycelium enters the intercellular air space in the spongy mesophyll cell where the haustoria is formed.
The haustoria absorb all the food manufactured by the palisade cells of the potato plant.

22
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- In warm condition, the mycelium produces the sporangiophore that grows out of the lower epidermis of the
leaf through the stomata.
- The sporangiophore give rise to the sporangium which produces spores.
- The cell wall of phytophtora is made up of cellulose.
- Phytophtora stores food in the form of starch.

Kingdom Fungi General

characteristics
- They are non-motile.
- Their bodies are made up of fine filament called hyphae.
- Different hypha are interwoven to form the mycelium.
- The hyphae may be septate (having cross wall) or aseptate (lack cross wall).
- Cell wall is made up of chitin.
- Lack chloroplast and carry out heterotrophic nutrition which can either be by parasitism, Saprophytism or
mutualism.
- Excess carbohydrate is stored in form of glycogen. Reproduction is by means of sexual or asexual forms
Phylum Zygomycota
Features
They possess aseptate hyphae. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation which involved the fusion of gametangia to
produce zoospore. Asexual reproduction is by sporangium containing spores. Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Classification
Phylum : Zygomycota Class: Zygomycetes
SN: Rhizopus nigricans CN: bread mould
Habitat: on decomposing food such stale bread. Trophic level: Decomposers

Bread mould
Points of biological interest
- Bread mould grows on moist decaying ripe fruits and other organic matter such as bread.
- It undergoes saprophytic nutrition.
- Its body is composed of a mass of white delicate cotton-like thread collectively called the mycelium.
- A mycelium has three different types of hyphae arising from the same point i.e. the horizontal hyphae called
the stolon, the vertical upward hyphae called the sporangiophore, and the vertical downward hyphae called the
rhizoids.
- These organisms practice extracellular digestion.

23
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

NB: Mucor is similar to bread mould but the different is that its sporangiophore occur singly.
Differences between spirogyra and mould
- Spirogyra is mostly aquatic while the mould is mostly terrestrial.
- Spirogyra has chloroplast while the mould lack chloroplast.
- Spirogyra need light for survival while the mould does not necessarily need light for survival.
- Spirogyra cell wall is made up of cellulose while the mould cell wall is made up of chitin.
- Spirogyra cell is usually uninucleated while the mould cell is binucleated or multinucleated.
- Spirogyra food reserves is starch while the mould food reserves is glycogen.
Phylum Ascomycota
Features
- Ascomycota are filamentous except for the yeast.
- They have cross wall (i.e. they are septate).
- The cell possesses organized nucleus.
- Asexual reproduction is by conidia or budding.
- Sexual reproduction leads to the production of spores called Ascospores in a sac-like structure called Ascus.
- They do not possess sporangia. Example includes Penicillium, Saccharomyces or yeast.
PENICILLIUM
Classification
Phylum : Ascomycota Class: Ascomycetes
SN: Penicillium notatum CN: Penicillium
Habitat: it is found growing on leather such as shoe Trophic level: Decomposers

Structure of penecillium
Points of biological interest
- Penicillium is a bluish-green fungus found growing on material such as cow dung, leather, fruits and damp food.
- Its hyphae are loosely arranged.
- It produces a type of spore called ascospore in a sac-like structure called Ascus (Asci in plural).
- The spore bearing hyphae is called the conidiophore and bears chains of small colored spores called conidia at
its tips.
- A mass collection of conidiophore together with their conidia resembles a tiny brush hence the name
Penicillium (a Latin word for a painter’s brush).
- The spores produced by asexual reproduction are easily dispersed by wind and under favorable condition, it
germinates by producing a green tube to form penicillium.
- Sexual reproduction results to the formation of ascopores that germinates into a new hypha

24
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

SACCHAROMYCES OR YEAST
Classification
Phylum : Ascomycota Class: Ascomycetes
SN: Saccharomyces cerevisiae. CN: yeast
Habitat: in sweet fresh palm wine. Trophic level: Primary consumers

Yeast cell under the light miscroscpe

Points of biological interest
- These are primitive fungi that are unicellular in nature.
- They are found growing in palm wine and ripe fruits.
- Their cell wall is made up of chitin thus given the cell a fixed shape.
- Asexual reproduction occurs by budding. No known form of sexual reproduction has ever been noticed.
- Their excess food is stored in the form of glycogen and volutin granules.
- They carry out both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
- This aspect of yeast is highly exploited in the biotechnological field in the production of bread and alcohol.

25
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Phylum Basidiomycota e.g Mushroom. Features

- They possess septate hyphae.
- Sexual reproduction involved the production of basidia which bears spores called basidiospore externally.
- Asexual reproduction is by the formation of spores in the sporangia though this is very rare.
- They have a fruiting body that bears the basidiospore.
- Their cell wall is made up of chitin.
- Basidiospore is formed externally by a club shaped basidium which is found on a short slender stalk called
starigma. Diagram
Classification
Phylum : Basidiomycota Class: Basidiomycetes
SN: Agaricus campestris CN: Mushroom
Habitat: on decomposing wood Trophic level: decomposers

Structure of mushroom
Points of biological interest
- This is a fungus growing on rotten or decaying wood or stem.
- The vegetative body is composed of a mass of septate hyphae.
- Some of the hyphae penetrate the substratum.
- Each spore bearing parts of the fruiting body otherwise called the fruitification or sporophore consists of a broad
cap like umbrella shape pileus and a stalk like stipe (the word Pileus in Latin means a cap).
- On the lower surface of each pileus are filamentous structure called the gills.
- The gills bear the club shape basidia that contain the spore.
- It is the stipe that supports the pileus.
- At midway on the stipe is a ring of soft tissue called annulus which is the remains of the veil that enclosed and
protect the pileus at the early stage of development.
- The fruity body of the mushroom is above the ground and the mycelia are underground.
- The mushroom feeds saprophytically on organic matter.
- During growth the stipe elongates rapidly and the pileus expand and rupture the veil which covers its at the
early stage.
- Sexual reproduction occurs in reproductive structures called the basidia which results to formation of
basiospore.

26
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Economic importance of fungi Harmful

effects
- They cause a number of superficial skin diseases to man e.g. ring worm, athlete foot, etc. they cause a
number of diseases leading to crop destruction and food spoilage e.g potato blight, tomato rut, black pod
disease of cocoa.
- Fungi cause destruction of woody buildings e.g. dry rut, Store cereal.
- Some of the fungi such as mushroom are poisonous if eaten especially those of the genus Amarita.
Useful effects
- Some fungi serve as a source of food e.g. certain mushroom.
- Yeast are important as rich sources of certain vitamins and enzymes.
- In the baking industries, yeast is used to make the dough to rise by fermenting sugars anaerobically to release
carbon dioxide.
- In the breweries industries, yeast is used to ferment sugars to alcohol under anaerobic condition.
- Together with bacteria, fungi helps to maintain soil fertility by recycling important mineral.
- Fungi are used to produce antibiotic [Link] from penicillium.
- Their actions as decomposers help to clear dead organic matter from the surface of the earth.
Symbiosis
- Mutualism exists in fungi in two ways namely as LICHEN and as MYCORRHIZAE.
- Lichen is a mutualistic association between a fungus and an alga.
- These organisms are commonly found on exposed rocks and barks of trees.
- The algae contribute organic food from photosynthesis while the fungus absorbed water and mineral salts
from the soil.
- Mycorrhizae is a mutualistic association between a fungus and the root of a plant.
- The fungus is of great importance to the plant as it serves as the major routes through which mineral
nutrients and get to the root of the plant and while not to the entire plant.
- On the other hand, the fungus receives organic nutrients mainly carbohydrates and vitamins from the plants.
Kingdom Plantae (Green plants).
- General characteristics of green plants.
- They are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that possess chlorophyll.
- They are photosynthetic (photoautotrophic).
- Their cell wall contain cellulose. They show a phenomenon called alternation of generation. The produce
embryo.
- This kingdom is divided into seven phyla namely Bryophyta, Sphenophyta, Lycopodophyta,
Filicinophyta, Cycadophyta, Coniferophyta and Angiospermophyta.
Some terms used in plant taxonomy
- Strobilus/cones it means a collection of sporophyll.
- Sporophyll it means a leaf that produce sporangia.
- Sporangium it is a structure in which spores are produced by plants. It is associated to asexual reproduction.
- Mega sporophyll it is a leaf that produce mega sporangia.
- Micro sporophyll it is a leaf that produce micro sporangia.
- Mega sporangium it is a sporangium that produces mega spore.
- Micro sporangium it is a sporangium that produces micro spore.
- Mega spore these are large spores that grow to form the female gametophytes.
- Micro spore these are small spores that grow to form the male gametophytes
- Homosporous these are plants that produce only one type of spores e.g. Lycopodium
- Heterosporous these are plants that produce two types of spores i.e. the mega spores and the micro spores
e.g. selaginella and the other higher plants.

27
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Alternation of generation
- This is the regular interchanging of the haploid gametophyte (sexual gametes producing generation) and the
diploid sporophyte asexual spores producing generation in order to complete the life cycle of a plant.
- The production of gametes involves mitosis though the gametes are haploid.
- The gametes then fuse to form a diploid zygote which grows into a diploid sporophyte generation.
- The sporophyte generation produce spores by the process of meiosis.
- The haploid spores germinate into the gametophytes generation.
- One of the two generations is always more conspicuous and dominant.
- In Bryophytes, the gametophyte generation is dominant while in the other plants the sporophyte is dominant

Phylum Bryophyta
Features
- They lack true roots, stem and leaves hence are described as thalloid.
- They lack strengthening material and conducting tissues hence vascular bundles are absent.
- They possess filamentous rhizoid for anchorage.
- The entire body of the plant aids in absorption of water and mineral salt including the rhizoids.
- The plant surface lack cuticle hence cannot fight against water loss by transpiration or excess entry of water.
- They show alternation of generation in which the gametophyte generation is dominant.
- The gametes producing cells are surrounded by a jacket of sterile vegetative cells.
- The sporophyte generation produce spore in a spore capsule which is situated at the end of a slender stalk
above the gametophyte.
- They are mostly found in damp shady places where the environment is moist or having high humidity.
- The phylum is divided into two classes i.e. class Hepaticae and class Musci.
Class Hepaticae
Features
- The gametophyte generation which is dominant is either leafy with a stem or is a flat thallus.
- The leafy type contain leaves that are of 3 ranks along the stem.
- They possess unicellular rhizoids for attachment.
- The spore capsule split by causing the 4 valves to violently split and spores are dispersed with the help of
an elater.
- Their thallus shows a dichotomous branching at the tip.

28
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Adaptation of liverwort to life on land.

- They possess a green thallus containing chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigment for photosynthesis.
- The have unicellular rhizoids for attachment and absorption of water and mineral salts.

29
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The thallus is flat and broad to increase surface area for absorption of sunlight and gaseous exchange.
- The thallus is very thin and has a thin cuticle so as ease absorption of water and mineral salt.

Classification
Phylum :Bryophyta Class: Hepaticae
SN: Marchantia polymorpha CN: Liverwort
Habitat: on damp moist wall Trophic level: Producers
Points of biological interest
- Marchantia possess a root like rhizoid that anchor the plants on the ground.
- The leafy thallus is flat and ribbon-like showing dichotomous branching.
- The main plant constitutes the gametophyte thallus bearing antheridia and archegonia on a stalk structure
above it. The thallus is green and is capable of producing food by photosynthesis.
- The gametangia i.e. the antheridia and archegonia are borne on the antheridiophore and
archegoniophore respectively.
- The antheridia produce the bi-flagellated sperms that are haploid.
- The archegonia produce eggs that are haploid.
- The sperms are brought to the eggs in a water medium to effect fertilization.
- The zygote develops to form the diploid embryo called sporophyte which made up of spherical mass
of undifferentiated cells.
- The cells of the embryo or the young sporophyte differentiate to form the root, seta or stalk and sporangium.
- The root assist in absorption of water and mineral salt from the gametophyte. The sporangium is made up of
jacket of sterile cells.
- The seta is a stalk which on lengthening raise the sporangium above the gametophyte. Repeated mitotic division
in the sporangium results in the spore mother cells which is diploid.
- The diploid spore mother cell then undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spore.
- The elongated sterile cells are then transferred into a feathers or wings which help to disperse the spore.
- The haploid spores under suitable condition germinates into a new haploid thallus of the gametophyte plant.
- Asexual reproduction also occurs by budding resulting to gammae cup on the upper side of the gametophyte.
- The gammae are dispersed by raindrops. The antheridia is flatten while the archegonia is folded downward.
Class Musci
Features
- The plant body is a leafy gametophyte.
- The leaves are spirally arranged.
- Gametophyte germinate from the protonema into the main plant body.
- They depend on dry condition for spore’s dispersal.

THE MOSS PLANT.

Classification
Phylum : Bryophyta Class: Musci
SN: Polytrichium commune CN: Moss
Habitat: on damp moist wall Trophic level: Producers

30
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Structure of a moss plant.

Points of biological interest
- The plant body is small and just a few centimeters in height.
- The gametophyte generation is dominant consisting of small green leaves that are arranged spirally.
- The sporophyte generation grows on the gametophyte generation producing a stalk or seta that ends up in a
swollen called capsule.
- Moss plant lack the vascular system. It small root like structures called the rhizoids which are responsible for
the absorption of water and mineral salts. The rhizoids also attach the plant to the soil.
Life cycle of Moss or Alternation of generation in Moss
- Moss plant is made up of a haploid gametophyte generation which is dominant.
- There exists a separate male gametophyte from the female gametophyte.
- The sex organs are the antheridia (male) and the archegonia (female).
- The archegonia look like a flask having a neck and a venter.
- The venter contains haploid eggs.
- The neck is blocked by cells when premature but when matured, these cells dissolve thus allowing a
free passage to the venter.
- As the neck get opens, water is collected into the venter.
- The archegonia secrete liquid that attract the sperms or antherizoid.
- The sperms are produce by the antheridia.
- The sperms are small and spiral.
- The archegonia and the antheridia protects the developing gametes from desiccation.
- The male and female gametes are produce from the gamete mother cells by mitosis.
- When the antheridium is matured, it absorbs water and bursts releasing the male gametes on the surface.
- The spirally biflagellated sperms swim towards the archegonium being attracted by sucrose secreted by the
archegonium.
- This an example of chemotaxis. The sperm swims down the neck of the archegonium to the venter where
it meets the egg to effect fertilization.
- The diploid zygote develops into the sporophyte.

31
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The sporophyte contains the foot, seta or stalk and capsule.

- The stalk develops from the gametophyte thus acting as a means whereby the capsule obtains its nutrient.
- The capsule contains the diploid spore mother cells that divides by meiosis to produce the haploid spores.
- Under dry conditions, when the capsule is matured, it split thus releasing the spores.
- The spores are dispersed by wind and when they land on suitable habitat, they germinate into a
filamentous green structure called the protonema.
- The protonema produce several buds each developing into a new moss plant.
Adaptation of moss to its habitat.
a. Adaptation to dry conditions
- Haploid spores are tiny and light and are only released in dry conditions to be easily dispersed by wind.
- Dehiscence of capsule to release spores only during dry conditions to be dispersed by wind.
- The cells of moss plant has thick cell wall which help to reduce water loss.
- Leaflets are small to reduce transpiration surface.
- They produce resistant spores to resist dry conditions.
b. Adaptation to moist conditions
- The produce flagellated sperms which are able to swim through a film of moisture to the archegonium to
fertilize the egg.
- It has multicellular rhizoids for anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salts.
c. Other adaptation.
- It has green leaflets with chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
NB. Bryophytes are the most primitive land plants. They are not fully adapted to terrestrial life, reason why they are
always found in moist environments.
Differences between liverwort and moss.
Liverwort Moss
No capsule Capsule present
No protonema formed Protonema formed
Has dorsoventrally flattened thallus Has a thallus with stem-like axis
Has unicellular rhizoids Has multicellular rhizoids
Gemma cups present Gemma cups absent
Dioecious Monoecious

Economic importance of moss plant.

