Journal of Palaeogeography, 2022, 11(2): 173e193 (00263)

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Lithofacies palaeogeography and sedimentology

Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of

Mesozoic sandstones in interlinked rift basins
of western India: An integrated approach using
petrography and heavy mineral chemistry
Pawan Kumar Rajak, Angana Chaudhuri, Naraga Prabhakar,
Santanu Banerjee*

Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India

Abstract Based on integration of field, petrographic and heavy mineral chemical data, this study highlights
the source and tectonic setting of the Mesozoic sandstones of Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins
at the western margin of India, formed by the progressive splitting of the eastern Gondwanaland. The Kutch
Basin is dominated by arkosic sandstone, whereas Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins show the pre-
dominance of sub-arkose and sub-litharenite. The modal analyses of framework grains in Kutch sandstones
indicate basement uplift and transitional continent settings. In contrast, the sandstones of Saurashtra, Nar-
mada and Cambay basins bear imprints of recycled orogenic and craton interior belts. The presence of abraded
and detrital quartz overgrowth and rounded zircons in most sandstones reveal the recycling of sediments in
these basins. Tourmaline and rutile mineral compositions constrain the possible lithology of source rocks. The
tourmaline mineral chemistry (Ca-Fetot-Mg plot) suggests the derivation of sediments from various sources,
including Li-poor granitoids associated with pegmatites, aplites, Ca-poor metapelites, metapsammites and
quartz-tourmaline-rich granitic rocks. The compositions of rutile grains (Cr vs. Nb plot) in sandstones indicate
metapelitic sources. The gamut of all mineral chemical data supports the predominance of sediment sources
from quartzo-feldspathic rocks with minor inputs from mafic rocks. Based on available paleocurrent data and
correlation of source compositions, we infer that the Mesozoic sediments of Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and
Cambay basins were primarily sourced by various lithologies of the Aravalli Craton. The Narmada Basin possibly
received additional sediment input from the Bundelkhand Craton.
Keywords Mesozoic sandstones, Rift basins, Tourmaline chemistry, Rutile chemistry, Kutch Basin, Sau-
rashtra Basin, Cambay Basin, Narmada Basin

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Petroleum (Beijing). This
is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
Received 29 September 2021; accepted 7 February 2022; available online 2 April 2022

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: santanu@[Link] (S. Banerjee).
Peer review under responsibility of China University of Petroleum (Beijing).
[Link]
2095-3836/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Petroleum (Beijing). This is an open access article
under the CC BY license ([Link]
174 P.K. Rajak et al.

mineral chemistry helps in identifying complex source

1. Introduction areas with a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic
rocks, including aplite, pegmatite, granitoid, meta-
The compositional characteristics of framework pelite, metapsammite, metacarbonate and metapyrox-
grains in sandstones provide crucial information about enite (Henry and Guidotti, 1985; Henry and Dutrow,
the source rock composition, tectonic setting, paleo- 1992; Hawthorne and Dirlam, 2011).
weathering and transportation conditions (Dickinson, The Late Triassic to Early Jurassic Gondwanaland
1970, 1985; Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Ingersoll and breakup resulted in the initiation of several peri-
Suczek, 1979; Dickinson et al., 1983; Critelli and Le continental rift basins at the western continental margin
Pera, 1994; Critelli et al., 2003; Garzanti et al., 2008, of India (Norton and Sclater, 1979; Biswas, 1982, 1987).
2009; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2012, 2015, 2017; The characteristic expressions of Gondwanaland
Chaudhuri et al., 2018, 2020a,b). Furthermore, compo- breakup are represented by the formation of Kutch,
sitions of heavy minerals, which are rare in detrital Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins, which evolved
sediments, provide precise information about the po- temporally at the same time (Figs. 1 and 2; Biswas, 1982,
tential source lithology (Mange and Wright, 2007; von 1987, 1999). Several authors have investigated the ex-
Eynatten and Dunkl, 2012). The chemistry of heavy posures of these interlinked basins for sedimentological
minerals is particularly useful to distinguish multiple and paleontological attributes ( Sahni, 1936; Mukherjee,
sources of sediments (Henry and Guidotti, 1985; Mange 1983; Acharyya and Lahiri, 1991; Aslam, 1991; Akhtar
and Morton, 2007; Meinhold, 2010; Tolosana-Delgado et al., 1991; Arora et al., 2015; Mandal et al., 2016;
et al., 2018; Chaudhuri et al., 2020d). For example, Bhatt et al., 2016; Racey et al., 2016). Recent studies
the mineral chemistry of detrital rutile is useful in pre- have provided multi-proxy data regarding the source of
dicting source areas with various metamorphic rocks Mesozoic sediments and tectonic settings of the Kutch
(Zack et al., 2002, 2004b; Triebold et al., 2007, 2012; Basin (Chaudhuri et al., 2018, 2020a,b,c,d). Although
Meinhold, 2010). Similarly, the variation in tourmaline basic sedimentological data are available for the

