Network Management

Sunday, November 16, 2025 11:39 AM

Network management: Activities that keep a network running

effectively.
It includes operation, administration, maintenance, and
provisioning.
1. Operation
○ Ensures the network and its services run smoothly.
○ Involves monitoring for problems before users are
affected.
2. Administration
○ Tracks and manages network resources.
○ Includes “housekeeping”: user accounts, permissions,
device lists, configuration records.
3. Maintenance
○ Repairs and upgrades network equipment.
○ Examples: replacing hardware, updating router
firmware, adding new switches.
○ Includes corrective (fixing issues) and preventive
(avoiding future issues) actions.
4. Provisioning
○ Setting up network resources to support a service.
○ Example: configuring the network so a new customer
can receive internet or voice service.

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TCP/IP and Internet Communication
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:27 PM

TCP/IP is the main set of protocols used on the internet and in

most modern networks.
IP (Internet Protocol)
• Moves packets across networks.
• Handles addressing and routing.
• Unreliable by itself (packets may arrive late, lost, or out of
order).
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• Provides reliable communication between two devices.
• Ensures data arrives complete, error-free, and in order.
TCP vs IP (Quick Comparison)
Feature TCP IP
Purpose Reliable Routing and
communication addressing
Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless
Order Yes No
guarantee
Layer Transport Network

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Network Devices
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:27 PM

Essential hardware that allows networks to operate.

Modem
• Converts digital ↔ analogue signals.
• Used when connecting through phone lines or certain ISPs.
Router
• Connects networks and forwards data to the correct
destination.
• Sends packets only where needed.
• May include a firewall.
• Can be a single point of failure if the network depends on it.
Switch
• Connects devices within a LAN.
• Sends data only to the intended device.
• Faster and more secure than hubs.
Hub
• Connects multiple devices but sends data to all of them.
• Less secure and slower.
• Older technology.
NIC (Network Interface Card)
• Allows a computer to access a LAN.
• Handles sending and receiving data packets.
Bridge and Gateway
• Bridge connects two LAN segments.
• Gateway connects different types of networks and may
translate protocols.
Hub vs Switch vs Router
Feature Hub Switch Router
Sends data to All devices Target device only Other networks
Efficiency Low Medium–High High
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Efficiency Low Medium–High High
Security Low Higher High
OSI Layer 1 2 3

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OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:28 PM

The OSI model describes how data travels through a network

using seven layers.
Layer Purpose
Application Services like browsing, email
Presentation Formatting and encryption
Session Managing communication sessions
Transport Reliable delivery (TCP) or fast delivery (UDP)
Network Routing and addressing (IP)
Data Link MAC addresses, frames, basic error detection
Physical Cables, signals, electrical transmission
Easy Summary
• Layers 1–2: Hardware and local delivery
• Layer 3: Routing
• Layer 4: Delivery and reliability
• Layers 5–7: Application-related tasks and communication
setup

Key Networking Terms

Term Meaning
Packet Small unit of data sent across a network
Bandwidth Maximum data transfer rate
Latency Delay between sending and receiving data
Firewall Device or software that filters traffic
LAN Local network in one location
WAN Network spread across large distances
Protocol Rules for communication

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Layer-by-Layer Summary
Sunday, November 16, 2025 11:41 AM

1. Physical Layer
○ Sends raw bits (0s and 1s).
○ Handles electrical/optical signals.
○ Hardware: cables, hubs, repeaters, modems.
2. Data Link Layer
○ Packages bits into frames.
○ Provides error detection for direct links.
○ Ensures node-to-node delivery.
○ Devices: switches, NICs.
3. Network Layer
○ Routes packets between networks.
○ Uses logical addresses (like IP).
○ Device: router.
4. Transport Layer
○ Ensures correct, reliable delivery.
○ Breaks data into segments.
○ Uses protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable).
5. Session Layer
○ Sets up, manages, and ends sessions.
○ Controls conversations between machines.
6. Presentation Layer
○ Translates data formats.
○ Handles compression and encryption.
○ Prepares data for the Application Layer.
7. Application Layer
○ The layer users interact with.
○ Provides services to applications (HTTP, FTP, email,
cloud apps).
○ Examples: websites, Office 365, messaging apps.