- They constitute the first colonizers of bare land.
- They help to prevent soil erosion.
- They help to purify the atmosphere by removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
- They release oxygen used by other living organisms for respiration.
- They help to conserve soil water.
- When they die, they add humus to the soil.
Phylum Lycopodophyta (club Mosses) Features
- They possess small green leaves which are small compared to the size of their stem.
- The plant body is differentiated into the root, stem and leaves.
- The leaves are spirally arranged and cover with cuticle.
- The xylem and phloem are present.
- The stem shows dichotomous branching. Sporangia are born singly on the upper surface of the sporophyll.
- The sporangia are usually in strobili or cones at the tips of the sporophyll.
- Strobili are club-shaped hence the name club mosses.
- The sporophyte is the dominant generation.

32
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- There exist both homosporous and heterosporous forms.

- Example includes; Lycopodium which is a homosporous club moss and Selaginella which is a heterosporous club
moss.

Structure of Lycopodium
Classification
Phylum : Lycopodophyta Class: Lycopodinae
SN: Lycopodium clavatum CN: Lycopodium
Habitat: on red humus soil Trophic level: Producers
Points of biological interest
- Lycopodium is also called the ground pine.
- Lycopodium is a plant found growing on the forest floor and hills.
- It is a club moss that has small moss-like leaves and strobili that appears to have the shape of a club hence
the name club moss.
- They are called ground pine partly because they resemble the little Christmas trees.
- Complete with the cones those that are upright are present with few species hang downward.
- The stem of Lycopodium, is either singly or branched.
- The upright stems develop from the branching rhizome.
- They have adventitious roots whose epidermal cells often produce root hair which develop along the rhizome.
At maturity, the ground pine produce kidney beans shape sporangia on a short stalk on axis of the leaves.
- Within the sporangium, meiosis occurs resulting to the production of spores which are haploid.
- The spores are carried by wind current and when they land on a suitable ground they germinate into a
new gametophyte.
- The antheridia and the archegonia produces haploid gametes by mitosis.
- In the present of water, the sperms swims to the eggs in the archegonia to effect fertilization. The zygote
develops into a new sporophyte.

33
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Selagenella Structure.

Classification
Phylum : Lycopodophyta Class: Lycopodinae
SN: Selaginella kraussiana CN: Selaginella
Habitat: on volcanic humus soil Trophic level: Producers
Points of biological interest
- It is also called the spike moss. The plant body is mostly found creeping although there are few members
that are erect.
- Like any other club moss, the sporophyte generation is dominant in Selaginella. Selaginella show more
branching than Lycopodium.
- They are small club mosses found growing on moist soil especially near stream.
- Its stems possess 4 rows of green tiny leaves.
- The leaves are arranged in such a way that there is alternation between a big leaf and a small leaf.
- The rhizophores which is a root-like structure develops from the stem and group down ward dividing to form
the adventitious root.
- The erect stem ends up in strobili or cones.
- The strobili consist of leaves of equal sizes producing the sporangia.
- The lower surface of the strobili are found the mega sporophyll that produce the mega sporangium while on
the upper surface of the strobili are found the micro sporophyll that produce the micro sporangia.
- They produce micro spore and mega spore respectively hence the name heterosporous club moss
Economic importance of club moss
- Ground pine and speck moss have been used as fundamental indoors and outdoors as ground lovers.
- Lycopodophyta are sprayed, painted and used as Christmas ornament.
- Formerly they were used to treat fever.

34
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The spores are grind into powder and used as medicine for the treatment of urinary disorder and
stomach upset.
- They are producers in the ecosystem during photosynthesis they produce oxygen which is used by animals
for respiration.

Differences between selaginella and lycopodium.

Selaginella Lycopodium
Has two types of leavesHas only one type of leaves
They are heterosporous Homosporous
Has creeping stems Has erect stem
Rhizome absent Rhizome present.

Differences between lycopodium and fern.

Lycopodium Fern
Sporangia are found in strobili Sporangia are found in sori
Has needle like leaves Leaves form fronds
No ramenta Ramenta present
No prothallus present Prothallus present
Rhizophore present Rhizophore absent.

Phylum Filicinophyta (Pteridophyta)

Feature
- The sporophyte generation is dominant.
- Do not bear seeds.
- They possess true roots, stems and leaves all having the vascular bundle.
- They possess a large leaf called frond which is covered by cuticle.
- The have sori on the underside of the fronds.
- Spores are homosporous (identical spores).
- They have underground stem called Rhizome.
- The gametophyte stage is reduced to a heart shaped structure called the prothallus.
- They have underground stem called rhizome.
- They produce flagellated sperms.
Classification
Phylum : Filicinophyta Class: Filicinae
SN: Dryopteris filix-mas CN: Fern
Habitat: on the trunk of palm tree Trophic level: Producers

35
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Structure of Fern plant.

Point of biological interest
- Fern are found growing on moist soil.
- The fronds are usually coiled up at the bud stage.
- Their sporangia are found in cluster in a structure called sori which are located behind the pinna of each
mature frond.
- The adventitious root helps the plant in anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salt.
Life cycle of fern plant or alternation of generation in fern
- In fern, the sporophyte generation is dominant and are diploid.
- A frond is found growing on the rhizome which is capable of photosynthesizing. In the later part of summer,
a brown sori are visible from the underside of each pinna.
- Each sorus is made up of a protective indusium.
- Each sporangium contain a diploid spore mother cell that divides by meiosis to produce haploid spores
which are identical.
- At maturity, the indusium shrivels and fall off exposing the sporangia to dry condition.
- Annulus cells of the sporangia that initially absorbed water and later loose the water and break off from
the stomium.
- The uneven thickening of the annulus cells set up tension in the stomium whose cells rupture suddenly
to release the spores.
- The spores are then catapulted and carried by wind to suitable moist conditions where it germinates into a
thin heart shaped structure called the prothallus.
- The prothallus constitute the haploid gametophyte generation.
- The gametophyte generation bears the archegonia and the antheridia.
- The prothallus possess multicellular rhizoids for absorption of water and mineral salts.
- The prothallus is greenish in nature consisting of chlorophyll used to manufacture its own food.
- The archegonium found on the upper surface of the prothallus while the antheridium is found closer to
the rhizoids. The antheridium produces a spiral multiflagellated sperms by mitosis.
- The archegonium have a short neck.
- Each archegonium produces a haploid egg by mitosis. In the present of water, the sperms are chemotactically
attracted to the archegonium due to the secretion of malic acids by the archegonium.
- After fertilization, the zygote develops into the sporophyte embryo that later grow to form the diploid
sporophyte generation.

36
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

NB
- Fern spores can be dispersed artificially by using a hygroscopic medium such as glycerine.
- Hygroscopic means the ability to absorbed moisture.
- Glycerine absorbs water from the annulus and causes the annulus to lose water and curl back and
then catapults the spores out.
Economic importance of fern
- Ferns are grown around houses for aesthetic purposes.
- They serve as filter for the removal of formaldehyde a pollutant from the carpet.
- The hair in the rachis are used in making pillow.
- The hair from the rachis are used by some tropical birds in making their nest.
- Some part of the fern species and frond are used to produce a red pigment which are used in drying cloth.
Braken fern are used as food to some animals.
- The rhizome and young frond serves as food or vegetable to man.
- Fern have been used as medicine in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery.
- The male fern is used in expelling intestinal worms e.g. tape worm.
- Fern produces oxygen during photosynthesis which is used by other animals for respiration.

Differences between the life cycle of fern and moss

Fern Moss
Sporophyte generation is dominant Gametophyte generation is dominant
Spore are produce in the sporangia within the Spores are produce in the capsule at the tips of
sori the sporophyte
Spore germinates into a prothallus Spores germinate into the protonema
Archegonia and antheridia are born in the same Archegonia and antheridia are born in separate
prothallus gametangia
Sperms produced are multiflgellated Sperms produced are biflagellted
Gametophyte and sporophyte are separate The sporophyte is attached to the gametophyte
structures

Importance of water in the life cycle of plants

- It serves as a medium for sperms to swim up to the eggs to effect fertilization.
- It is necessary for the germination of spores.
- It serves as a raw material for photosynthesis.
- It serves as a transport medium for mineral salts.
- It keeps the cell alive.
- It provides turgidity and support to soft herbaceous plants..
- It provides a cooling effect during transpiration thus help in controlling the temperature of the plant.
- It serves as a solvent for colloidal substances.
- Prothallus needs water for growth.
- Protonema needs water to grow
Importance of dry condition in the life cycle of plants
- It is required for hydroscopic teeth of the capsule of moss to open.
- It is required for the spores of moss to dry and can be carried by wind.
- It is needed to expose the sporangium since the indusium is ruptured during dry condition.
- It is needed for the sporangium to release spores.
- It is needed for the spores to get dry and become light such that it can be carried by wind

37
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

SEEDS BEARING PLANTS

Features
- They are heterosporous i.e. possess microspores (pollen grains) and mega spores (embryo sac).
- The embryo sac remains completely enclosed in the ovule (mega sporangium) and each seed is a fertilized ovule.
- The sporophyte generation is dominant as the gametophyte generation is severely reduced.
- They have a complex and well developed vascular tissues.
- The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
- They do not require water for sexual reproduction as the male gametes are carry to the ovum by means of
pollen tube after pollination to effect fertilization.
- They bear seeds which are either naked or closed.
- Reproductive structures are either cones or flowers.
- Male gametes are carried to the ovum by pollen tube to effect fertilization.
- The major phyla that make up these seeds bearing plants are: Cycadophyta, Coniferophyta and
Angiospermophyta
Phylum Coniferophyta
Features
- They produce cones in which sporangia, spores and seeds develops.
- The male cones are made up of microsporophyll while the female cones are made up of megasporophyll.
- Their leaves are small, needle-like or scale-like.
- Their seeds are not enclosed in an ovary (i.e. they produce naked seeds).
- The seeds lie on the surface of a specialized leaf called ovuliferous scales or cones.
- They do not produce fruits since there is no ovary.
- Their xylem lack vessels but have tracheids and their phloem lack companion cells.
- Examples includes; Pines, Cypress, Cedars, spruces, Firs, etc.
NB. Conifers are described as evergreen because they grow continuously throughout the year producing new foliage
leaves that is, their meristems are active throughout the year.
The Pine
Features
- They have large branched stems and the needle-like leaves.
- The leaves are born in cluster and the number of leaves per cluster varies.
- The length of the leaves varies with species.
- There are two types of branches arising on the trunk i.e. branches of unlimited groups and branches of
limited groups (dwarf branches) with two foliage leaves at their tips.
- They are evergreen. The scale leaves and dwarf branches drop off allowing the scar on the trunk and branches of
unlimited groups.
- The male cones are found in cluster behind the apical meristem but at the base of the new shoot.
- The female cones are scattered in arrangement and arises in the axils of scale leaves at the tips of strong shoots.
The main tree constitutes the sporophyte generation and is heterosporous.
- Each female cone produces tiny haploid eggs while the male cones produce haploid microspores that
are released as pollen grains. Diagram
Classification
Phylum : Coniferophyta
Class: Coniferinae SN:
Pinus sylvestris CN:
Scot pine
Habitat: in the garden on humus soil
Trophic level: Producers

38
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Scot pine
Point of biological interest
- Pines leaves are needle-like and are arranged in cluster or bundles of two to five leaves.
- Each cluster is called a fascicle and is cylindrical in nature.
- Pines are often seen growing in area where the top soil is frozen for a greater period of the year.
- Below the epidermis is the hypodermis consisting of several layers of thick wall cells.
- The epidermis is covered by thick cuticle.
- The stomata apparatus is sunken i.e. found in a depression or small cavity.
- The veins and the associated tissues are surrounded by an endodermis.
- The mesophyll cells lack air space as opposed to the case of the spongy mesophyll spaces in angiosperms.
- A conspicuous resin gland develops in the mesophyll consisting of tubes lined with specialized cells that secretes
resin.
- Resin is antiseptic and prevents the growth of fungi as well as prevents insects attack.
- The stem consists of primary wood which have tracheids and lack vessels.
- Mycorrhizal are associated with the roots of pines. Pine seedling can germinate in sterilized soil but do not grow
well at all until the fungus are introduced.
- Pines produce two kind of cones. The male cones are smaller than the female cones and contain microspores.
The pine produce pollen grains in large numbers e.g. it is estimated that each of the 5 male cones commonly
found in each cluster can produce more than 1 million pollen grains and there may be hundreds of clusters in a
given pine tree. After the release of pollen grains, the male cone shrivels and fall off.

39
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The female cones are much larger and contain the mega spore. The mega spores are produce in the
mega sporangium found at the base of the shaded cone scale within the ovules.
- The female cones at first appears to be reddish or purple in color and usually takes two seasons to attain
maturity during which it is transformed through greenish to finally brown woody structure
Cypress. Classification
Phylum : Coniferophyta Class: Coniferinae
SN: Cypressus arizona CN: cypress
Habitat: in garden on humus soil Trophic level: Producers

Cypress with cones.

Point of biological interest
- Cypress have a scale-like leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration.
- The leaves are seen to be evergreen throughout the year.
- They produce both the male and the female cones.
- The megaspores and microspores mother cells divides by meiosis to produce the haploid spores that germinates
to give the gametophyte generation.
- The male cone is small while the female cone is large.
NB: the features of its life cycle are similar to those of the pines
NB: Conifers are always referred to as evergreens because they retain their foliage leaves all year round by shedding and
growing new ones simultaneously
Importance of Conifers
- Some parts of conifers serve as food e.g. the phloem reach in sugars and some of their seeds are edible.
- Logs of pine stem are used as telephone poles.
- The straight logs of mature conifers are used as rays in bridges.
- Resin are applied to wood of other trees to prevent them from being damage by insects. Pulp produce by
pine are used to manufacture paper.
- Products refined from resin are used to manufacture mentoe used in cigarette.
- The leaves of some cypress are used in producing useful red dye.

40
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Phylum Angiospermophyta
Features
- These are flowering plants whose reproductive parts are the flowers.
- Their seeds are always enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit.
- They undergoes double fertilization.
- They have multicellular embryo.
- Their vascular bundle is well developed and is made up of the xylem and the phloem.
- The xylem possesses vessels while the phloem possesses companion cell.
- They have true root, stem and leaves.
- The produce triploid endosperms.
- The phylum is divided into two classes i.e. Dicotyledoneae and Monocotyledoneae
a. Class Monocotyledoneae
Class characteristics.
- They have fibrous root system.
- They have narrow elongated leaves with parallel venation.
- Their seeds have one seed leaf or cotyledone.
- Floral parts are grouped into three or multiples of three.
- Petals and sepals are not always distinct. This forms perianth (the outer part of a flower made up of calyx
and corolla).
- They are mostly pollinated by wind.
- They lack vascular cambium hence no secondary thickening.
- They undergo hypogeal germination.
- Their stem have scattered vascular bundles.
- Most of them have herbaceous stem.
- Examples include; maize, rice, sugarcane, plantain leek etc.

Maize Classification.
Phylum; Angiospermophyta Class; Monocotyyledoneae
S.N; Zea mays C.N; Maize or Corn plant.
Habitat; farmland on moist humus soil and garden. Trophic level: producer

A maize plant

41
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Points of Biological interest.