Fig. 1 Geological map showing studied Mesozoic outcrops (marked rectangles) in Kutch (K), Saurashtra (S), Cambay (C) and Narmada (N)
basins in western India and relevant geological units (adapted from various sources including, Dasgupta et al., 1993; Biswas, 2005;
Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008). Sample locations are indicated numbers with solid circles (Kutch Basin: 1. Zara, 2. Palara, 3.
Gangeshwar, 4. Tapkeshwar, 5. Habo, 6. Bhuj; Saurashtra Basin: 1. Jhariya Mahadev Temple, 2. Thangadh, 3. Ranipat, 4. Dhrangadhra, 5.
Surajdeval, 6. Wadhwan, 7. Surendranagar; Cambay Basin: 1. Himmatnagar and 2. Bhavpur; Narmada Basin: 1. Rampur, 2. Raisinghpur, 3.
Bagh, 4. Man River).
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 175

Fig. 2 Tectonic setting of the western continental margin of India with major tectonic trend of major rift basins (after Biswas, 1987, 1999).
Note that the outcrops of the Mesozoic basins are extensively covered by Deccan flood basalt and Tertiary sediments.

Cambay, Saurashtra and Narmada basins (Akhtar and during Mesozoic time (Fig. 1). The separation of India
Ahmad, 1991; Akhtar et al., 1994; Ahmad et al., 2014), from Africa in the Jurassic and subsequent drifting of
a comprehensive provenance analysis is yet to be carried Madagascar and Seychelles from the eastern Gondwa-
out. A comparative study of the source rocks is crucial for naland during the Late Cretaceous formed a series of
illustrating the temporal evolution of these interlinked interlinked rifts basin at the western margin of India
basins during the sequential break-up of Gondwanaland. (Biswas, 1999; Chatterjee et al., 2013). Kutch, Sau-
The Cambay Basin is a prolific hydrocarbon-producing rashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins follow the major
basin, although exposures are minimal, while the Kutch Precambrian tectonic trends viz. Delhi, Aravalli, Sat-
Basin has produced hydrocarbons in recent times. A pura and Dharwar trend, respectively (Biswas, 1987)
detailed provenance analysis is also helpful for the (Fig. 2). The Kutch Basin was the first to originate by
characterization of hydrocarbon reservoir rocks of these rifting during the Late Triassic, followed by the Sau-
Mesozoic basins. The objective of this study is to estab- rashtra and Cambay basins in Early Cretaceous, and
lish the source rock and paleotectonic setting of the the Narmada Basin in the Late Cretaceous (Biswas,
interlinked Mesozoic riftogenic basins of western India. 1987). The adjacent Saurashtra Basin, formed along
Furthermore, the source rock of the well-characterized the southwestward trend of the Aravalli trend, was
Kutch Basin is correlated with those of other basins. We separated from the Kutch Basin by Saurashtra uplift-
have examined selected sandstone samples for petrog- ment during the Late Cretaceous and the rifting was
raphy, modal analysis and heavy mineral compositions aborted in the Kutch Basin (Biswas, 1999; Fig. 2). The
and integrated these results to extract the potential NNWeSSE trending Cambay rift formed along the
source and tectonic evolution of these basins. Dharwar trend during the Late Cretaceous. The basin
was extended southward into the Gulf of Cambay. Its
western margin was marked by the Saurashtra horst,
2. Geological and tectonic background which separated this basin from the Kutch Basin. The
marine Cretaceous was extended up to the
Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins JaisalmereBarmer Basin to the north (Dolson et al.,
were formed as interlinked rift basins at the western 2015; Beaumont et al., 2018). The ENEeWSW tending
margin of India by the splitting of Gondwanaland Narmada Basin, bounded by a system of subparallel
176 P.K. Rajak et al.