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End-to-End Data Flow
Sunday, November 16, 2025 11:43 AM

Sending Device
1. Application creates data.
2. Presentation formats/encrypts it.
3. Session manages the connection.
4. Transport breaks it into segments.
5. Network adds IP addresses → packets.
6. Data Link adds MAC addresses → frames.
7. Physical converts frames into signals → sends to
cable/wireless.
Receiving Device
The process reverses from Layer 1 → Layer 7, ending with the
user receiving the final data.

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Network Topologies & Ethernet
Sunday, November 16, 2025 11:50 AM

1. Bus Topology
Structure
• All devices connect to a single central cable (the “bus”).
• Data travels along this one line.
• All devices “listen” to the data. Only the device with the
matching address accepts it; others ignore it.
How Data Works
• Devices can send data at any time.
• If two devices send data at once, a collision happens.
• Each device waits a random time and resends.
Advantages
• Simple design.
• Least expensive layout.
• Uses the least cable.
Disadvantages
• Cable breaks = entire network fails.
• Frequent data collisions, especially when busy.

2. Star Topology
Structure
• All devices connect to a central hub (or switch).
• Data is sent through the hub to reach the destination.
Advantages
• Hub reduces collisions by controlling traffic.
• Failure of one device/cable does not break the network.
• Widely used today.
Disadvantages
• Hub failure = whole network goes down.
• More expensive than bus topology.

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 3. Ring Topology
Structure
• Devices connect in a circular chain.
• Last device connects back to the first.
• Data moves in one direction around the ring.
How Data Works
• Each device checks the message:
○ If addressed to it → accepts.
○ If not → forwards to the next device.
Advantages
• No data collisions (one-way flow).
Disadvantages
• Any break in the ring = entire network fails.

4. Hybrid Topology
Definition
• A combination of two or more different basic topologies
(e.g., bus + star).
Notes
• Two networks of the same topology joined together do
NOT form a hybrid.
• Hybrid only exists when the combination doesn’t match any
one basic topology's definition.
Advantages
• Can use multiple topologies in one network.
• More efficient and handles large traffic loads.
• Easier fault detection and removal.
Disadvantages
• Expensive to build and maintain.
• Needs skilled support.

5. Ethernet Architecture
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 5. Ethernet Architecture
Overview
• First major LAN technology (1970s).
• Developed by Xerox.
• Ideal for buildings/campuses (short-range communication).
• Standardized as IEEE 802.3.
Key Features
• Original speed: 10 Mbps.
• Uses a bus-like structure (long cable with devices attached).
• Each device has a unique 48-bit address (MAC address).
How It Works
• Each computer has an Ethernet adapter.
• Adapter connects to the cable through a transceiver (“T”
connector).
• Transceiver:
○ Reads passing data.
○ Checks address.
○ Delivers it if it matches, or forwards it if not.

6. Network Devices
Repeater
• Boosts signals to travel longer distances.
• Receives → cleans/amplifies → retransmits.
Bridge
• Connects two LANs using the same protocol (e.g., Ethernet
↔ Ethernet).
• Decides whether data stays in the local LAN or is forwarded
to another LAN.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Must match the network technology (Ethernet, Token Ring,
etc.).

7. NAS (Network Attached Storage)

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 7. NAS (Network Attached Storage)
What Is NAS?
• A storage device connected to a network, not directly to a
computer.
• Accessible by multiple users and devices.
• Contains its own:
○ Storage (HDDs/SSDs)
○ Operating system
○ CPU
Two Ways to Add Storage
1. Direct-attached storage (DAS)
○ External hard drives connected by USB.
○ Faster than NAS but only available to one device at a
time.
2. Network-attached storage (NAS)
○ Connects via Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
○ Accessible by many users.
○ Slower than DAS but more flexible.
Components in NAS
• Multiple hard drives → more storage + redundancy.
• Networking system → Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
• CPU → handles files, users, apps, remote access, etc.

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Network Management
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:26 PM

Network management includes the activities used to keep a

network running efficiently and reliably.
Operation
• Keeps the network and its services running smoothly.
• Involves monitoring performance and detecting issues
early.
Administration
• Manages network resources such as IP addresses, devices,
and user accounts.
• Handles daily organizational tasks that keep the network
controlled.
Maintenance
• Repairs and upgrades hardware and software.
• Includes fixing problems, preventing future issues, and
adjusting device settings for better performance.
Provisioning
• Configures the network so new users or services can be
added.
• Example: enabling voice service for a new customer.