- It is monoecious.
- Has fibrious root system for anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salts.
- Produces cobs which hold and protect the grains.
- Has elongated leaves with parallel venation.
- Presence of prop roots for breathing and additional support.
- Has male and female inflorescence for sexual reproduction.
b. Class: Dicotyledoneae.
Features.
- Have broad leaves with net venation.
- Have tape root system.
- Leaves are attached to the stem by a petiole Stalk)
- Have seeds with two seed-leaves or cotyledons.
- Carryout epigeal germination.
- Foral parts occur in four or five or in multiples of four or five.
- The vascular bundles are well arranged in rings.
- They are often pollinated by insects.
- Petals and sepals are usually distinct.
- They have vascular cambium hence undergo secondary thickening.
- Examples include; beans, groundnuts, mango, pear morning glory, Irish, potato, cassava, cocoyam, hibiscus, etc.
Bean plant.
Classification.
Phylum; Angiospermophyta. Class; Dicotyledoneae.
S.N; Phasealus vugaris. C.N; Bean plant.
Habitat; farmland, moist humus soil. Trphic level: producer.

42
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Bean plant
Points of biological interest
- It possesses flowers for sexual reproduction.
- The flowers produce nectars which serves as food for insects.
- The insects help in pollinating the flowers when they land to collect the nectar or pollen as food.
- They have green leaves that produce food by the process of photosynthesis.
- The have stomata which are holes on the leaves for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
- They have xylem which transport water and mineral salts from the soil to the leaves.
- They have phloem which is used for the distribution of organic food material from the leaves to other parts
of the plants

43
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Differences between Dicot and Monocot

Dicot Monocot
They have 2 cotyledons They have 1 cotyledon
Their leaves shows net venation Their leaves shows parallel venation
Their floral parts are in groups of 4 or 5 or a multiple of 4 orTheir floral parts are in groups of 3 or a multiple of 3
5
Vascular bundles are arranged in rings in the stem Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem

Cambium is present Cambium is absent

Secondary growth do occur Secondary growth does not occur
Their embryo has two cotyledons Their embryo has one cotyledon
Their leaves are broad Their leaves are long and thin
The ventral and dorsal surface of the leaves differs The ventral and dorsal surface of the leaves are identical

They possess a tap root system They possess a fibrous root system
Their roots contain few groups of xylem Their roots contain several groups of xylem

Significance of stomata to the plant leaves

- They serve as a vent for gaseous exchange.
- Loss of water in the stomata in the form of water vapor during transpiration causes a cooling effect to the plant.
- The stomata enable water to be lost as a fluid during guttation.
- The stomata help to regulate plant’s temperature
Vegetative morphology of flowering plants
- Morphology means the external structure of the plants.
- There exist three forms of flowering plants and this includes; herbs, shrubs, and trees.
- Herbs are plants with soft and greenish stems. It has no permanent structure above the ground e.g. beans,
ground nut, Bahama grass, etc.
- Shrubs are plants that have hard and woody stem with several branches arising near the ground from a
common point e.g. hibiscus, rose flower, etc.
- Trees are plants with hard and woody stem. They grow very tall having a single trunk and canopies above it
e.g. mango tree, pear tree, etc.
Flowering plants can also be classified according to the growing seasons.
- Ephemeral plants are short lived plants have one or more generations per year.
- They grow during favorable periods when there is adequate moisture and during unfavorable condition
they exist as seeds e.g. most of the grass common around us.
- Annual plants are plants that complete their life cycle in a single season e.g. maize, ground nut, etc.
- Biennial plants are plants that complete their life cycle in two seasons e.g. carrots, cassava.
- Perennial plants are plants that grow for several years where they are storing food in the dry season and
producing new shoots in the rainy season e.g. trees.
- Flowering plants are divided into two main parts i.e. the vegetative part and the reproductive parts. The flower
constitutes the reproductive parts while the vegetative parts is made up of the roots and shoot systems. The
shoot system consists of the stems and the leaves.
The vegetative parts of the flowering plants
- It consists of the root, stem and shoot systems.
The shoot system
- It is made up of the stem and the leaves
The stem
- It is the main axes of a plant which give rise to branches and leaves.

44
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The point where the branches and leaves arises are called the node. The distance between two consecutive
nodes is called the inter node. The terminal bud arises at the apex of the main stem while the lateral bud
occurs at axils of the leaves.
- Stems could be erect or prostate i.e. lying on the ground, smooth or thorny, angular or flattened. Some plants
have modified stems e.g. tubers (yams), rhizome (ginger), corm (cocoyam), bulbs (onion)
The leaf
- Most leaves have stalk and are described as petiolate. Those without stalk are described as sessile. A typical leaf
must have the following a stalk, lamina, margin, midribs, and veinlets. There exist two main types of leaves i.e.
simple and compound leaves.
The root
- The root holds the plant firmly in the soil and also absorbed water and mineral salts.
- A root has a root cap that protects the tips or apex and has root hair that occur in groups or clusters.
- There exist two main types of root
 Tap root system: These are the primary root that arise from the radicle. These roots grow and give rise to
the lateral roots e.g. all dicot plants.
 Fibrous root system: These are small roots that arise from the base of the radicle e.g. all monocot plants.
- Some leguminous plants such as beans, ground nut, etc. has root nodules containing bacteria for nitrogen
fixation.
Structure of the seed
All angiosperm seeds are made up of the following essential parts
- Embryo: This is made up of the axis differentiated into plumule or shoot at one end and radicle or root at the
opposite end. The embryo bears one or two cotyledon which may or may not contain stored food.
- Testa or seed coat: it encloses the embryo but is perforated at a pint by a pore or micropyle. The testa also
contain the scar or hilium where it was attached to the ovary wall. The testa may carry a specialized fleshy out
growth known as the Caruncle. Within the testa may be a mass of food storage tissue called the endosperm.

Structure of the flower

- The flower may be regarded as a vegetative shoot in which the parts are highly specialized for the purpose
of reproduction.
- Most flowers have both the accessory and essential whorls.
- Accessory or no-essential part of the flower includes; the calyx (sepal) and corolla (petals).
- The essential parts are those involve in sexual reproduction i.e. gynoecium or mega sporophyll and the
androecium or micro sporophyll. These whorls are attached to the swollen fleshy tip of the stalk (receptacles).

The flower is made up of the following parts and arrangement.

45
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- Receptacle: This is an enlarged end of the stalk in which the flower parts are attached. The receptacles are of
different shapes. According to these shapes, the gynoecium may be described as superior or inferior. Also flower
may be described as hypogynous, perigynous or epigynous.
- If the carpel is located at the apex of the receptacle and the other parts are inserted in them below the level
of the carpel, the gynoecium is superior and the flower is hypogynous e.g. Hibiscus

- If the receptacle is concave with the gynoecium at its centre with the other floral parts around its margin,
the gynoecium is superior and the flower is perigynous e.g. Rose flower

- When the receptacle is completely enclosing the gynoecium and the other floral parts arise from the
receptacle above the gynoecium, the gynoecium is inferior and the flower is epigynous e.g. sunflower

- Calyx: it is made up of a number of sepal which are usually greenish in color and leaf-like in structure.
- It encloses and protects the flower at the bud stage. In some flowers, some sepals are brightly colored.
- They may also occur singly or may be fused.
- When they are colored and resemble the petals, they are described as petaloid e.g. Bugenvila.
- In case of where the sepals are free or unjoined they are described as polysepaloid e.g. morning glory.
- Those with partly or complete fused sepals are described as gymosepalous e.g. Hibiscus.
- Any whorls that is found out of the sepal is called epicalyx e.g. Hibiscus
Corolla: this is a collection of petals. Petals are usually brightly coloured and large.
- They protect and support the essential parts of the flower especially at the bud stage.
- Petals produce scent and contain nectar at their base (nectaries).
- Petals that are fused are described as gymopetalous or sympetalous e.g. allamanda. Some petals and sepals
are indistinguishable and are referred to as perianth e.g. lily.
Androecium: This the male part of the flower. It is also called the stamen.
- The stamen is made up of the anther and the filament.
- Stamens are attached to the petal are described as epipetalous e.g. morning glory.
- Some stamens are fused and are described as synandrous e.g. Hibiscus. When the stamens are free they
are described as polyandrous e.g. hamattan lily.
Gynoecium: these are female part of the [Link] is also called the carpel or pistil.
The carpel is made up of a swollen base called ovary, a slender stalk otherwise called the style and a sticky or
hairy stigma. An ovary may contain one or more ovules.
- Flowers that occur in groups are called inflorescent e.g. Allamanda.
- Flowers that occur singly are called solitary e.g. hibiscus.
- A flower that have several plane of symmetry (radial symmetry) are described as regular or actinomorphic e.g.
hibiscus.

46
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- A flower that have just a single plane of symmetry is called zygomorphic e.g. Flamboyant
Similarities between Conifers and Angiosperms
- They have an embryo which is enclosed in the ovum.
- They are all seed bearing plants,
- They depend on pollination for fertilization where pollen grains develop pollen tube that transport the
male gametes to the ovum. NB: water is not needed for fertilization to occur.
- Seeds after fertilization must be dispersed by either wind, insects, mammals, etc.
- The sporophyte is dominant and the gametophyte is highly reduced.
- The gametophyte is completely totally dependent on the sporophyte for nourishment and protection.
The gametes are produced by mitosis.
- They are heterosporous producing separate male and female spores.
- The require pollen tube for fertilization to occur.
- The fertilized embryo develops into a seed.
- They have well developed vascular bundle made up of xylem and phloem.
- They undergo alternation of generation
- The seeds can withstand harsh conditions for a long period of dormancy before germination.
Differences between Conifers and Angiosperms
Conifers Angiosperms
Ovum is naked and unprotected Ovule is protected in the ovary within the fruits
Stigma and style are absent Stigma and style are present
Cones are present Cones are absent but flowers are present
No fruit is formed Fruits are formed
Phloem lack companion cells Phloem has companion cells
Xylem lack vessels Xylem has vessels
Seeds develop from the cones Seeds develop from the flower
Pollen grains are commonly dispersed by wind Pollen grains are commonly dispersed by wind,
insects, man, other animals, etc.
They undergo single fertilization They undergo double fertilization
They produce huge quantity of pollen grains They produce small quantity of pollen grains
Cones are unisexual Flowers are bisexual
Endosperms is haploid Endosperms is triploid
Cotyledons are 2-15 in number Cotyledons are 1 or 2 in number
All seeds are endospermic Some seeds are endospermic, others are non
endospermic

Adaptation of seeds bearing plants to life on land

- Gametophyte is reduced and embryo is protected inside the sporophyte.
- Fertilization is independent of water.
- Seeds help to enhance dispersal.
- Seeds are protected by a seed coat.
- They have a true root system that enables the absorption of water and mineral salts.
- The leaves have stomata for gaseous exchange.
- The seeds store food for the developing embryo.
- The plant is protected from desiccation by an epidermis with a water proof cuticle.
- They show secondary growth with the production of large amount of wood which provides supports.
Evolutionary Advancement of seeds bearing plants over non-seeds bearing plants
- They are heterosporous.
- Develop a non-swimming gamete.

47
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They have seeds.

- They have well developed vascular bundle
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Diagnostic features
- They are all multicellular organisms.
- Body is composed of eukaryotic cells i.e. cells having well define nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane
while the other organelles are membrane bound.
- Their mode of nutrition is mainly heterotrophic whereby they are supplied with food (ready
manufacture) consisting of complex organic molecules. This heterotrophic nutrition may be
 Holozoic: this is characteristics of higher animals including man whereby food is ingested within the body,
digested, absorbed and assimilated while the undigested remains are egested through the anus.
 Saprophytic: Here the organisms feed on dead decay organic matter of other organisms. they send their
enzymes out of their body onto the food where digestion occur out of the cell (extra-cellular digestion). Only the
soluble absorbable products are taken into the body cell for assimilation.
 Parasitic: This is a form of nutrition in which the organism obtain food from another living organism called the
host. The food so obtained is already digested.
 Mutualism: This is a type nutrition in which two organisms of different species are closely associated from which
each organism benefits from each other in terms of nutrition.
- All animals are motile exhibiting free locomotion in search of their vital needs.
- They possess a well-coordinated nervous system for sensitivity.
- They have embryonic stage arising from cells that are organized into three germ layers
- Cell wall is completely absent as the cell is enclosed by a cell surface membrane.
Common terms used in the animal classification
 Symmetry: This is the arrangement of body parts are around a central axis or plane which if cut along the
plane, can produce mirror-imaged halves. There exist 3 types of symmetry.
 Asymmetrical or non-symmetry: Here, the organism lacks a plane of symmetry and the body’s parts
are arranged in any order, the organisms cannot be divided into equal mirror halves e.g. garden snail.
 Bilateral symmetry: It is a plane that divides an organism into two equal halves which are mirror images of each
other e.g. Chordates.
 Radial symmetry These are several planes or lines dividing an organism into several parts with each
being identical any of the others.
 Anterior: this refers to the head end of an organism or the front part of an upright organism eg man.
 Ventral region: it refers to the belly part of an organism (front part of an upright animal e.g man or the part
facing the ground for those animals that move on four legs en goat).
 Posterior: this the tail end of an organism or the back part of an organism.
 Dorsal region: it refers to the back portion of an organism (the back of an upright animal e.g man or the part
facing the sun for those animals that move on four legs e.g goat)
 Caudal region it refers to the part towards the tail.
 Superior it refers to the part above a particular point of reference.
 Inferior it refers to a part below a particular point of reference.
 Proximal it refers to a part that is closer to a particular point of reference.
 Distal it refers to a part further away from a particular point of reference.
 Oral surface it refers to the part of the animal that carries the mouth
 Aboral surface it refers to the part of the animal that carries the anus.
 Anal end it refers to the part of the animal having the anus.
 Longitudinal section. This is a cut parallel to the longitudinal axis dividing the animal into the left and the
right halves.

48
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

 Transverse/Cross section This is a cut perpendicular to the longitudinal axis which divides the animal into the
head and caudal region.
 Segmentation it refers to the linear repetition of body parts which may be seen externally.
 Metameric segmentation this is a type of segmentation which affects both the internal and the external
structures e.g. earthworm and rag worm.
 Germ layer. This is a layer of the cells from which all the other structures develop. The three germ
layers commonly found in animals includes;
 Ectoderm that gives rise to the epidermis.
 Mesoderm that gives rise to the muscle block and skeleton.
 Endoderm that give rise to the internal body’s organs.
 Some key points on which the animal classification is based.

Organisms are classified based on the following.

- The number of cells that is, multicellular or unicllular
- The number of germ layers; (embryonic cell layers that forms the entire animal body), that is diploblastic or
triploblastic.
- The nature of the digestive system , complete or incomplete
- The presence or absent of coelom. coelom are cavities in which the internal organs are located. Based on these
animals are classified as
 Coelomate which are animals that have body cavity e.g. thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, etc. in man
 Acoelomate which are animals that lack body cavity.
- Type of skeleton, whether endo or exo skeleton and its composition
- Number of appendages. it refers to the nature of the locomotory structures or feeding structures e.g.
tentacles antennae, jointed legs, flying wings, etc.
- Presence or absence of cell wall.
- Composition of cell wall.
- Type of photosynthetic pigments.
- Presence absence of true roots, stems, leaves.
- Presence or absence of vascular tissue.
- Presence or absence of membrane bound organelles.
- Presence or absence of segmentation.
- Presence or absence or nuclear membrane.
- Type of habitat.
- Generation that is dominant in the life cycle, either sporophyte or gametophyte.
- Number of spores produced during the life cycle.
- The means by which the male gamete is carried to the ovum; either by water of pollen tube.
- The structure on which sporangia, spores and seeds develop eg flowers, cones etc.
Phylum Cnidaria
Features
- They are all aquatic animals that are predominantly marine organisms.
- They are diploblastic i.e. the body develop from two germ layers which are ectoderm and endoderm.
- Their two germ layers are separated by a non-cellular gelatinous layer called mesoglea.
- They are all carnivorous feeding on living prey capture by means of their stinging cells called the nematoblast.
- They have a well define body cavity called the enteron or the gastrovascular cavity where digestion of food
occurs.
- The mouth opens into the enteron for ingestion and egestion of undigested waste since the animal lack the
anus.