faults, was formed by the reactivation along the pre- Jhumara Formation comprises laminated shale, marl,
existing Narmada-Son transform fault during the Late siltstone and limestone with golden oolite and olive-
Cretaceous (Biswas, 1987, 1999; Tripathi, 2006; Racey green shale. A thick coarsening-upward fossiliferous
et al., 2016). The Narmada rift intersects the Cambay succession, consisting of calcareous sandstone and
rift at the Gulf of Cambay. The extension of the Nar- shale alternations, represents the overlying Jhuran
mada graben in the continental shelf south of Sau- Formation. The youngest Bhuj Formation consists
rashtra Basin is called Surat Basin. The Mesozoic primarily of sandstone and shale, kaolinitic clay-
sediment cover in Kutch and Saurashtra basins exceeds stone, glauconitic sandstone with abundant fossils
a few km (Acharyya and Lahiri, 1991), whereas those in (Fig. 4A). The sedimentary structures in the Jhuran
Narmada and Cambay basins are considerably thin. and Bhuj formations indicate a southwesterly pale-
However, the Cenozoic succession of the Cambay Basin ocurrent direction (Biswas, 1987, 1999, 2005; Mandal
is substantially thicker than other basins. et al., 2016; Arora, 2017; Desai and Biswas, 2018;
The Kutch Basin exhibits several uplifts and Chaudhuri et al., 2020b). The sedimentary succes-
faults. These are Nagar Parkar Uplift, Island Belt sion was deposited predominantly in a shallow ma-
Uplift, Wagad Uplift and Kutch Mainland Uplift, rine environment with a gradual shift to a fluvio-
associated with the Nagar Parkar Fault, Island Belt deltaic environment in the younger Bhuj Formation
Fault, South Wagad Fault and Kutch Mainland Fault, (Fürsich et al., 1992, 2001; Mandal et al., 2016;
respectively (Biswas, 1977, 2005, 2016). The oldest Bansal et al., 2017).
Jhurio Formation, resting unconformably on the The Saurashtra Basin occurs to the south of Sau-
Precambrian basement, comprises carbonateeshale rashtra horst, hosting Jurassic to recent sediments,
associations intercalated with oolitic limestones covered by Deccan basalts (Biswas, 1987). The 600-
(Table 1, Fig. 3A). The overlying fossiliferous meter thick, gently dipping (4
e8
) Mesozoic