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FDDI Architecture and Related Networking Concepts
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:43 PM

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is an ANSI standard for a

high-speed LAN that:
• Uses fiber-optic cabling
• Operates at 100 Mbps
• Uses a dual Token Ring design
• Is mainly used for corporate and carrier backbone
networks
A network backbone is the central part of a network that
connects different LANs or subnetworks and carries large
amounts of traffic.
Why FDDI Was Developed
• Created in the mid-1980s for high-speed engineering
workstations.
• Still used as a high-speed backbone technology because it
supports:
○ Long distances
○ High bandwidth
○ High reliability

FDDI Dual-Ring Architecture

FDDI uses two rings that rotate in opposite directions (counter-
rotating):
• Primary Ring: Carries main data traffic.
• Secondary Ring: Stays idle unless a failure occurs. Used for
redundancy and reliability.
This design allows the network to keep functioning even if a
section of the ring breaks.

FDDI Device Types

FDDI supports multiple ways to connect to the ring:
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FDDI supports multiple ways to connect to the ring:
Single-Attachment Station (SAS)
• Connects using one ring (usually the primary).
• Used for devices that often turn on/off, like PCs.
• Connects through a concentrator to avoid disrupting the
ring.
Dual-Attachment Station (DAS)
• Connects directly to both rings (primary and secondary).
• Used for critical devices like routers and servers.
• Provides high reliability.
Dual-Attachment Concentrator (DAC)
• Central device that connects SAS devices without breaking
the dual-ring.
• Ensures the ring stays operational even if an SAS is powered
off.

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CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface)
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:45 PM

CDDI is the copper-cable version of FDDI.

• Uses UTP or STP cabling.
• Supports 100 Mbps, same as FDDI.
• Still uses a dual-ring architecture for redundancy.
• Much cheaper than fiber, but:
○ Works only over short distances (about 100 m)
○ Lower overall performance than fiber

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Twisted Pair Cabling (UTP, STP, FTP)
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:46 PM

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

• Two wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
• No metal shielding.
• Most common type in LANs.
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
• Same twisted wires but protected by metal shielding.
• Reduces EMI even further.
FTP (Foiled Twisted Pair)
• Foil shield around all pairs or each pair.
• Helps reduce crosstalk and interference.
Shielding also acts as a ground because it is made of metal.

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Network Diagnostic Tool (NDT)
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:46 PM

A tool built to quickly spot problems that slow down a

connection.
It gives:
NDT is a client–server tool used to:
• Simple messages for regular users
• Technical results for network engineers
• The results can be emailed to admins for troubleshooting.
• Test network performance
• Diagnose configuration issues
• Help users identify speed or connection problems on
desktop/laptop systems

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Common Networking Problems and Troubleshooting
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:46 PM

Duplicate IP Address
When two devices share the same IP:
• Network communication fails.
• The administrator must change one device's IP to fix the
issue.

Duplicate IP Address
When two devices share the same IP:
• Network communication fails.
• The administrator must change one device's IP to fix the
issue.

Connectivity Problems
Very common in organizations. Causes include:
• Bad configuration
• Switch, router, or hub malfunction
• Faulty or unplugged cables
Basic Troubleshooting Steps
1. Check physical connections first
○ Ensure cables are plugged in.
○ Check indicator lights (green = active/connected).
2. Test network devices
○ Ensure hubs, switches, and routers are powered and
functioning.
○ Try a different port if needed.
3. Check device configuration
○ Incorrect settings may prevent connection.
○ Reconfigure the device if it doesn’t match the network
type.

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Cable-Related Issues
Physical cables can:
• Break
• Short out
• Be cut or damaged
• Become loose or misconnected
Electrical Short
Occurs when the conductor touches another unintended
conductor, causing:
• Lost signal
• Disrupted network communication
Fixing Cable Problems
• Replace or repair damaged cables.
• Use cable testers to identify:
○ Connection failures
○ Electrical shorts
○ Incorrect wiring
○ Excessive interference

• Duplex mismatch – one side of the Ethernet link is set to

full-duplex, the other to half-duplex. Causes slow speeds
and collisions.
• Bad TCP buffer settings – user device not tuned properly for
fast networks.
• Local network faults – old switches, bad cabling,
interference, cheap routers.