49
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The ectoderm contains the nematoblast or stinging cells specially confine at the tentacles to capture prey.
- The mouth is usually surrounded by one to several rings of tentacles which enables the animals to capture
and take in food.
- They have a simple nervous system composed of a network of nerve cells for sensitivity.
- They are radially symmetrical.
- Members exist as two structurally different forms a phenomenon called polymorphism.
These forms are
 Polyp these are individuals that are often solitary (free and single) or colonial (remains permanently
attached to objects in water). Their mouths open upward surrounded by tentacles.
 Medusa they are umbrella-like individuals with the mouth pointing downward and surrounded by
walls of tentacles.

Class Hydrozoa
Features
- Members are dominantly polyp.
- They may be solitary and free living or may be colonial and sessile (fixed).
- The medusa stage exists but is highly reduced.
- The ectoderm is always cover by a chitinous exoskeleton for protection.
- The animal may be marine or live in fresh water.
- Examples includes; Hydra (solitary members) and Obelia (colonial member).
Hydra. Classification
Phylum : Cnidaria Class: Hydrozoa
SN: Hydra viridis CN: Hydra
Habitat: in fresh water Trophic level: secondary
consumers Point of biological interest
- Hydra is a solitary polyp found in fresh water.
- The mouth is found on the oral surface and is surrounded by rings of tentacles.
- The mouth opens into the enteron where digestion occur with the used of the enzymes to digest their prey.
- The undigested food is send out through the mouth as the organism lack the anus.
- Locomotion is by means of looping, gliding and summersaulting.
- Reproduction occur asexually by budding or sexually with the used of gametes.
- During asexual reproduction, a small bud begins to grow from the ectoderm until it reaches a full size of the
adult.
- It then constricts at the point of attachment and breakaway to become an independent Hydra.
- During sexual reproduction, the ectoderm produces two gonads I.e. the male (testis) and female (ovary). These
gonads release sperms and eggs in water where fertilization occur (external fertilization) producing a zygote
which grow by dividing by mitosis to become an adult hydra.

50
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

External view of Hydra longitudinal section of hydra (half length)

Obelia. Classification
Phylum : Cnidaria Class: Hydrozoa
SN: Obelia geniculatus CN: Obelia
Habitat: in marine water Trophic level: secondary consumers.
Point of biological interest
- Obelia is a colonial polyp often seen permanently attached on rocks along the sea coast.
- Just like Hydra, it is microscopic.
- The dominant state of the animal seen above is made up of two types of polyp namely the hydranth which is the
feeding polyp and the gonangia which is the reproductive polyp.
- Obelia exist as two functionally different individuals of the same organisms a situation called polymorphism.
The life cycle of Obelia shows a type of alternation of generation called metagenesis.
Metagenesis in Obelia
- The dominant polyp called obelia has a hydranth for feeding and the gonangia for reproduction.
- Each gonangium reproduces asexually by budding i.e. it produce the medusa bud which provides the male
and the female bud.
- These buds are released in water through the gonopore as free swimming juvenile.
- The diploid medusa buds produce gametes by meiosis which are released in water through their mouth.
- The flagellated sperms swim towards the eggs and fused with the eggs to form a zygote(2n).
- The zygote then develops mitotically into a ball of cells called the planula larva.
- Each planula larva further develops into a ciliated planula larva which swims freely in water.
- The ciliated planula larva finally become attached at one end onto the rock where the opposite end develops a
mouth and tentacle and is now called a young obelia.
- The young obelia continue to develop mitotically producing both the feeding and reproductive individuals. This
continues until a mature colony is form.
- The alternation of the diploid and haploid stages in the life cycle of an Obelia is called metagenesis.

51
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Life cycle of Obelia

Differences between Hydra and obelia.
Hydra Obelia
Only polyp form exists. Both polyp and medusa form exist.
Body is covered by a soft cuticle, Body covered by a stiff chitinous
exoskeleton called perisarc.
Have few hollow tentacles. Have many solid tentacles.
Poly reproduces asexually by budding Polyp reproduces sexually by budding
to produce new polyps. off medusa.
Have no free swimming form in its life Have the medusa and the planula larva
cycle. which are free swimming.
Lives in fresh water. Lives in marine water.
Bears temporal gonards. Bears permanent gonards.
Body is cylindrical and tubular. Body is plant-like with many branches.

Differences between polyp and medusa.

Polyp Medusa
Reproduces both sexually and asexually. Reproduces only asexually.
It is sessile or sedentary. It is free living.
The basal part does not open out. Apical part does not open out.
The oral part of the polyp faces upward and conical Oral part of the medusa faces downward and has a
hypostome. manubrium at the center.
Velum is absent Velum or veil present.
Covered and protected by the perisarc called hydrotheca. Covered and protected by gonotheca.
Body is elongated and cylindrical. Body is short and umbrella-like.
Polyp is formed directly from the colony by budding. Medusa is formed by the blastostyle by budding after a
series of changes.

Class Anthozoa
Features
- They are predominantly polyp as no medusa stage do exist.
- Members are solitary e.g. sea anemone.
- Some members may be colonial e.g. corals.

52
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The enteron is divided by messentaries into six pouches with holes on their walls called ostia that allows
substances to move from one pouch to the other.
Sea anemone.
Classification
Phylum : Cnidaria Class: Anthozoa
SN: Actinia equine CN: sea anemone
Habitat: in marine water Trophic level: secondary consumers

Structure of sea anemone

Point of biological interest
- It is a solitary polyp found in marine environment. It consists of a short cylindrical shaped body.
- The oral side carries a centrally located mouth surrounded by several rings of short tentacles.
- On the tentacles are nematoblast for capturing of prey.
- The basal disc or side is used for attachment onto the rocks.
- The mouth opens into a short gullet (throat) which then enter the enteron for digestion of food.
- Gametes are produce in the epidermis with separate sexes.
- Fertilization occur in water and the zygote develops into sea anemone i.e. development is direct
Class Scyphozoa
Features
- Members are strictly medusa.
- The body is made up of a mesoglea (i.e. complete absence of the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm).
- They all marine animals.
- Their mouths are located on the ventral surface surrounded by 4 oral arms carrying nematoblast to
capture prey. They are solitary.
- The enteron is divided into 4 gastric pouches leading to numerous branched and unbranched canals.
Jelly fish. Classification
Phylum : Cnidaria Class: Scyphozoa
SN: Aurelia aurita CN: Jelly fish
Habitat: in marine water Trophic level: secondary consumers

53
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Structure of jelly fish ventral view of jelly fish

Point of biological interest
- All members are medusa found in marine environment.
- The body is composed of a jelly-like mesoglea.
- The mouth is located on the lower surface (ventral surface) guarded by 4 oral arms for feeding.
- The organism is carnivorous feeding on tiny worms and cray fish.
- The margin of the umbrella-like body carries 8 notches or indentation aligned by cilia to enable it to swim
in water.
- Gonads are located on modified pouch found in the enteron. Sex is separate.
- Fertilization is internal where the sperms are released from the male through the mouth into water where they
are chemotactically drawn to the female passing through its mouth into the enteron where the eggs are
fertilized. This is assisted by the feeding current.
- The fertilized egg (zygote) then pass out of the mouth and settles on the fault around the mouth opening from
where they develop into the planula larva and later adult.
Reasons why Hydra and sea anemone are placed in different classes
- The enteron in hydra is not partition by septate as in case of sea anemone.
- Ostia are present in sea anemone but absent in Hydra.
Adaptation of hydra and obelia to their mode of feeding
- They have tentacles producing stinging cells to sting their prey.
- Muscles in the tentacles drag the prey into the mouth located on the conical hypostome.
- The prey is further taken into the enteron by contraction of the wall with the help of ciliated gastrodermal
cells for intra and intercellular digestion.
- Some gastrodermal cells are adapted to engulf food particles for intercellular digestion.
- They have the ability of the enteron to egest undigested food near the mouth.
Adaptation of Obelia to its mode of life
- They have hydranth with tentacles around the conical hypostome of the mouth with nematocyte for
food capturing and defense.
- They have a gonangium (asexual reproduction) which produce the diploid sexual medusa by budding on the
blastostyle to complete their life cycle.
- They have coenosarc ( a tubular cavity filled fluid) and perisarc or periderm (a non-cellular transparent layer
secreted by the ectoderm of the coenosarc) which protects the body.
Adaptation of sea anemone to its mode of life
- They have tentacles for food capturing and defense.
- They have nematocytes in their tentacles paralyzes the prey before being drag into the enteron.
- The basal disc has granular cells that produce secretion for holding fast to their substratum or rocks.
- They have ostia that help to exchange material between the different compartments.
Economic importance of Cnidarian

54
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- Nematoblasts of many jelly fishes and Portuguese man of war cause pain to other sea animals.
- Corals have large deposit of CaCO3 which are of great economic importance.
- Corals from Mediterranean and Japanese sea are used as jewelries
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Features
- They are organisms with elongated flattened body.
- They are triploblastic i.e. develop from three germ layers which are ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They have an incomplete digestive system with a mouth but no anus.
- They are acoelomates i.e. they lack body cavity or fluid filled space within the body.
- The entire body is filled with epithelial cells.
- They have a fairly developed nervous system made up of a pair of cerebral ganglia or brain in the head region
connected by two nerve cords that runs through the whole body.
- They possess an excretory system made up of a highly branching tubes that ends up in flame cells.
- The flame cells collect waste products from the body and channels it through the Nephridia which discharges it
waste into the environment through an opening called nephridiopore. These organisms are hamaphrodites with
a complete reproductive system.
Class Turbellaria
Features
- They are free living flat worms. They inhabit fresh water.
- They are carnivorous animals.
- Their body is covered with cilia for locomotion.
- They lack cuticle.
Planaria.
Classification
Phylum : Platyhelminthes Class: Turbellaria
SN: Planaria lugubris CN: Planaria
Habitat: in fresh water Trophic level: secondary consumers

Structure of planaria
Point of biological interest
- Planaria is an animal with a leaf-like body commonly found in fresh water such as ponds or ditches.
- They are also found in soil around swampy area.

55
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- It has a fairly triangular head region that bears two eyes spot which are photosensitive enabling the organism to
move away from bright light.
- Planaria is a nocturnal organism i.e. it hides under the substrate during the day and only come out at night to
feed. The mouth is located at the mid ventral region and opens into a short retractable turning to capture
and crush prey using its powerful muscles.
- The organism is carnivorous feeding on tiny cray fish and worms. Locomotion is by gliding.
- The organism secretes a band of mucus on the substrate or surface enabling it to glide along. Reproduction
is predominantly asexual by binary fission but during adverse conditions, sexual reproduction could occur.
Class Trematoda
Features
- They are parasitic flat worms with a life cycle that involves a vertebrate and an invertebrate host.
- Their body is covered by thick cuticle that replaces the epidermis.
- The mouth opens into an elaborate Y-shaped digestive tract but with no anus.
- The head region carries a ventral and an oral sucker.
Liverfluke. Classification
Phylum :Platyhelminthes Class: Trematoda
SN: Fasciola hepatica CN: sheep liverfluke
Habitat: bile duct of sheep Trophic level: Tertiary consumers

External ventral view of liver fluke

Point of biological interest

- The organism is a parasitic flat worm with a leaf-like body.
- It inhabits the bile duct of sheep or other ruminants.

56
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- On the head region of this animal are two prominent suckers for attachment and absorption of digested food
from the hepatic portal vein.
- The body is covered with thick cuticle that replaces the epidermis.
- This is to prevent the parasite from being digested by the host enzymes.
- There is a mouth enclosed by an oral sucker that opens into an elaborate Y-shaped digestive tract that
penetrates all the parts of the body for effective digestion of food.
- There are no anus hence undigested waste products are passed out through the mouth.
- The life cycle of the liver fluke involves a primary host which is the sheep in whose liver the adult worm
developed and reproduce and a secondary host being the snail in whose muscles the immature stages of
the worm are hidden to be eaten up by the sheep alongside with grass.
Class Cestoda
Features
- They are endoparasite of the digestive tract of vertebrates.
- Their life cycle involves two vertebrates host.
- The body is usually flat, elongated and strobillated i.e. having many segments of similar nature
called proglottids.
- The head region bears many suckers and hooks.
- The head region is also called the scolex.
- The body is covered by thick cuticle that replaces the epidermis.
- Locomotory and digestive structures are absent.
Tape worm
Classification
Phylum : Platyhelminthes Class: Cestoda
SN: Taenia solium(pork) or Taenia saginata(beef) CN: Pork or Beef tape worm
Habitat: intestine of man Trophic level: tertiary consumers

Point of biological interest

- The organism is predominantly endoparasite commonly found in the digestive tract of vertebrates e.g. man.
- It has a flat long strobillated body with the head region called the scolex that bears numerous suckers and
hooks for permanent attachment to the intestinal wall as well as for absorption of already digested food from
the intestine.
- Each segment of the worm is called proglottids.

57
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The organism is hermaphrodite possessing both the male and the female reproductive organs hence carry
out self-fertilization.
- A ripe or mature proglottids (i.e. one loaded with fertilized eggs) is passed out with feces to be picked up by a
secondary host such as pig in whose muscles the fertilized egg would developed into a bladder worm.
- When such pork is killed and eaten uncooked or raw, the bladder worm then enters the intestine of man
where it inverts itself into a scolex which now becomes attached to the wall of the intestine of man.
- From here it continues to grow as it feeds on nutrients obtain from the host.
- The adult tape worm measures several meters long absorbing nearly all the food nutrients of the host
who remain permanently hungry.