Table 1 Lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Kutch Basin (adapted from Biswas, 1977, 1982); Saurashtra
Basin (adapted from Casshyap and Aslam, 1992; Khan et al., 2017); Narmada Basin (adapted from Tripathi, 2006) and Cambay Basin
(adapted from Bhatt et al., 2016).
Basin Age Formation Lithology Depositional Environment
Kutch Lower Bhuj Sandstone-shale with kaolinitic claystone, Fluvio-deltaic
Cretaceous to glauconitic sandstone, shale with abundant
Mid Jurassic fossil content
Jhuran Calcareous and fossiliferous sandstone, Tidal flat nearshore shelf
fossiliferous shale, shale/sandstone
alternations
Jhumara Shale, sandstone, limestone with golden oolite, Embayment ooid shoals and
olive green shale, fossiliferous near shelf
Jhurio Limestone and shale association with golden Shallow shelf near wave base
oolite
Saurashtra Early Cretaceous Wadhwan Reddish, pebbly, coarse-grained, coarse to Estuarine and fluvial
to Late Jurassic medium sandstone
Ranipat Medium to fine sandstone with cross-beds and Nearshore coastal, tidal,
conglomerate layers, carbonaceous shale, and subtidal
mudstone
Surajdeval Medium to fine sandstone with interbeds of Storm affected shoreline
shale and siltstone deposits
Than Sandstone with carbonaceous shale and Backswamp of the delta plain
siltstone with some coal, wave ripple in
siltstone, and hummock cross-stratification in
sandstone bed
Narmada Late Cretaceous Coralline Limestone Cross-bedded limestone, alternation of marl Temperate shallow marine
and limestone, and oyster-rich marly beds
Nodular Limestone Marly shale and biomicritic limestone Deep to shallow shelf
alternation showing nodularity
Nimar Sandstone Conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone and shale Fluvial to marine
Cambay Early-Mid Himmatnagar Sandstone Gritty-cobbly trough cross-stratified sandstone Estuarine to fluvial, Foreshore
Cretaceous with wood fossils in upper part and cross- etidal flat to middle shoreface
bedded sandstones and silty shale with plant
fossils and trace fossils in lower part
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 177

Fig. 3 A) Field photograph showing alternating layers of shale and sandstone within the Cretaceous Bhuj Formation of Kutch Basin at Zara
area (man in a red circle as a scale, height = 172 cm); B) Cross-stratified sandstone beds within the Lower Ranipat Formation of Dhrangadhra
Group in the Saurashtra Basin at Jharia Mahadev temple (hammer as a scale, hammer length = 38 cm); C) Vertical section across the Nimar
Sandstone of the Narmada Basin at Gayatri mandir, Bagh area (man in a red circle as a scale, height = 168 cm); D) Alternating sequence of
sandstone and siltstone layers of the Lower Member of Cretaceous Himmatnagar Sandstone Formation of Cambay Basin at Hathmati River
section, Himmatnagar (man in a red circle as a scale, height = 170 cm).

succession of the Saurashtra Basin is comprised of Group consists of Nimar Sandstone, Nodular Lime-
sandstone, siltstone, shale and coal with conglom- stone, and Coralline Limestone formations in
erate, known as the Dhrangadhra Group. The Dhran- ascending order of succession (Table 1, Figs. 3C and
gadhra Group is made up of four formations, viz. Than, 4C; Bansal et al., 2020). Recent biostratigraphic
Surajdeval, Ranipat and Wadhwan, in ascending order data constrain Cenomanian, Turonian, and Coniacian
of succession (Table 1, Fig. 3B). The coarsening- ages for the Nimar, Nodular Limestone, and Coralline
upward Than Formation is composed of medium- to Limestone formations, respectively (Jaitly and Ajane,
fine-grained sandstone, carbonaceous shale and coal 2013; Kumar et al., 2018). The Cretaceous Nimar
with wavy laminated sandstone and siltstone beds. The Sandstone unconformably overlies the Precambrian
overlying Surajdeval Formation consists of medium- to Aravalli Supergroup and it consists of conglomerate,
fine-grained sandstone interbedded with shale and sandstone and mudstone with rare shale of fluvial-
mudstone. The Ranipat Formation consists of a fining- marine origin (Tripathi, 2006; Racey et al., 2016).
upward sequence dominated by cross-stratified sand- The Nodular Limestone consists of an alternation of
stone and carbonaceous shale and mudstone with local marly shale and biomicritic limestone showing nodular
conglomerate interbeds (Fig. 4B). The Wadhwan For- characteristics. Coralline Limestone consists of cross-
mation consists of coarse- to medium-grained sand- bedded limestone with an oyster-rich bed. The Nimar
stone of estuarine to fluvial origin (Casshyap and Sandstone is, overall, fining upward and consists of
Aslam, 1992; Khan et al., 2017). The Wadhwan For- five different fluvio-marine facies associations
mation of the Dhrangadhra Group contains megaflora (Bhattacharya et al., 2020).
Onychiopsis and Weichselia of lower Cretaceous The NNWeSSE trending Cambay rift occurs be-
(Wealden) age and palynoflora Appendicisporites and tween the Saurashtra horst and Aravalli range. In the
Impardecispora of Aptian age (Singh and Venkatachala, Cambay Basin, the best exposure of the Himmatnagar
1988). Sandstone Formation occurs on the banks of the river
The Upper Cretaceous sediments in the Narmada Hathmati near Himmatnagar. The ~75 m thick Him-
Basin make up the Bagh Group, which is a mixed matnagar Sandstone Formation consists of conglom-
carbonateesiliciclastic association (Tandon, 2000; erate, sandstone, siltstone and shale (Table 1,
Kumari et al., 2020; Keller et al., 2021). The Bagh Fig. 3D). At the southwestern part of the study area,
178 P.K. Rajak et al.