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Software-Based Networking Problems
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:47 PM

If physical issues are ruled out, the problem may involve

software:
Possible Causes
• Misconfigured settings (DNS, WINS, IP settings)
• Registry errors
• Corrupted network drivers
• Problematic updates or software conflicts
Solutions
• Reconfigure the affected service
• Repair or reinstall required software
• Reset network settings

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Transmission Media
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:52 PM

Wired Transmission Media

Twisted-Pair Cable
Two insulated wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
• Used in almost all LANs.
• Crosstalk occurs when signals from one wire interfere with
signals on another.
• Twisting the wires cancels out interference from
neighboring wires or external sources.
Types:
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): No shielding, cheap,
common in LANs.
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): Metal shielding reduces EMI.
• FTP (Foiled Twisted Pair): Foil shield protects against
crosstalk and interference.

Coaxial Cable
• Center conductor surrounded by insulator, braided metal
shielding, and plastic jacket.
• Resistant to interference and can carry higher data rates
than twisted-pair.
• Commonly used in cable TV and older Ethernet networks.
Structure:
• Center conductor
• Insulator
• Metallic shield
• Plastic jacket

Fiber Optic Cable

• Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit digital data using
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 • Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit digital data using
light.
• Very high bandwidth; immune to EMI.
• Thin, light, and capable of long-distance transmission.
• More fragile and expensive than copper wires.
Advantages:
• Extremely high data rate
• Immune to interference
• Secure
• Lightweight and thin
Disadvantages:
• Fragile
• Difficult installation and alignment
• Higher cost

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Wireless Transmission Media
Saturday, November 22, 2025 7:55 PM

Wireless Transmission Media

Wireless media does not use cables, transmitting data via radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, or satellite signals.
Types
• Terrestrial microwave
• Satellite microwave
• Radio waves
• Infrared

Terrestrial Microwave
• Long-distance communication on land.
• Uses 2–40 GHz frequencies.
• Requires line-of-sight between towers.
• Towers often ~30 miles apart; uses parabolic dish antennas.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive tower setup
• Weather and aircraft interference
• Earth curvature limits line-of-sight

Satellite Microwave Transmission

• Satellite acts as a microwave relay station in space.
Geostationary Satellites:
• ~22,300 miles above the equator
• Orbit matches Earth’s rotation
• Remain fixed over a point
How it Works:
1. Earth station sends signal to satellite (uplink)
2. Satellite retransmits to Earth (downlink)
Transponders:
• Each channel receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals.
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 • Each channel receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals.
Uses:
• TV broadcasting
• Long-distance telephone
• Internet services

Radio Waves
• Part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Uses:
• Broadcasting, navigation, mobile phones, Wi-Fi,
communication systems
Propagation:
• Long wavelengths: travel far
• Medium wavelengths: reflect off ionosphere
• Short wavelengths: line-of-sight only

Optical Fiber vs Satellite Transmission

Feature Optical Fiber Satellite
Bandwidth Extremely high Moderate; limited by
(terahertz range) transponder
Interference Immune Susceptible
Coverage Local, point-to-point Global, wide coverage
Security Very secure Must encrypt
Latency Very low Slight delay due to
distance

IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

• High-speed data transfer for audio and video devices.
• Also called [Link] (Sony) or Lynx (TI).
• Supports real-time, steady data transfer.
Key Features:
• Speeds: 400–800 Mbps (original), expected 3.2 Gbps in
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 • Speeds: 400–800 Mbps (original), expected 3.2 Gbps in
newer cables
• Connect up to 63 devices per port
• Daisy-chaining supported without hub
• Isochronous transfer ensures constant data rate
Convenience Features:
• Plug-and-Play
• Hot-swapping
• Power delivery to peripherals
Cables and Connectors:
• External or internal connections
• Connector types: 4-pin, 6-pin, 9-pin
• Must match device type for compatibility
External Bus:
• Group of wires for data transfer between a computer and
external devices
• FireWire is an example of a high-speed external bus

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Questions
Saturday, November 22, 2025 8:10 PM

1. Intranet vs Extranet
Distinguish between an intranet and an extranet.
• Intranet: A private network accessible only to people within
an organization. It allows employees to access internal
resources and information.
• Extranet: An intranet that has been extended to allow
select external organizations (e.g., partners, suppliers,
clients) to access certain information securely.

2. TCP and IP in the TCP/IP Protocol

Describe TCP and IP as they relate to the TCP/IP protocol.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A reliable transport
protocol that ensures data is delivered correctly and in
order. It handles retransmissions of lost packets.
• IP (Internet Protocol): A network layer protocol responsible
for routing packets between devices. IP is unreliable in the
sense that it does not guarantee delivery.