Adaptations of liver fluke and tape worm to their parasitic mode of life.
- They lack locomotory and digestive organs. This is because the organisms remain permanently attached to their
host where they absorbed already digested food.
- They have hooks for attachment to the wall of the host body.
- They have suckers which is used to absorb much of the already digested food.
- They have very thick cuticle that replaces the epidermis and this prevents the organism from being digested
by the host enzyme.
- They are hermaphrodite carrying out self-fertilization to ensures survival of the species. This is because only
one worm can be present in the host system per unit time.
- They lay large number of eggs to ensure survival of the species. This is because the chances of an egg surviving
is very slim.
- Their life cycle involves vectors or secondary host to further increases the chances of survival of the species.
This is because both species cannot be killed at the same time.
Phylum Nematoda
Features
- These are round cylindrical shape worms.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They are triploblastic. They are pseudocoelomates i.e. they have body space but this not a coelom and has
no coelomic fluid.
- They have a complete digestive system i.e. there is a mouth and anus.
- The body is covered with a protein elastic cuticle which is quite elastic and transparent.
- Sex is separate i.e. the male is small and has two spenial spicules for deposition of sperms while the female
is larger in size.
- They lack locomotory structure.
- They are unsegmented.
Class Phasmidia
Features
- They are named after the structure called phasmids which is present in all members of this class.
- Phasmids are a pair of glandular pouches present in the cuticle and which opens by means of ducts to
the environment.
- The secretion of the phasmid helps to lubricate the entire body of the worm.
- They possess a well-developed digestive, excretory and reproductive systems. Males have a copulatory spicule
around the anal pore.
Ascaris. Classification
Phylum : Nematoda Class: Phasmidia
SN: Ascaris lumbricoides CN: Ascaris

58
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Habitat: intestine of man Trophic level: Tertiary consumers

Point of biological interest

- Ascaris is a slender cylindrical worm that is often yellowish in color.
- They have a spindle shape i.e. the body is tapered at both ends.
- The body is covered by a thick cuticle which is transparent to prevent it from being digested by the
host enzymes.
- It is a common parasite of the intestine of man as well as other animals.
- The sex is usually separate with the male being smaller than the female in size.
- The posterior end of the male carries two tiny projections called spicules that assist in copulation.
- After copulation, the female worm releases thousands of fertilized eggs in feces.
- These eggs may find their way into a new host for example man by eating up contaminated grass or by
swallowing unwashed fruits. Prolong infections can cause starvation, loss of appetite and sometimes mental
retardation.
NB: the eggs are very resistive to environmental changes and can stay in the soil for more than 5years remaining viable
Phylum Annelida
Features
- This phylum is made up of worms which shoe metameric segmentation.
- They are found in marine water, fresh water and damp moist soil.
- They are coelomates i.e. they have a distinct coelom or cavity filled with the coelomic fluid.
- In addition to metameric segmentation, the worms show a phenomenon called tagmitization i.e. some of
the body segments are well specialized to carry out specific functions.
- The body is covered by a moist cuticle that is non-chitinous and is used for gaseous exchange.
- Locomotion is by means of rod-like chitinous structures called chaetae or setae.
- The nervous system is quite developed compressing of a pair of dorsal cerebra ganglion connected to a pair of
ventral nerve cord.
- They have a closed circulatory system with blood transported in blood vessels.

59
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Class Oligochaeta
Features
- They are found in damp soil and fresh water.
- They are worm with inconspicuous head.
- They have relatively fewer numbers of chaeta on the ventral surface of the organism for locomotion.
- They show a true metameric segmentation.
- There is a specialized structure called clitellum that secretes silk threads used in producing cocoons in which
eggs are laid and stored.
- They have a well-developed coelomic cavity.
- They are hermaphrodite but carry out cross fertilization.
- The worm has no eye. Larva stage is absent in their life cycle.
Earthworm.
Classification
Phylum : Annelida Class: Oligochaeta
SN: Lumbricus terrestris CN: Earthworm
Habitat: Damp moist soil under the rock Trophic level: Detrital feeders

Digram of Earthworm

60
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Point of biological interest

- The earthworm is an organism with a log slender body that is found in damp moist soil and in fresh water.
- The dorsal surface is always darker than the ventral surface for camouflaging.
- Except for the first and last body segments, the ventral and lateral sides of the worm possess four pairs of
chaeta seen as bristle-like projections used for locomotion.
- The chaeta enables the worm to crawl while gripping the surface with the chaeta.
- The first segment is called the peristomium. The peristomium has at its centre a mouth protected by
an overhanging lip called the prostomium.
- Between segments 32 and 37 is a mucus secretory organ called the clitellum.
- It secretes mucus which helps to hold the two worms together during mating and also secretes the cocoon
in which the fertilized eggs are laid and stored to later develop into a mature worm.
- The worm is hermaphrodite having the male and the female openings between 15th and 19th segments.
- The body is covered by a moist cuticle which is very instrumental in gaseous exchange.
- Movement the worm is brought about by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the circular
and longitudinal body muscles.
- This enable the worm to stretch and shorten as it crawls over the surface.
Class Polychaeta
Features
- They are segmented worms that inhabits marine water.
- They show a true metameric segmentation.
- They have a distinct head with numerous appendages.
- The head region carries numerous antennae and has a prominent eye.
- It lacks clitellum. Sex is separate. It has a larva stage in its life cycle.
Neiris or ragworm or sandworm.
Classification
Phylum : Annelida Class: Polychaeta
SN: Neries diversicolor CN: Nereis or ragworm or sandworm
Habitat: in marine water Trophic level: secondary consumers

61
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Point of biological interest

- The organism is a long dorsoventrally flattened segmented worm that is commonly found along the sea coast.
- Unlike the earthworm, it has a highly differentiated head region in which the first segment is called the
peristomium which bears 4 tiny eyes for vision as well as a pair of delicate tentacle for feeding.
- The second segment is called protomium which bears 4 pairs of tentacles for feeding, touch smell and feeling.
- On either sides of the rest of the body segments are bristle-like projections called parapodia on which
several chaeta arise like tiny hair.
- Parapodia function in locomotion by enabling the worms to creep or swim and also function in the exchange of
gaseous material.
- The organism is carnivorous whereby the pharynx bearing pincer-like jaws which can invert to capture the
prey forcing it through the mouth.
- In this process the prey is torn into pieces before been swallowed.
- Sex is separate in which gametes are released in water where fertilization occur.
- The zygote then develops into a trochophore larva which finally develop into an adult worm.

62
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Class Hirudinea
Features
- They are ectoparasites or may be predacious.
- They inhabit marine water especially in sandy beaches.
- They have a ventral and posterior suckers but with no distinct head.
- They lack clitellum, chaeta and parapodia.
- They are segmented externally but the segments do not correspond with the internal segmentation of the
body organs i.e. does not show metameric segmentation.
- They are hermaphrodite but carry out cross fertilization. Eggs are laid in the cocoon but larva stage is absent.
They have a highly reduced coelom.

Leech.
Structure.

Structure of Leech.
Classification
Phylum : Annelida Class: Hirudinea
SN: Hirudo medicinalis CN: leech
Habitat: in marine water in sandy beach Trophic level: secondary consumers
Phylum Arthropoda
Features
- They are metamerically segmented organisms with a high degree of tagmitization i.e. a high degree of
specialization of the various segments.
- They are the most populated organisms accounting for 80% of all the animals in the animal kingdom.
- Their body is covered by chitinous exoskeleton which may be flexible or rigid.
- They have a complete digestive system that begins from the mouth and ends with the anus.
- They possess jointed appendages for locomotion, sensitivity and feeding.
- They possess a pair of compound eye.
- They are coelomates having body cavity called haemocoel.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.

63
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They are triploblastic.

- They have a dorsal heart with an open circulatory system.
- They excrete by means of the green glands and the Malpighian tubules.
- Some members are free living, others are parasite. Some members are solitary while others live in colony
e.g. social insects.
Class Insecta
Features
- These are arthropods whose body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
- The head region possesses a pair of anterior antennae for feeling.
- They have three pair of jointed legs all emanating from their thorax for locomotion.
- They possess one to two pairs of wings for flight.
- Excretion is by means of the Malpighian tubules.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of a highly branching tubular system called the trachea system.
- They undergo a phenomenon called metamorphosis which could be complete (holometabolous) or
incomplete (hemimetabolous).
- Metamorphosis is the change in form or structure of an organism as it moves from one stage to the other in
the course of their life cycle. When the change is gradual, it is called complete metamorphosis (egg---larva---
pupa--- adult).
- When the change is abrupt, it is called incomplete metamorphosis (egg---nymph---adult). They mostly terrestrial
habitat with a few members being aquatic.

Grasshopper.

Diagram of a Grasshopper
Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Insecta
SN: Valanga nigricomis CN: Grasshopper
Habitat: under vegetation Trophic level: Primary consumers
Point of biological interest
- The organism has a prominent head made up of six fused segments and a thorax made up of three fused
segments and a long segmented abdomen that ends up in a reproductive structure called the ovipositor which
is an egg laying organ. The body is covered by chitinous exoskeleton secreted by the underlying epidermis.

64
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The chitin forms a hard plate called sclerites that are separated by a portion of soft chitin to permit movement
of segments with respect to each other.
- The cuticle is usually pigmented. This is to provide a protective coloration (mimicry) against predators.
- The head region bears a pair of slender jointed antennae for feeling.
- There is a pair of compound eye and three simple eyes for wide vision.
- The mouth parts are adapted for chewing of the vegetation on which the grasshopper feeds on.

- The chewing mouth part of the grasshopper consist of a broad upper lip called the labrum, a median tongue
called the hypopharynx guarded on either sides by the chewing components called the mandible.
- The mandible possesses a scissor-like edges along the inner margin to chew the vegetation.
- There is a pair of maxillae below the mandible carrying sensory palps for feeling. There is a lower lip that is
fairly broad called the labrium.
- Each thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed legs while the second and the third thoracic segments bear a
pair of wings. Each leg consists of a linear series of segments that ends in a short coxa that articulates with
body.
- A small trochanter fuses with a longer segment called the femur.
- A slender spiky tibia is attached to the femur and the tibia ends up in a tarsus.
- Each tarsus bears four pairs of pads that are often sticky.
- The pads act as shock absorbers and also help the insects to attached itself to any surface (whether slippery or
not).
- Each limb ends up in claws used for defense and offense.
65
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The hind limbs of the grasshopper are quite muscular enabling the insects to jump or skip thus escaping
from enemies.
- The pad helps the insects to land effectively after jumping.

Hind leg of grasshopper.

- The abdomen is segmented and ends in an ovipositor.
- Sex is separate. The life cycle shows incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous).
- In the early summer, i.e. at the start of the rainy season in Cameroon, the female adult grasshopper
lay thousands of eggs in burrows.
- This usually occur after mating.
- The eggs hatch after a few days into nymphs which continue to grow by a series of moulting or ecdysis until an
adult grasshopper is produced.
- The nymphs feed on tender vegetation hiding under the leaves to avoid itself from enemies and desiccation.

66
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Honey Bee

Diagram of a Honey bee

Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Insecta
SN: Apis mellifera CN: Honey bee
Habitat: in cavity in tree trunk Trophic level: Primary consumers Point
of biological interest
- Honey bee is a social insect such as termites.
- They live in a hive or nest in various locations such as cracks, rocks, holes, in the soil and tunnel in tree trunk.
- They usually live in colony within which there are three different types individuals i.e. a queen which is a
specialized eggs laying female.
- The drone which is a male whose role is to fertilized the queen.
- The workers which consist of thousands of sterile females carrying out all the variety of functions in the
colony such as the following.
 They provide food for all the members of the cast.
 They build the hive, guard and protects the hive.
- They attend to the queen in times of needs as well as rear the young.
- Wild bees live in natural hive which are mainly cavity in tree trunk but they have been partially domesticated
by man who house in special hive made up of wood.
- Each colony has a vertical comb made up of wax that contains small lateral cells in which the young are store or
pollen grains stored or honey are stored.
- Honey bee feed on flower nectar and pollen which they often collect from flowers and chemically processed
and stored as a rich carbohydrate (syrup).
- The workers collect the pollen called bee bread to provide protein for the growth of the larva.
- The workers also collect resin which are secretion from plants bud and used as cement to cement the
hive against wind and water.
- The workers have sting to protect the colony from enemies or robbery of their honey. The body of the insect
is densely covered with hair.

67
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- This hair has short lateral barbs which enables pollen grains to easily lodge on their body as they move
around to collect nectar.
- The workers of the honey bee is distinguished as a typical insects whose body is divided into head, thorax
and abdomen.
- The head region bears a pair of compound eyes and three simple eyes called ocelli. Anterior to the
compound eye is a pair of antennae for smelling.
- The mouth part is modified for sucking of nectar as well as constructing cells between the colony.
- The mouth part includes
 proboscis foe sucking of liquid food such as nectar
Mandible to gather pollen and mould them into wax which is used in making the comb

- The thorax consists of three segments that are fused to the first abdominal segment.
- The thorax bears two pairs of well-developed wings for flight and three pairs of moveable legs that end in
two pairs of claws.
- In between the claws are a pair of sticky pads enabling the insects to adhere to any surface.
- The claws enable the insects to stick permanently on any slippery surface.
- The three pairs of legs show special adaptations to facilitate the collection of pollen grains and nectar from
flowers as below.
The fore legs
- The tibia is covered by an eye brush made up of stiff hair for cleaning pollen grains from the head region
especially from the compound eyes.
- The distal end of the tibia bears moveable spines through which the pollen and other pollen material will be
clean from the antennae.
- The long hair of the large tarsus forms a cylindrical pollen brush to gather all the pollen from the ventral part
of the insects.
Middle legs
- The middle legs is slightly similar to the fore leg except for the fact that the distal end of the tibia bears a
prong or spur.
- The prong or spur are used in picking wax and digging the pollen out of the pollen basket into the comb
cell where will be stored.
- The first segment of the tarsus also bears pollen brushes to remove pollen from the fore leg and nearby
body parts into the pollen baskets.

68
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Hind leg

Abdomen
- It consists of five segments that end into an ovipositor modified into a sting.
- The worker often dies after a sting as the abdomen organs are pull out as its tries to free itself from the
enemies.
- The queen has a larger abdomen, poorly developed mouthpart, shorter wings, lack pollen baskets and brushes.
- The queen can sting several times and would not die like the workers because the abdomen is stabilized.
- The drone is similar to the queen but with a stout body i.e. short and fat.
Life cycle
- During nuptial flight, the queen mate with the drone high in the air.
- The drone dies after copulating as its reproductive organs are drawn away and remains in the queen
reproductive organ.
- Returning to the new hive with a life time storage of spermatozoa the queen lays several thousands of
eggs within seasonal changes.
- In the hive the queen glues herself to the bottom of the hive where it continues to lay her eggs, the workers
transfer the eggs from the bottom into the comb cells where they remain and develop into a larva being
constantly fed by the workers.
- The honey bee larva moult several times and finally spine into a cocoon in which it remains and develop into
a pupa.
- Finally, the pupa cut open the cap cell of the cocoon with their mandible to emerge as the young honey bee.
Butterfly. Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Insecta
SN: Pieris brassicae CN: Cabbage white butterfly
Habitat: where citrus plants are abundant Trophic level: Primary consumers

69
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Lateral view of butterfly Dorsal view of butterfly

Point of biological interest
The cabbage white butterfly is a large rapidly flying but very unsteady insects. They are often seen in gardens settling on
flowers from which they such their nectar. They are seen in greater number on a sunny day. They usually occur where
there are citrus trees because they laid their eggs on the lower surface of the leaves of the citrus trees. As a typical
insect, the organism is divided into head thorax and abdomen. The head bears a pair of large compound eyes and three
small simple eyes hidden in hair on the top of their head. There is a pair of long jointed antennae which ends in small
knobs for touch and smell. It feeds on nectar secreted by flowers consequently the mouth part is modified for sucking
and consist of a long coiled proboscis.

When in used, the proboscis rapidly uncoils in order to reach the nectar at the base of the flower. The thorax consists of
three indistinct segments which bears a pair of jointed legs each. The legs end in small pads and two claws. There are
two pairs of wings on the second and third thoracic segments characterized by numerous ridges or veins. The wings are
usually covered by a small scale which can easily be brushed off as dust covering the whole body. The abdomen is fairly
long and covered by a dense layer of hair
Life cycle
- The butterfly shows complete metamorphosis (holometabolous).

70
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The female lays fertilized eggs either singly or in group on the lower surface of the leaves of citrus plant so
that they should not be washed away by rain or wind and that they should not be dried up by sun.
- The newly hatch larva is called caterpillar.

- Caterpillar is the growing stage of the butterfly specialized in feeding.