Fig. 4 Generalized lithologs of (A) Kutch, (B) Saurashtra, (C) Narmada, and (D) Cambay basins (Stratigraphic and paleocurrent data are from
the following: Kutch Basin e Biswas, 2005; Fürsich et al., 2005; Mandal et al., 2016; Saurashtra Basin e Casshyap and Aslam, 1992; Narmada
Basin e Acharyya and Lahiri, 1991; Cambay Basin e Ahmad and Akhtar, 1990; Aquil, 1982).

Deccan basalts and recent alluvium overlie the out- south-west. The Lower and Upper members of the
crops of the Himmatnagar Sandstone, whereas, at the Formation crop out towards northeastern and north-
northeastern corner, it overlies the Precambrian Idar western sides of the Himmatnagar town, respec-
Granite (Choudhary et al., 1984). Bhatt et al. (2016) tively. This Formation is equivalent to the Nimar
divided the Himmatnagar Formation into two strati- Formation of the Narmada Basin. It is contempora-
graphic members, viz. Lower and Upper (Table 1). neous with the Wadhwan Formation and Bhuj For-
The Lower Member consists of massive and cross- mation in the Saurashtra and Kutch basins,
stratified sandstone, siltstone and shale with plant respectively (Table 2) (Acharyya and Lahiri, 1991).
fossils and trace fossils (Fig. 4D). The Upper Member The Himmatnagar Sandstone and Dhrangadhra Group
of the Formation is composed of gritty-cobbly sand- contain upper Gondwana megaflora Weichselia and
stone and trough cross-stratified sandstone with fossil Onychiopsis, suggesting a Lower Cretaceous (Weal-
wood showing paleocurrents towards the south and den) age (Sahni, 1936). Furthermore, the
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 179

Table 2 Comparison of Mesozoic succession and paleogeography of Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins (compiled from Biswas
and Deshpande, 1983; Biswas, 2005; Fürsich et al., 2005; Dolson et al., 2015; Pandey and Pooniya 2015; Racey et al. 2016; Alberti et al.,
2017; Dasgupta, 2021).
Period Series Kutch Saurashtra Cambay Narmada
Cretaceous Upper
Bhuj Coralline Limestone
Himmatnagar Sandstone Nodular Limestone
Lower Wadhwan Nimar Sandstone
Ranipat
Jurassic Upper Jhuran Surajdeval
Than
Middle Jhumara
Jhurio