3. OSI Model Layers

Draw or describe the layers of the OSI model for computer
communication.
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data Link
• Physical

4. Functions of the Bottom Three OSI Layers

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 4. Functions of the Bottom Three OSI Layers
Describe the functions of the Physical, Data Link, and Network
layers.
• Physical Layer: Transfers raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical
medium (cables, fiber, or wireless).
• Data Link Layer: Converts bits into frames, performs error
detection and correction, and controls communication
between two directly connected nodes.
• Network Layer: Routes data packets across networks and
manages congestion to ensure data reaches the correct
destination.

5. How the First Three OSI Layers Transmit a Large File

Explain how the Physical, Data Link, and Network layers are
involved in sending a large file.
• Physical Layer: Breaks the file into bits and sends them as
electrical or optical signals over a medium.
• Data Link Layer: Packages bits into frames, checks for
errors, and manages the flow of data between directly
connected devices.
• Network Layer: Determines the path for each packet,
routes them across the network, and handles any
congestion.

6. Data Communication in an IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi) Network

How is data communicated in a wireless IEEE 802.11b network?
Use a diagram if needed.
1. The wireless device (e.g., laptop, tablet) encrypts data and
converts it into radio signals using its antenna.
2. The wireless router receives the signal, decodes it, and
either:
○ Sends it to the internet via Ethernet, or
Directly transmits it wirelessly to another device on the
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 ○ Directly transmits it wirelessly to another device on the
network.

7. Page Fault in an Operating System Using Paging

What is a page fault, and how is it handled?
• A page fault occurs when a program tries to access a page
not currently in RAM.
• The operating system handles it by:
1. Loading the missing page from the hard disk into RAM.
2. Resuming the program so it can retry accessing the
page.

8. Process State Changes

What can cause a process to move from the running state to
the ready state?
• A process moves to the ready state when it is temporarily
interrupted.
• Interrupts can be caused by:
○ Input/output operations completing
○ Higher-priority processes needing the CPU
• After the interrupt is handled, the original process can
return to running.

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Network Security
Saturday, December 6, 2025 5:12 PM

Network security includes all the measures, policies, and monitoring used to
protect a computer network and the resources connected to it.
It prevents unauthorized access, attacks, and damage to systems and data.

Network Security vs Information Security

Term Meaning
Network Protects the network boundary from intruders (e.g., hackers).
Security Focuses on controlling who enters the network.
Information Protects data from malware, mistakes, or unauthorized access
Security inside the organization. Uses methods like DLP and internal
access boundaries.

How Information Security Adds Protection

• Uses Data Loss Prevention (DLP) tools to stop data leakage.
• Divides the network into internal security zones (compartmentalization).
• Employees must authenticate to cross into protected areas.

Authentication Methods
Method Factors Used Example Notes
One-Factor Something you know Password Least
Authentication secure
Two-Factor Something you know + Password + OTP, token, More
Authentication something you have ATM card, phone code secure
(2FA)
Three-Factor Know + Have + Password + token + Most
Authentication Something you are fingerprint/retina scan secure

Security Tools After Authentication

Once the user logs in, these tools enforce protection:
Firewall
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Firewall
• A system that blocks unauthorized access while allowing approved
communication.
• Can be hardware, software, or both.
• Checks all incoming/outgoing traffic based on rules.
• Protects private networks connected to the internet.
Firewall Key Points
• All messages passing through the network are inspected.
• Blocks traffic that violates security rules.
• Does not always catch malware hidden inside allowed traffic.

Proxy Server
A server that acts as an intermediary between a client and another server.
What It Does
• Accepts the request from the client.
• Applies filtering rules.
• Forwards the request to the destination server.
• Returns the result to the client.
Uses
• Content filtering
• Caching web pages for faster access
• Hiding internal IP addresses

Malware Protection Tools

Tool Purpose
Antivirus Software Detects and blocks viruses, worms, Trojans.
Intrusion Prevention Actively identifies and stops malicious traffic.
System (IPS)
Anomaly-Based Monitors network behaviour for unusual or suspicious
Intrusion Detection activity. Helps detect denial-of-service attacks or
System (IDS) employees accessing files at odd times.

Monitoring and Logging

• Networks are continuously monitored for threats.
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 • Networks are continuously monitored for threats.
• Important events are logged for:
○ Audits
○ Investigations
○ Pattern analysis
Logging helps identify attacks, misuse, or policy violations.

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