- The mouth part is adapted for chewing of vegetation.
- It also possesses spinnerets from which silk threads are produced to spine cocoon for the pupa.
- A typical larva (caterpillar) is cylindrically shaped consisting of a distinct head that carries two large compound
eyes followed by the thoracic segments.
- The thoracic segments carry the true legs which are jointed and end in claws.
- Towards the abdominal region there are four segments that bears projections called the prolegs or cushion feet.
- The last segments end up in a clasper which assist in passing out.
- There is a pair of spiracle per body segment for gaseous exchange.
- The caterpillar vary in color from black through green with patches for camouflaging.
- The pupa occurs when the caterpillar is of full size spine a cocoon around itself and develop all the
necessary parts of the adult.
- Inside the cocoon there is considerable breakdown and 0rganisation of structure.
- After 10days the life cycle comes to an end when the cuticle of the pupa breaks open and a matured butterfly
emerges.
- The first wings are crumpled but later expand and become harder
Moth
It is similar to butterfly in both structure and life cycle but differ in the following ways:
Butterfly Moth
Usually fly during the day Usually fly at night
Antenna have a knob at its tip Antenna have a pointed tip
When at rest the wings lies vertically folded When at rest the wings lies horizontally or
spread-out
The fore and hind wings are not connected The fore and hind wings are connected.

Housefly. Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Insecta
SN: Musca domestica CN: Housefly
Habitat: in the toilet Trophic level: secondary consumers

71
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Point of biological interest

- The housefly is a domestic insect with body divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
- They are often grey in color with black strips.
- The body is covered with short hair.
- On the head region, there are 3 simple eyes arranged in a triangular shape and two large compound eyes
that almost covers the entire head region.
- There is also two short antenna composed of 3 segments with the last segment carrying the hairy spines.
- The 3 thoracic segments are quite distinct due to the fact that they are densely covered with hair.
- Each of the thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed legs which are hairy and end up in claws in between
which are two tiny pads.
- The pads secrete a sticky substance which enables the insects to land on any surface.
- The fly has only one pair of wings which is transparent carrying a network of veins. When at rest, the wings are
lay flat along the abdomen.
- The hind pair of wings are reduced to a balancing structure called the halters.
- The abdomen is quite short having only 4 segments.
- The fly sucks up liquid food with its proboscis as shown below.

- When not in used, the proboscis is drawn back beneath the head and cannot be seen.
- The female lay about 5 to 6 batches of eggs each batch containing 100-250 eggs. After a day, the eggs hatch into
a larva called maggot.

72
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The maggot as illustrated above carries two pair of spiracles for gaseous exchange.
- When it grows to full size, it becomes a pupa enclosed by a hard cocoon and this pupa is called the culex.
- The culex finally break open releasing an adult housefly.
NB: some common insects to be studied include; cockroach, termite, fruit fly, dragon fly, grains weevils, anopheles,
culex mosquito, etc.
Insects’ cuticle
- The insect cuticle is made up of a tough material called chitin which consist of two layers.
- A harder and rigid outer layer and a soft and flexible inner layer.
- The outer layer functions in protection, movement, muscle attachment and as exoskeleton
Disadvantages of insect’s cuticle
- It prevents growth of the insects. This is why its growth mostly occur by moulting
Adaptations of insect for respiration
- They have a trachea system which opens to the exterior through the spiracle having valves that
regulates breathing.
- Each segment has a pair of spiracle which facilitates gaseous exchange.
- The short distance between the spiracle and the cell allow for very efficient respiratory system hence the insect
have a high metabolic rate.
Adaptation of insects for locomotion
- They have membranous wings for flight.
- The hind legs are large and more muscular for hopping and skipping.
- They have 3 pairs of jointed legs for walking.
Significance of the larval stage in insects
- The larva has a different habitat from the adult so there is no competition for food.
- This enables the insects to exploit a different food source from that of the larva.
Reasons why insects are considered the most successful organisms on land
- Their small size of their body enables them to occupy the least available space.
- Their jointed appendages are modified for varied forms of locomotion.
- Their ability to fly enables them to move over distant areas in search of food and new habitat.
- An efficient trachea system used for gaseous exchange.
- They go through varied stages of development in the life cycle (eggs, larva, pupa, nymphs and adult) where
each stage is specialized in the different feeding habits and functions. This is to avoid competition for food and
habitat.
- They have varied colours and shapes for camouflaging and mimicry.
- They have well developed sensory receptors such as compound eyes and antennae for wide vision, smell
and touch.
- They are adapted to dry habitat by developing excretory organs called the Malpighian tubules that
eliminates solid waste such as uric acid. This is a means of conserving water.

73
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They have a rapid reproductive system producing large number of eggs to ensure survival.
- The mouth part is variedly adapted to the different feeding habits. This is to avoid competition.
- Segmented body enable them to adjust the shape of their bodies to fit into any habitat.
- Chitinous exoskeleton to prevent desiccation
Class Malacostraca
Features
- They are mainly aquatic Arthropods.
- They possess gills for gaseous exchange.
- The head and thorax are fused to form the cephalothorax.
- The cephalothorax is often protected by a massive calcerous plate called the carapace.
- The cephalothorax bears two pairs of antennae.
- They possess a pair of stalk compound eyes.
- They have biramous appendages that serve several functions.
- They possess 3 pairs of mouth part adapted for chewing i.e. mandible, maxillae and maxillipetes.
- The abdominal segments possess a pair of appendages each called swimmerets.
- The abdomen is fairly reduced compared to the cephalothorax and always terminate in a telson surrounding the
uropods.
- Sex is separate with a larva stage called namphius larva. Excretion is by means of the green glands.
- Over 30000 malacostracean exist and are conveniently classified into 3
order Order Decapoda e.g. crayfish, lobster, shrimp, prawns and crab
Order Cladocera e.g. water fleas
Order Isopoda e.g. wood louse

Lateral view of a Cray fish

74
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

A Dorsal view B Ventral view

Classification
Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Malacostraca
SN: Astacus pallipes CN: Cray fish
Habitat: marine or fresh water Trophic level: Primary consumers or secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- The cray fish is an aquatic organism whose body is covered by a hardened chitinous exoskeleton except at the
joint which permits flexibility.
- The body is divided into an anterior rigid cephalothorax and a posterior abdomen made up of six segments.
- The cephalothorax consists of five fused segments forming the head and eight fused segments forming
the thorax.
- The cephalothorax is covered by a calcerous plate called the carapace. Each body segment bears a
specialized appendage. On the head region are a pair of stalked compound eye for wide vision.
- There are two pairs of thoracic appendages.
- The first pair is modified into pincers or chelicerae.
- This is used for grapping of food, defense and offense.
- Next to the pincers are four pairs of walking legs used for locomotion, handling of food and cleaning of the body.
- Each of the six abdominal segments bears a pair of appendages on their ventral surface. This end in flatten
plates used for swimming and protection of the eyes
The cray fish live mainly on vegetation (dead and living organic matter) it is also carnivorous using its pincer to capture
prey.

75
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Antennule
Antenna
pincer
Compound eye

Diagram of a Crab
Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Malacostraca
SN: Carcinus maenas CN: Crab
Habitat: marine or fresh water Trophic level: Primary consumers or secondary
consumers Point of biological interest
- The cephalothorax of the crab is covered by an extremely hard carapace.
- The pair of walking legs is modified into the pincer which is highly enlarged and the other pairs modified
into swimming paddles though not found in all species of crab.
- The abdomen is highly reduced and folded beneath the carapace but resemble that of the crayfish in every
respect.
- It inhabits marine and fresh water.

76
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Daphnia or water flea

Diagram of a Daphnia or water flea

Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Malacostraca
SN: Daphnia pulex CN: Daphnia or water flea
Habitat: fresh water Trophic level: Primary
consumers Point of biological interest
- Daphnia is a tiny malacostraca often found in fresh water such as ponds and ditches.
- The body is laterally compressed and covered entirely by bivalve carapace except at the head region.
- On the tiny head is a large median compound eye.
- On either sides of the head region is a highly branched biramous antenna that enable the organism to produce a
jerking movement.
- The thorax is quite large with five pairs of reduced biramous appendages for gaseous exchange and collection
of food. The organism carries out filter feeding i.e. water current is drawn into the carapace by movement of
the thoracic appendages.
- This water contains food particles which are trapped in fine bristle found on the appendages. The food
particle the move forward to the mouth and ingested by the mandible (chewing mouth part). The abdomen is
highly reduced.
- The circulatory system is open with a dorsally located heart that supplies blood to the haemocoel
(intercellular fluid filled space).
- There is a blood pigment called haemocyanin that transport respiratory gases.
- Reproduction is by parthenogenesis whereby offsprings arise from unfertilized eggs when condition is
unfavourable.
- During unfavourable condition such as low temperature or scarcity of food, some eggs develops into males.
These males fertilize the female and the fertilized eggs are protected in a broad pouch where they develop until
they hatch into females.
- The water flea is the main prey of hydra, obelia and other fishes which feed heavily on them throughout
the year.

77
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- Consequently, parthenogenesis is the best method of reproduction this organism so as to compensate for the
heavy lost through predation.

Diagram of a woodlouse
Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Malacostraca
SN: Oniscus ascellus CN: Wood louse
Habitat: in the kitchen where food are packed. Trophic level: detritivores Point
of biological interest
- Wood louse is the only terrestrial malacostraca commonly found in a shady habitat especially where there
is high rate of decomposition.
- The body is dorsoventrally flattened but lack a carapace.
- The body is divided into a distinct head, thorax and abdomen.
- The head region bears a pair of jointed antennae and a pair of sessile stalk compound eye.
- The thorax is composed of eight segments of which seven bears a pair of appendages of the same size.
- The appendages are adapted for walking.
- The abdomen is composed of seven segments many of which bears a pair of respiratory appendages on
the ventral side.
- These appendages appear as flattened plates in which are found tubules that resembles the trachea system of
insects. The abdominal segments end in a telson which is however highly reduced.
Mode of life
- Development is direct in which the female lay eggs that hatches into immature individuals which enlarges
by ecdysis to become the adult wood louse.
Class Chilopoda
Features
They are terrestrial arthropods with a flat segmented body made up of numerous segments. They possess one pair of
jointed legs per body segment. They are carnivorous. They are fast moving organisms that move by wriggling. They
possess poisonous claws for defense and prey capturing. Excretion is by means of the Malpighian tubules which opens
into the hind gut. Gaseous exchange is by means of a highly branching trachea system. Sex is separate with the genital
pores on the last segments. Development is direct.

78
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a Centipede
Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda Class: Chilopoda
SN: Lithobius forticatus CN: Centipede
Habitat: forest floor Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- This is a terrestrial organism commonly found in dark and damp habitat such as the forest floor.
- They are long segmented animals that are dorsoventrally flattened and reddish brown in color.
- They are carnivorous whose first body segment carry a poisonous claws called the peldipalp which is used
to capture and poison prey.
- In addition to the pedipalp, there is a pair of poisonous jaw in the mouth to crush its prey.
- The head region bears a pair of antennae and compound eyes.
- They are fast moving animals that feeds on insects and worms.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of a highly branched trachea system that opens to the exterior through
the spiracle.
- They always go out hunting and ready to paralyse their prey with their poisonous claws and crush them
with their poisonous jaw.
Class Diplopoda
Features
- They are terrestrial organisms living in dark moist habitat.
- They have a cylindrical shape or flattened body.
- The head bears a pair of antennae and a pair of compound eyes.
- Except for the thoracic segment which are having a pair of jointed appendages per body segments,
the abdominal segments have two pairs of jointed appendages per body segments.
- They are herbivores.
- They are sluggish gliding animals.
- They usually coil up for protection when threatened by enemies. Gaseous exchange is by means of a highly
branched trachea system. Sex is separate and development is direct.

79
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a Millipede
Classification
Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Diplopoda
SN: Julus terrestris CN: Millipede
Habitat: under decomposing wood. Trophic level: Primary consumers.
Point of biological interest
- They are terrestrial animals that live on decaying plants matter.
- They are important detrivores of the forest liter (falling leaves).
- The female lay numerous eggs which are deposited in cavities dug up in the soil by her.
- The eggs hatch into immature individuals which gradually develop into an adult millipede.
Class Arachnida
Features
- They are terrestrial.
- Some members are Ectoparasite.
- The body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen.
- The cephalothorax is linked to the abdomen by a narrow waist called the peduncle.
- They are liquid feeders making use of their poisonous duct found in the chelicerae i.e. they lack true mouth.
- They lack antennae.
- They have several simples but with no compound eyes.
- They have four pairs of walking legs.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of internal gills called the lung book.
- Some make used of the trachea system.
- Sex is separate. Members includes spider ticks, mites, and scorpion.

80
CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a Garden spider (ventral view).

Diagram of a Garden spider (dorsal view)

81
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda. Class: Arachnida
SN: Araneus diadematus. CN: Garden spider
Habitat: under the table. Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- It is commonly found in most terrestrial habitat especially at homes.
- The body is made up of an unsegmented prosoma and opisthosoma.
- These two regions are linked by a narrow waist called peduncle.
- They have four pairs of walking legs, a pair of pedipalp or poisonous jaw and a pair of chelicerae or
poisonous fang containing duct which is used to capture prey and crush their food.
- They are carnivorous.
- They feed on insects that are trapped in web composed of silk threads secreted by the organisms.
- They paralysed their insects by means of the pedipalp and liquidify them by secreting through their
chelicerae after which the fluid is suck up by means of a sucking stomach.
Diagram of a Giant spider

Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda. Class: Arachnida
SN: Tarantula narbonensis. CN: Giant spider
Habitat: under the forest floor. Trophic level: Secondary consumers

Point of biological interest

- These are large spiders that originated from a town called Taranto in South Italy.
- They have similar features to garden spider but commonly found hidden in moist habitats.
- They kill mainly insects for their food by injecting poison into them once they are captured with the used of
the pedipalps.

82
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a Scorpion
Classification
Phylum : Arthropoda. Class: Arachnida
SN: Scorpio viatoris. CN: Scorpion
Habitat: in desert region. Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest.
- Scorpions are organisms whose body is elongated with a broad prosoma or cephalothorax linked to a narrow or
abdomen.
- The chelicerae are small while the pedipalp are extremely enlarged developing the pincers.
- The pincers are used to grip the prey before it is poisoned.
- They have four pairs of walking legs just like the spider.
- The opisthosoma is a segmented region that ends up in a poisonous sting.
- The sting secretes poisonous substances into the prey once it is captured.
- They feed mainly on small arthropods such as insects.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of the lung books which are filled cavities that opens into the ventral region
by means of the spiracle.
- Each lung book consists of thin sheets called lamellae which provides a very large surface area for exchange.