Lower

Himmatnagar Sandstone shows Appendicispotites and Saurashtra Basin were collected from Surendranagar,
Impardecispora palynoflora of Aptian age (Acharyya Wadhwan, Thangadh, Surajdeval, Ranipat, Dhran-
and Lahiri, 1991). gadhra, Jharia Mahadev (Fig. 1, Table 3). Eight samples
of the Nimar Sandstone of the Narmada Basin were
collected from the Man River, Raisinghpura, Rampura
3. Methodology and Bagh in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 1,
Table 3). Ten samples of the Himmatnagar Sandstone
Field investigations were carried out in selected were collected from Himmatnagar, Dhundhor, Bhavpur
sections to gather basic sedimentological information, and Vantada (Fig. 1, Table 3). Thin sections of sand-
including the thickness of formations and lithological stones were prepared using Buehler® Epothin 2 Epoxy
variations (Fig. 3, Table 1). Composite graphic logs were hardener and Buehler® Epothin 2 Epoxy resin at a ratio
prepared for all four basins showing basic sedimento- of 1:3. Each thin section was further polished using
logical data (Fig. 4). From the Kutch Basin, 33 sandstone silicon carbide powders (80 mm, 220 mm, 400 mm,
samples belonging to Jhurio, Jhumara, Jhuran and Bhuj 600 mm, 800 mm, 1000 mm, 3 mm, 1 mm, 0.3 mm). The
formations were collected from Zara, Palara, Bhuj, petrographic observation was carried out using the
Habo, Gangeshwar and Tapkeshwar (Fig. 1, Table 3). Leica DM 4500P polarizing microscope attached with
Ten sandstone samples of the Dhrangadhra Group of the the Leica DFC420 camera using Leica Image Analysis
software (LAS-v4.6) at the Department of Earth Sci-
ences, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay.
Table 3 GPS data of the sampled location of different basins. Point counting of sandstone samples was carried out
Basin Locality Geographic location following the Gazzi-Dickinson method (cf. Ingersoll
et al., 1984). For each thin section, more than 300
Kutch Zara N23
420 29.0500 , E69
010 04.1500
Palara N23
190 33.3500 , E69
400 28.5700 framework grains were counted to determine the
Bhuj N23
140 36.1500 , E69
380 12.2900 variation in the sandstone composition derived from
Habo N23
200 39.1100 , E69
490 53.1900 different provenance terrain with the help of Folk
Gangeshwar N23
110 04.0900 , E69
430 37.2200 (1974) sandstone classification scheme and tectonic
Tapkeshwar N23
110 46.4700 , E69
400 37.1700
setting discriminant plot of Dickinson et al. (1983).
Saurashtra Surendranagar N22
430 14.9900 , E71
370 28.0500
Thangadh N22
330 22.7900 , E71
120 32.1600 The sandstone samples containing a sufficient
Surajdeval N22
360 04.8000 , E71
120 46.2300 amount of heavy minerals were selected for the min-
Ranipat N22
410 16.6900 , E71
120 29.6100 eral analysis. Nine samples of Kutch Basin, five samples
Dharangadhara N22
580 26.1100 , E71
290 46.1100 of Saurashtra Basin, five samples of Narmada Basin and
Jharia Mahadev N22
290 29.0200 , E71
090 41.0600
three samples of Cambay Basin were used for heavy
Wadhwan N22
430 19.5100 , E71
210 47.1800
Narmada Man River N22⁰200 08.4900 , E75⁰040 44.9200
mineral separation. Sandstone samples were pulver-
Raisinghpura N22⁰200 57.0000 , E74⁰480 47.1200 ized using an agate mortar and then sieved for the
Rampura N22⁰170 41.6400 , E74⁰460 11.0000 63e125 mm size fraction. By panning underwater, the
Bagh N22⁰200 40.8000 , E74⁰470 00.5400 heavy minerals were separated from this size fraction.
Cambay Himmatnagar N23⁰360 30.2000 , E73⁰570 43.0500 The heavy mineral concentrates were then mounted
Dhundhor N23⁰340 19.5400 , E73⁰050 33.9500
Bhavpur N23⁰340 09.7800 , E73⁰060 07.8100
on glass slides with the mixture of Beuhler® epothin 2
Vantada N23⁰370 01.3600 , E73⁰040 44.5100 epoxy hardener and Beuhler® epothin 2 epoxy resin.
180 P.K. Rajak et al.