83
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Difference between insects and malacostraca

Insects Malacostraca
Mainly terrestrial organisms mainly aquatic organisms
Well defined head, thorax and abdomen Head and thorax are not distinctly separated
Have two pairs of wings Wings are absent
At least three pairs of mouth parts Usually three pair of mouth parts
Pairs of compound eyes and simple eyes One pair of compound eyes raise on a stalk
Have three of legs on the thorax pairs of legs on the cephalothorax
Life cycle involves metamorphosis which may beLife cycle passes through the larval stage
complete or incomplete
Differences between insects and Arachnida
Insects Arachnida
Well define head, thorax and abdomen Cephalothorax is separated from the abdomen by
a narrow peduncle
Has one pair of antennae No antenna is present
Has at least three pairs of mouth parts Has no true mouth parts but one pair of
appendages used to capture prey
Has a pair of compound eyes and simple eyes Has simple eyes only
Three pairs of legs are present on the thorax Has four pairs of legs present on the
cephalothorax
Has usually one or two pair of wings Wings are absent
Life cycle involves metamorphosis which may be No larval stage do exist in their life cycle
complete or incomplete
Gaseous exchange is by means of the trachea Gaseous exchange is by means of the lungs book
system or gills

Similarities between the Nymphs and the adults of insects

They have the same habitat.
They feed on the same type of food
Differences between complete and incomplete metamorphosis
Complete metamorphosis Incomplete metamorphosis
Four stages are involved i.e. egg, larva, pupa andThree stages are involved i.e. egg, nymph and
adult adult
The stages are not similar The stages are similar except in terms of size
It involves changes in form and complexity It involves changes in sizes at maturity
Larva is the feeding and growing stage Nymph is the feeding and growing stage
Larva and adult live in different habitat Nymphs and adult live in the same habitat
Larva and adult have different diets and methodsNymph and adult have the same diet and method
of feeding of feeding

Adaptation of the spider to its environment

- They have powerful claws for attacking prey.
- They have spinnerets for spinning of the web and for catching of prey as well as locomotion.
- They have pointed claws for catching their prey
Uses of the silk produce by the spider
- Silk is used in making web to trapped prey.
- It is used to make a drop line on which the spider can make a defensive drive .

84
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- It is used to lay eggs.

- It is used in making clothes.
- It is used to trapped an edible prey
Uses of pedipalp in Arachnida
- Poison from poisonous glands lead through the chelicerae which is sharp and pointed are used for biting
and paralyzing the prey.
- It is used to handle and care for their food.
- The male spider uses the pedipalp to transfer semen to the female
Differences between spider and scorpion
Spider Scorpion
Has a short body Has very long body
Have a narrow waist Do not have a waist
Have hairs on the body Have a hard body which do not bears hairs
Chelicerae serves as poison gland Have large poisonous glands
Bears three pairs of spinnerets Do not bear spinnerets
Use their web to catch prey Use the sting gland and pedipalp in catching and
killing prey
Differences between millipedes and centipedes
Millipede Centipede
Body is segmented and cylindrical Body is segmented and flattened
Head bears two pairs of mouth parts Head bears three pairs of mouth parts
Have up to about 200 pairs of short legs Have 15-20 pairs of long slender legs
Have a hard cuticle strengthened with calcium Have an elastic cuticle
salt
They are vegetarian, scavengers feeding on They are carnivores predating on insects and
decaying plant material worm
They are sluggish gliding animal They are fast moving animal
Coil up for protection Have poisonous claws for protection

Phylum Mollusca
Features
- They are animals with unsegmented body.
- The body is divided into 3 regions i.e. head, a ventrally located foot and a dorsal visceral mass.
- There is an anterior mouth with a scrapping organ called radula.
- They have a highly reduced coelom which is only found enclosing the heart, gonad, and nephridia
(excretory organs).
- There is a heart located in the visceral mass with an open circulatory system.
- The skin is quite soft covered by a mantle that secretes calcareous shells.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of a ciliated gills located in the visceral mass. Sex is separate but a few
members are hermaphrodite e.g. garden snail.
- Some members have trochophore larval stage (small transluscent free swimming larva) in their life cycle.
- Molluscs are quite abundant next to the arthropods and are found in almost all habitat e.g. terrestrial,
fresh water and marine water.
Class Gastropoda
Features
- They inhabit both terrestrial, fresh water and marine water.
- They are asymmetrical due to a natural phenomenon called torsion in which the visceral mass makes an
about turn bringing the anus into the anterior position just like the head.
- There is a permanent head having two tentacles in which are the eyes.

85
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- There is a shell protecting the visceral mass which is usually coiled and single.
- There is a radula for grapping of vegetation.
- There is a large muscular foot for creeping on the soil.
- They are slow moving organisms which are hermaphrodites.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of a lung book in aquatic forms or lungs in terrestrial forms.

Diagram of a Garden snail

Classification
Phylum : Mollusca Class: Gastropoda
SN: Helix aspersa CN: Garden snail
Habitat: under fresh vegetation. Trophic level: Primary consumers Point
of biological interest
- These are animals with asymmetrical body having a single coiled shell protecting the visceral mass.
- The head region is well developed having a pair of long tentacle on which are found the eyes that
are retractable.
- There is a grapping structure at the anterior end called the radula with which the organism use to chew
the vegetation.
- There is a large muscular foot covered by a short tissue called the mantle. It is this mantle that secretes
the shell.
- They are hermaphrodites that carries out cross fertilization i.e. two of the snails come together each inserting
its penis into the vagina of the other and releasing sperms which remains in each snail when they are separated
to fertilized the eggs.
- The eggs are usually laid and it hatches into the trochophore larva in aquatic forms or immature snails
in terrestrial forms.
- They are nocturnal coming out to feed at night but hiding in damp, dark places during the day.
- They move by glidding very slowly using their muscular foot secreting a slimy substance (mucus) from the
mouth to ease its movement on the surface.
- At the start of the dry season, all garden snails withdraw into its shell and sealed the opening of the shell
with mucus secreting substance which hardens as it dries to protect the organisms from desiccation.
- The snails then lie dormant until the start of the rainy season.
- This process is called aestivation.

86
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Class Pelecypoda/Bivalvia
Features
- They are all aquatic animals found either in fresh water or marine water.
- Their body is laterally compressed and bilaterally symmetrical.
- There is no torsion or visceral mass.
- The head is reduced and lack tentacles and eyes.
- The anterior end of the organism carries two siphon for filter feeding.
- The muscular foot is highly reduced into a pointed structure for burrowing into the soil.
- The shell is composed of two types that are held by a hinge jointed. Gills are present for gaseous exchange.
- Sex is separate. They are usually sedenterates (they have a limited power of locomotion)

DIAGRAM OF A CLAM
Classification
Phylum: Mollusca. Class: Pelecypoda
SN: Mytilus edulis. CN: Mussel
Trophic level: detrital feeders. Habitat Marine water
Point of biological interest
- They are marine molluscs that feeds on particles found in water which is drawn through the siphon.
- Within the body there is an extensive ciliated gills system where the food is strain and directed to the mouth
for swallowing.
- During unfavourable condition i.e. during low tides the shell closed up completely and the organism
respire anaerobically.
- Sex is separate and gametes are released into the water where fertilization occur and development is direct.
Class Cephalopoda
Features
- These are the most advanced forms of Molluscs which includes Squids and Octopus.
- They are mpstly found in marine water.
- Their foot is mostly to form a funnel for taking in of water current into the mantle cavity.

87
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The edges of the foot give rise to the tentacle for capturing of prey.
- The visceral mass is found at the posterior end.
- It has a well-developed coelom.
- It has a well-developed and conspicuous eye.
- External shell is rare but internal shell are present.
- Development is direct as there is no free swimming larva. Respiration is by means of the gills.
- They have a closed circulatory system.

Diagram of a Squid
Classification
Phylum : Mollusca. Class: Cephalopoda
SN: Loligo pealis CN: Squid
Habitat Marine water Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- It has a shell that is hidden in the mantle though the shell is secreted by the mantle.
- It is dorsoventrally flattened.
- The posterior end is elongated and tapered.
- The anterior end has the mouth that is surrounded by tentacles.
- All tentacles have suckers used for grapping of prey.
- It has a long tentacle that assist the animal to move fast.
- It has a snake shape.
- The shell is calcareous.
- The mantle is thick, muscular which assist the animal in swimming as well as protection.
- Fins are present to permit the animal to move slowly or change its direction.
- It has eight short tentacles of equal sizes surrounded by two long tentacles.
- The long tentacles have suckers at its tips to seize its prey.
- The short tentacles have suckers to grip their prey.

88
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of an Octopus
Classification
Phylum : Mollusca Class: Cephalopoda
SN: Octopus bimaculatus. CN: Octopus
Habitat Marine water. Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- They are slow moving animals.
- They have eight tentacles of equal sizes.
- The tentacles have suckers to cease their prey.
- They have no trace or external or internal shell.
- Body is round, short and not streamline.
Phylum Echinodermata
Features
- All members are penta radially symmetrical i.e. the body is divided into five equal parts around a central axis.
- They lack a head and has no segmentation.
- Their body is covered by a delicate epidermis beneath which there is a hard mesodermal endoskeleton made
up of closely fitted calcareous plates.
- From the skeleton spines projects through the epidermis for protection.
- There is a simple digestive system that is usually complete but some members lack the anus.
- Within the body, there is a coelomic which is partly modified into a water vascular system with tube feet
used for locomotion.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of the gills found beneath the calcareous plates.
- There is no brain but there is circular and radial rings of nerves supplying the body. Sex is separate.
Class Stelleroidea
Features
- The organism possesses a star-shaped body no matter the species.
- They are dorsoventrally flattened hence the oral surface bears a centrally located mouth which opens through
the ambulecral groove that extends o the arms.
- From the grooves, tube feet projects for locomotion.
- The Aboral or upper surface bears an anus towards the central axis closed to which there is a madriporite
(sieve).
- The calcareous plates are not fused hence permits flexibility of the organism when it is moving in water.
- They are free living.
- They lack the jaw apparatus.

89
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They are carnivorous.

Diagram of a Star fish

Classification
Phylum : Echinodermata Class: Stelleroidea
SN: Asteria rubens CN: Star fish
Habitat Marine water Trophic level: Secondary consumers
Point of biological interest
- They are marine organisms with flattened star shaped body.
- Their body consist of a central discs and five tapering arms.
- On the Aboral or upper surface are numerous blunt calcareous spines that arise from the mesodermal
endoskeleton.
- There is a tiny anus at the central disc closed to which there is a madriporite that function as a sieve
through which water enter the coelomic cavity.
- On the oral surface, there is a centrally located mouth surrounded by a soft peristomal membrane (no jaw).
Radiating from the mouth into the arms is a centrally located ambolecral groove bordered by large spines. From
the ambolecral groove many slender tube feet protrude forming two or four rows. Water enter through the
madriporite and passes into the tube feet forcing them to extent out of the groove so that the organism uses
them as feet to attached to substrate or move forward.
- At the tips of the arms are small soft tentacles and light sensitive spot (an eye sensitive spot).
- In the coelomic cavity is amoebocytes that ingest and digest food particles.
- There is a simple digestive system comprising of a mouth, a sac-like stomach, a very short intestine with an anus.
In early summer, sperms and eggs are released into water where fertilization occur and the zygote develop
directly into the star fish.
Class Echinoidea
Features
- These are organisms with globular shape.
- They lack radiating arms.
- The calcareous plates that forms the endoskeleton are fused to form a hard covering over the whole body.
- The spines are usually longer and moveable structures.
- Tube feet penetrates through the pores found in the plates to effect movement of the organism.
- They are free living having prominent jaw apparatus.

90
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They are herbivorous.

Diagram of a Sea urchin

Classification
Phylum : Echinodermata Class: Echinoidea
SN: Echinus esculentus CN: Sea urchin
Habitat Marine water. Trophic level: primary consumers
Point of biological interest
- The organism body is globular lacking the arms as in the star fish.
- They are however five radiating ambolecral corresponding to the arms of star fish.
- The skeleton composed of calcareous plates which is fused making the body to be very hard.
- The skeleton is perforated by moveable spines.
- On the oral side there is a conspicuous mouth surrounded by a jaw apparatus called the Aristotle lanterm.
- The spines are fairly reduced on the oral surface given room for tube feet to projects through the skeleton
from the water vascular system.
- This enables the organisms to move in water.
Phylum Chordata
Features
- They are well-developed animals with post anal tail.
- They have a ventrally located heart with a closed circulatory system.
- They possess pharyngeal cleft which communicates with the environment.
- The pharyngeal cleft are variedly modified in the various classes.
- The body is composed of segmented muscle block that enables movement.
- The embryonic stage always possesses a notochord.
- This is a flexible rod-like mass of cells that are closely packed within a sheath to support the whole body. In
the adult, this becomes the vertebral column in which is located the dorsal nerves cord.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They are coelomate.
- They are triploblastic.
- They have a complete digestive system starting with the mouth and ending with the anus.
- The digestive system is linked to some associated organs and glands such as the liver, the pancreas, etc.

91
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The endoskeleton is composed of either cartilage or bone.

Class Chondrichthyes
Features
- They are marine organisms.
- They possess an endoskeleton made up of cartilage.
- The epidermis is covered with placiod scales (or denticles or tooth-like projection) which originates from the
dermis.
- Locomotion is by means of paired pectoral and pelvic fins.
- The tail fin is heterocercal (having unequal upper and lower lobes and the vertebral column extending into
the upper lobe).
- They lack air bladder.
- The mouth is ventrally located and bears homodont teeth.
- Their gills open into the environment by means of five pairs of gills slit.
- They do not have operculum.

Diagram of a Dog fish

Classification
Phylum : Chordata. Class: Chondrichthyes
SN: Scyliorhinus caniculus. CN: dog fish
Habitat Marine water. Trophic level: secondary
consumers Point of biological interest
- It is a common fish found in marine water. Body is specially shaped to provide buoyancy hence absence of
air bladder.
- It has a spindle shape to enable it break through water resistance.
- It has a pair of ventral nostrils for smelling.
- The eye possesses eye lid but only the lower eye lid is moveable.
- The eye is best adapted for near vision.
- The mouth is ventrally located with tiny homodont teeth to crush its prey.
- The organism is carnivorous feeding mainly on slow moving molluscs and malacostraca.
- This fish never swims backward nor stop abruptly.
- Sex is separate with the male having clasper to firmly hold the female during mating.
- Fertilization is internal with a few but large yolky eggs produced.
- The eggs are protected by a Cornified egg case.
- Development is direct.

92
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Class Osteichthyes
Features
- They are chordates with bony endoskeleton.
- Their epidermis is covered with thin overlapping cycloid scales (round or ovale in shape) which are of epidermal
origin.
- The gills open into the environment by means of a single gill cover called operculum.
- The tail is homocercal.
- They possess a swimming bladder for buoyancy.
- Their mouth is terminally located.
- They have varied fins supported by bony rays that performs a variety of functions in locomotion and balancing.
- Numerous jaw bones are present to facilitate feeding.
- They have separate opening for the anus and urinogenital system.
- Fertilization is external and development is direct.

Diagram of a Bony fish

Classification
Phylum: Chordata. Class: Osteichthyes
SN: Tilapia zilli. CN: Bonyfish
Habitat Marine water or fresh water. Trophic level: Primary consumers

Point of biological interest

- They are common chordates found in both freshwater and marine water.
- They possess large eye covered by a skin but with no eye lid.
- The mouth is terminally located and is horny enabling the fish to feed on plankton.
- The upper surface of the fish is usually darker than the lower surface to protect the fish from its enemies (for
camouflaging).
- The fish has two chambered heart with single circulation.
- There is an operculum covering four pairs of gills for gaseous exchange.
- The fins are adapted to the following;
 The dorsal and the anal fins (single fins) function in the rolling and yawning movement hence keep the fish in
a stable condition.
 The pectoral and pelvic fins (paired fins) serves as hydroplane and regulates the depth of swimming. This
enable the fish to slow down or even stop and change its direction. These fins also serve as steering and
balancing

93
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

structure. The tail fin beat in the water on either sides in an alternate manner enabling the fish to move forward.
Lateral line detect pressure changes in water as well as indicating the presence of an enemy.
Adaptation of fishes to life in water
- A stream line body enable the fish to break through water resistance.
- The body is generally smooth and slimy with scales that point backward to ease movement through water.
- The overlapping scales protects the fish from mechanical injury or from any attack of predators.
- The lateral line detects pressure changes and vibration in water.
- Air or swimming bladder in the fish for buoyancy thus preventing the fish from drowning.
- Dorsal surface is usually darker than the ventral surface and this serves as a means of protection against
predators.
- Filamentous gills present to provide the large surface area for gaseous exchange.
- There is a large eye with powerful refractory lens that best function in water and also provides a wide field
of view especially in the bony fish.
- Presence of fins are adapted for swimming in water.
Function of the skin of the bony fish
- It contains protective scales to protect the fish from mechanical injury.
- Growth line on the fish help to determine the age of the fish.
- The skin is permeable and function in gaseous exchange.
- Mucus present on the skin of the fish help to prevent fungi and bacteria infections as well as reduces friction
when the fish is swimming.
Similarities between dog fish and bony fish
- Both have scale
- Both have fins.
- Both have lateral line.
- Both uses gills for gaseous exchange.
- Both have stream line body
- Both have a darker dorsal surface.
- Both have a shiny ventral surface.