Fig. 5 Cross-polarized (AeE) and plane-polarized (F) photomicrographs showing textural characteristics of sandstones of Kutch Basin. Arkosic
sandstone with A) carbonate cement (yellow arrow) in Jhuran Formation from Palara section; B) plagioclase feldspar (yellow arrow) and pore-
filling carbonate cement (red arrow) in Bhuj Formation from Bhuj section; C) rock fragment in Jhuran Formation showing tectonic fabric
(yellow arrow); and D) rutile (yellow arrow) in the Jhuran Formation and zircon (red arrow) from Zara section, and EeF) garnet grain (red
arrow) in the Jhuran Formation from Tapkeshwar section.

The slides were kept to air-dry for 24 hours followed by sorted arkoses with sub-angular to sub-rounded
oven-dry for 24 hours at 50
C. Mineral compositions of framework grains. The sandstones in the youngest
heavy minerals were analyzed using a Cameca SX Five Bhuj Formation are relatively coarser and are poorly
Electron Probe Micro Analyzer (EPMA) at the Depart- sorted than other Formations. Quartz grains are
ment of Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay. The details of the dominantly monocrystalline, with a few grains showing
analytical procedure for EPMA mineral analysis are undulose extinction. Polycrystalline quartz grains
summarized in Chaudhuri et al. (2020d). showing tectonic fabric are rare (Fig. 5C) (e.g.,
Ingersoll and Suczek 1979; Tortosa et al., 1991). K-
feldspars are dominant, but plagioclase feldspars are
4. Results also found in all the studied sandstones (Fig. 5B).
Overgrowths on quartz grains are commonly abraded.
4.1. Petrography of sandstones The pore spaces in these sandstones are filled with
carbonate and ferruginous cement (Fig. 5B). Rhom-
The Mesozoic sandstones in the Kutch Basin are bohedral dolomitic cement is common in sandstones of
predominantly medium- to fine-grained, moderately the Bhuj Formation (Fig. 5B). Feldspar grains in
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 181

Fig. 6 Cross-polarized photomicrographs of Dharangadhara sandstones showing A) coarse-grained, ferruginous-coated framework grains with
carbonate cement (red arrow), chert grains (green arrow) and polycrystalline quartz (yellow arrow) at the Gaushala road of Ranipat For-
mation; B) Surajdeval Formation showing siliceous cement (red arrow) and muscovite (yellow arrow) from Songadh section; C) Ranipat
Formation are medium-grained sandstones with orthoclase feldspar (yellow arrow) at Kaplidhar section; D) Than Formation contains
metamorphic rock fragments (yellow arrow) at Thangadh area; E) plagioclase feldspar (yellow arrow) in sandstone of Ranipat Formation from
Gaushala road, and F) rutile grains (yellow arrow) in calcareous sandstone of Wadhwan Formation at Baghela.

sandstones are occasionally replaced by carbonate The Dhrangadhra Group is made up of fine- to
cement along grain boundaries and cleavage planes. coarse-grained (Fig. 6A), poorly to moderately sorted,
The common heavy minerals in these sandstones are angular to subrounded grains of quartz, feldspar and
zircon, tourmaline, rutile, garnet and opaques (Fig. 5D rock fragments. Quartz content in the sandstone is
and E). The average composition of the Mesozoic ~85% by volume with minor feldspar (4% by volume)
sandstone of Kutch is Q52F47R1 (Supplementary Data 1). and rock fragments (11% by volume). Quartz grains are
In the QFR plot (Folk, 1974), most of these sandstones predominantly monocrystalline, showing undulatory
occupy the field of arkose, with a few data plotting in extinction (Fig. 6C). Although orthoclase is the com-
the subarkose field (Fig. 10A). In the QFL plot mon feldspar (Fig. 6C), plagioclase (Fig. 6E) and
(Dickinson et al., 1983), the majority of the sandstones microcline are also found. The mica is a muscovite
indicate transitional continental setting, with a few type (Fig. 6B). Rock fragments include polycrystalline
data indicating basement uplift provenance (Fig. 10B). quartz (Fig. 6A), chert (Fig. 6A) and gneissic rock
182 P.K. Rajak et al.