Differences between dog fish and bony fish

Dog fish Bony fish
Mouth is ventrally located Mouth is terminally located
Have heterocercal tail Have homocercal tail
Gills slits opens separately Gill open together at the operculum
Operculum is absent Operculum is present
Body is covered by placiod scale Body is covered by cycloid scale
Has cartilaginous skeleton Have bony skeleton
Keen sense of smell Less keen sense of smell
Lack swimming bladder Have swimming bladder

Class Amphibia
Features
- These are animals with dual habitats i.e. land and water.
- The organism is externally covered by a thin loose skin that may be smooth and glandular as in the frogs or
dry and warty as in the toads.
- The organisms are supported from within by a bony skeleton.
- They possess two pairs of pent dactyl limbs.
- Gaseous exchange is by means of the gills in aquatic larval stage called tad pole.

94
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- In adult gaseous exchange is by means of the lungs and moist skin.

- They have a ventrally located heart which have three chambers i.e. having two auricles and one ventricle.
- There is an externally located ear drum for hearing as the pinna is absent. They have homodont teeth
for crushing their prey. They have a long sticky and protractible tongue to trap their prey.

Diagram of a toad Classification

Phylum : Chordata. Class: Amphibia
SN: Bufo regularis. CN: Toad
Habitat Marine water or fresh water. Trophic level: Primary consumers or secondary
consumers Points of biological interest
- The organism has a stout body that lack a tail at adult stage.
- The neck is absent between the head and the trunk.
- The organism body is protected by a loose fitting skin which in the toad is usually dry and warty but in the frog it
is usually smooth and carry mucus glands hence is always moist.
- The head bears a wide terminal mouth with a long sticky and protractible tongue to capture its prey.
- There is a pair of nostrils for breathing and smelling as well as a pair of bulge eyes with eye lids protected by
a nictitating membrane.
- The bulged nature of the eye assists in swallowing. Behind the eyes are a pair of spherical ear drum which
assist in hearing although very faint sound is heard due to the lack of pinna.
- There are two pairs of limbs i.e. the fore limbs which is shorter and ending in four digits which assist the
animal in running, walking or climbing.
- The hind limbs are more muscular and longer ending in five digits with small webs in between them.
- This hind limb assists the animal in jumping or hopping while on land and the web enable the animal to
swim when they return back to water.
- The frog has more web than the toad because they spend most of their life in water swimming.
- At the posterior end of the body is an opening called the cloaca which serves as a common opening for
urine, feces and gametes to pass to the exterior.
- The animals are commonly seen but are most abundant during the breeding season.
- During this period, the female become enlarge due to the presence of numerous eggs in their abdomen.
- These eggs are laid in strings held by a jelly-like substance which holds them in position while in water.
- This is to avoid the eggs from being carried by water current.
- Fertilization is external and the fertilized eggs developed into a larva called tad pole

95
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a tad pole

- The tadpole undergoes several stages of development in which the tail is loss, the external gills replaced by
the lungs, the fore and hind limbs developed thus producing an adult frog or toad.
Structural Similarities between Tadpole and Toad.
- Both have eyes
- Both have mouth.
- Both possess a head.
- Both have a three chambered heart.
- Both have a bony endoskeleton.
- Both are exothermic.
Differences between Tadpole and Toad.
Tadpole Toad
Lives Permanently in water Both water and land but spends more time on land
Tail present. Tail absent.
Uses gills exchange Uses lungs for respiration.
Mainly herbivorous Carnivorous.
Presence of fins for swimming. Fins absent.
Smooth body Warty body and rough body.
Olfactory pits perception of smell. Nostril for breathing perception of smell.
Shorter legs if present. Longer and muscular legs present.
Spiracle present. Spiracle absent

Adaptation of Amphibians to their life on land

- They have a dark warty skin for camouflaging.
- They have a large terminal mouth with protractible tongue to capture their prey.
- They possess two pair of limbs i.e. the hind limbs for jumping or hopping on land while the fore limbs serves
as shock absorbers when landing.
- They possess poisonous gland to repel their enemies.
- The present of mucus secreting glands in the frog to prevent the skin from desiccation and allowing free
diffusion of gases from the atmosphere.
Adaptation of Amphibians to their life in water
- The possess web toes for swimming.

96
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They possess stream line body to break through the water resistance.
- Nictitating membrane is present to protect the eye from dirt while swimming in water.
- They have a large bulging eye that assist in swallowing and provides a wider field of view when the animal is
swimming. Eggs are laid in jelly-like substance in water to avoid them from drying up or being carried by
water current.
- The eyes and nostrils are located on top of the head enabling them to breathe in air and also to see
clearly above the water.
- They have a dark dorsal surface for camouflaging.
Class Reptilia
Features
- These are chordates that are mainly terrestrial with a dry skin covered by a horny scale.
- The have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs except for the snakes.
- They lack the pinna like the Amphibians but possess an externally located ear drum.
- They possess the lungs for gaseous exchange.
- They have homodont teeth. Fertilization is internal with large shell eggs laid.

Diagram of a lizard Classification

Phylum : Chordata Class: Reptilia
SN: Agama agama CN: Rain bow lizard
Habitat on wall of the house. Trophic level: secondary consumers
Points of biological interest
- The organism has an identifiable head, neck, trunk and tail.
- The head has a large mouth above which there is a pair of nostril.
- There are two bulging eyes naturally located on top of the head for wide vision.
- There is eye lid and nictitating membrane for protection of the eye.
- Below the mouth is a fold of the skin called the gular fold which is usually lowered during courtship or when the
organism is threatened by enemies.
- Above the head there is a nuchal crest which is usually raised in defense when fighting with each other.
- There are two pairs of limbs with the hind limb being more muscular than the fore limb.
- The limbs are adapted for fast running. Behind the hind limb is the cloaca which serves as a passage of urine,
feces and gametes to the exterior.
- The whole body is covered by an overlapping horny scales which protects the animal from desiccation.

97
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- The tail is long but when cut off the remnant shall regenerate a new tail.
- The digit end in claws for offense, defense and fighting.
- The agama lizard has multicoloured head region which play a role in attracting the female during courtship.
- The rain bow lizard lives in a colony mainly found on walls of building, ceiling, or cracks in rocks.
- They feed mainly on life insects trapped with the used of their sticky tongue and crush with their
homodont teeth.
- At sun rise, they are usually seen coming out of their hiding site and bask under the sun to raise
their temperature.
- Later in the evening or in the heart of the heat during the day, they go back to the hiding place to keep
their body cool.
- The female laid eggs which are already fertilized and the eggs are protected by a shell made up of leather.
- The eggs hatch into young lizard which crawls out of the soil where the eggs were normally laid.

Adaptations of the reptiles to their life on land

- They have a dry scaly skin to reduce loss of water by evaporation. Digits end up in claws for climbing
and defense.
- Shell eggs enables them to complete their life cycle on land. Limbs are modified for fast running or climbing.
Changes in color imitating the color of their environment in order to escape from predators.
- They used their lungs for breathing in air from the atmosphere.
- A protractible sticky tongue to capture their prey.
Class Aves
Features
- These are chordates whose body is covered by epidermal feathers.
- They have two pairs of pentadactyl limb but the fore limbs are modified into wings for flight.
- They have a pair of eye with eye lids and nictitating membrane that move across the whole eye protecting
it from dirt in the air.
- They have an external ear drum with no pinna.
- The mouth lack teeth and is modified into a strong beak or bill for building of nest and foe defense.
- They are endotherm which maintain a constant body temperature due to its structural, physiological,
behavioral adaptation.
- Fertilization is internal with large yolky eggs produced covered by calcareous shell.

98
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Diagram of a domestic bird.

Classification
Phylum : Chordata Class: Aves
SN: Placeous cocullatus. CN: weaver bird
Habitat on palm tree. Trophic level: primary
consumers Points of biological interest
- The organism has a boat shaped stream line body.
- The mouth is modified into a toothless beak for scratching, cleaning of the body, collecting of nesting
material, repairing of the feathers, etc.
- The beak is composed of keratinized protein.
- There is a pair of lateral eye with nictitating membrane for wide vision thus preventing it from dust particles.
Behind the eyes is a pair of auditory canal but with no pinna.
- The feet consist of four digits that end in claws depending on the mode of life of the bird and the habitat of
the bird.
- The feet may be modified e.g. web feet in duck for swimming.
- Feathers cover the whole body except at the legs and the beak.
- The feathers arise from a loose dry glandless skin that keep the body warm ensuring a constant
body temperature. In addition, the wings prevent the penetration of water into the body.
- The wings consist of two types of feathers namely the quill and contour feathers while the rest of the body
is covered by contour, down and filoplume.
- The feathers are classified into two categories and four types are illustrated as below.
Quill or fligt feathers
- They are present in two areas, the wings and the tail. They help to lift the body of the bird, balance the bird
in air and serves as steering in air.
Contour feathers
- They cover the body and provides most of the stream lining of the body. Because of the spread out nature of
the barbs, they insulate the body.

99
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Down feathers
- They lie beneath the contour feathers. They are small soft with a very short shaft. The barbs do not interlock
thereby producing a fluffy appearance. They trap much air closed to the body and since air is a poor conductor,
it prevents heat from escaping from the body and by so doing maintaining a constant body temperature.
Filoplume feathers
- They are hair-like feathers and are connected to nerve ending and function for sensitivity and send signals to
the brain on positioning of feathers, insulation and preening.
Bristle feathers.
- They are stiff with few barbs, found around the mouth of insect consuming birds. And also found around the
eyes to function as eyelashes.

-
Diagrams showing the different feathers
Mode of life
- Birds are omnivorous with some that are vegetarian.
- They feed mainly on grains, seeds, fruits, insects, worms and other vegetable and animal products.
- Their claws are often used to scratch the surface in search of food.
- The food is broken down in the muscular gizzard.
- It is well adapted for flight using its feathers.
- They do so by flapping their wings.
- Some like the domestic birds run, walk or run and hop.
- Fertilization is internal and eggs are laid covered by calcareous shell.
- After laying the eggs, they are incubated to provide a suitable temperature for the development of the chicken.
Adaptation of the bird for flight
- They have stream line body to reduce friction. T
- hey have hollow bones which are air filled and linked to air sac to reduce weight of the bird.
- The forelimb is modified into wings for flight. They have well developed muscle to operate the wings.
- The big pectoral muscles are used to depress the wing while the small pectoral muscles are used to raise the
wings.
- They have high metabolic rate for the production of much energy needed for flight the air sac stores air
for respiration, buoyancy and reduce weight.
- They have a large chest bone (sternum or breast bone) for attachment of flight muscle.

100
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

- They have a very large and efficient heart which supplies oxygen to the flight muscles needed for the production
of huge energy needed to satisfy the metabolic demand for flight.
- The tail is used as steering, balancing and also act as brakes for the bird. The eye is at the side of the head for
a wide field of view.
- The feathers are dry water proof and light with the wings providing a large surface area for flight.
- The legs are long to raise the body preventing the wings from hitting the ground during takeoff.
- The bones are fused forming a rigid joint for support.
Adaptation of the bird to their mode of feeding
- They have a beak for picking of food particles.
- The hard horny beak is also used for cracking of nuts and by so doing assist in mechanical digestion.
- They have a large muscular extensible sac called the crop for temporal storage of food.
- They have sharp toes and claws for digging and searching for prey or food particles.
- Some have pointed talons which assist in ceasing they prey.
- They have wings for flight in search of food. They have large eyes to locate at the side of their head to
easily locate their food.
- They have a digestive system with tough muscular gizzard that contains stones, sand, broken bottle that help to
crushed solid food particles.
Measures used in conserving water loss by the bird
- They lack urinary bladder.
- They send out solid waste in the form of potassium urate.
- They have Malpighian tubules located at the abdominal cavity that extract fluid from food and send out
solid waste.
Use of poultry
- It serves as source of protein.
- Their feces serves as manure.
- Their feathers are used in making pillows, cultural costumes as well as decoration.
- They serve as income generating activities.
- They serve as source of employment.
Class Mammalia
Features
- The skin is glandular and is covered with fur or hair.
- There is an external pinna present to improve on hearing.
- Female have well-developed mammary gland to produce milk for sucking of their young.
- They have heterodont teeth.
- They have well developed brain.
- A muscular diaphragm is present separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
- Fertilization is internal and development is internal.
- The young ones are born alive at an advanced stage of development.

101
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Wistar rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Diagram of a rat
Classification
Phylum : Chordata. Class: Mammalia
SN: Rattus rattus CN: black rat
Habitat in burrows in the floor of house. Trophic level: primary consumers
Points of biological interest
- The organism is herbivorous whose dentition is adapted to their feeding mode of life.
- Their body is thickly covered with soft fur which is kept supple or pliable by the sebum produce from
the sebaceous gland found in their skin.
- They have a long externally located pinna to direct sound waves into the ear for hearing.
- The nostrils carry whiskers for feeling especially when burrowing into the soil.
- Their fore limbs and hind limbs end up in claws for scratching.

102
 CONCISE A. LEVEL NOTES BY MR BONG- AKA BIG BROTHER

Herbivorous adaptation of mammals

- They have a horny path which replaces the upper incisors and canine.
- There is a pronounce gap in the mouth called the diastema between the incisors and the pre-molars in both
the upper and lower jaws. This provides a space near the front of the mouth in which newly nibbled food can
be separated from that under mastication at the back of the mouth.
- The molars and the pre-molars are collectively called the cheek teeth and similar to each other with flat
ridges as a results of the enamel of these teeth being unevenly distributed.
- The teeth have an open root which allows a constant supply of nutrient to the teeth throughout the animal
life time. This enables the teeth to grow continuously to replace worn out portions.
- The stomach is divided into different chambers some of which possess large number of microorganisms which
secrete cellulose that help to digest cellulose food which is regurgitated into the mouth for proper chewing.
- The alimentary canal is relatively long because digestion of plant material is difficult.
Carnivorous adaptation of mammals
- The incisor teeth are sharp and are used for nibbling and biting.
- The canines are long and pointed and are used in piercing and killing of prey and tearing of flesh from the body.
The molars and pre-molars have a number of sharp pointed corps.
- The last upper pre-molars and the first lower pre-molars on each side of the mouth are particularly large
a modification called the carnassial teeth.
- The teeth of the upper jaw tend to overlap those of the lower jaw.
- The carnassial teeth therefore slide pass one another rather than meeting head on.
- They have well developed powerful temporal and masseter muscle.
- This enables the carnivore to grip their prey firmly during killing as well as help the animal in crushing bones.
There is a lateral movement like in herbivore. Such movement leads to easier dislocation of the jaw a distinct
disadvantage when trying to grip its prey.
- Vertically movement of the jaw is well restricted allowing a wide gap for capturing and killing of prey.
- The alimentary canal is short reflecting the ease with which the food material can be digested.

103