Fig. 7 Cross-polarized photomicrographs of Cretaceous Nimar Sandstone showing A) Gayatri mandir, Bagh area sandstones are medium-
grained calcareous sandstones with rounded zircon (red arrow) at the lower; B) medium-grained sandstone with rounded chert (yellow
arrow) at the upper part; C) Rampur sandstone section showing microcline (yellow arrow); D) abraded quartz overgrowth (yellow arrow) in
the Raisinghpur sandstone section; E) Man river section showing moderately sorted sandstone with brown tourmaline (red arrow) and F)
rounded polycrystalline quartz grain with tectonic fabric (yellow arrow).

fragments (Fig. 6D). The formation is dominated by The framework grains of the Nimar Sandstone are
silica cement (Fig. 6B) with subordinate iron oxide medium- to fine-grained, rounded to subangular and
(Fig. 6E) and calcite cement (Fig. 6A and F). Silica moderately to well sorted. The sandstone contains
cement mostly occupies the intragranular pore spaces quartz, feldspar, rock fragments, mica and heavy
but also occurs as overgrowths. The heavy minerals in minerals. Quartz (79% by volume) grains are domi-
the formation include zircon, tourmaline, rutile, nantly monocrystalline, showing undulatory extinc-
garnet, ilmenite, monazite and opaques. Sandstones tion. The feldspar (9% by volume) is dominated by
of the Dhrangadhra Group occupy the fields of sub- microcline with subordinate orthoclase and rare
litharenite in the QFR plot of Folk (1974) (Fig. 10A). plagioclase (Fig. 7C). Lithic fragments (12% by volume)
The average composition of the sandstone is Q85F4R11. are mainly chert, polycrystalline quartz (Fig. 7B and F)
The QFL (Dickinson et al., 1983) data occupy recycled and metamorphic gneiss. Mica belongs to the musco-
orogen field with a few data points in the field for vite type. The sandstone is cemented mainly by
craton interior (Fig. 10B). calcite, quartz and iron oxide (Fig. 7A and D). Quartz
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 183

Fig. 8 Photomicrographs of Lower Member of Himmatnagar Sandstone of Cambay Basin showing A) angular to subangular, medium-sized
quartz grains with green and yellow tourmaline (red arrow) and orthoclase (green arrow) at the Hathmati river section, the coarse-
grained sandstone variety showing B) subangular to subrounded, moderately sorted grains from Vantada village section; C) Bhavpur sand-
stone thin section showing detrital quartz overgrowth (yellow arrow) and zircon (red arrow); D) metamorphic rock fragments, (yellow arrow),
sedimentary rock fragments (red arrow) and polycrystalline quartz (green arrow) from Dhundhor village; E) sedimentary rock fragments from
Dhundhor section (yellow arrow) and F) cluster of zircon grains at the Bhavpur village section (yellow arrow) (A in plane-polarized light, BeF
under crossed-polars).

cement occurs as overgrowths. Abraded quartz over- grains of quartz and feldspar (Fig. 8A). Quartz grains
growth is present in the Nimar Sandstone (Fig. 7D). The predominate (86% by volume) the sandstone, with
heavy minerals include zircon, tourmaline, rutile, minor feldspar, rock fragment, mica and heavy min-
apatite and opaques (Fig. 7A and E). QFR data of the eral. Quartz is predominantly monocrystalline,
Nimar Sandstone occupy the fields of sub-arkose and showing undulatory extinction. Detrital quartz over-
sub-litharenite in the plot of Folk (1974), with the growth is common in the Himmatnagar Sandstone
majority of sandstone containing 75% to 85% quartz (Fig. 8C). Although orthoclase is the common feldspar
grains (Fig. 10A). The average composition of the (Fig. 8A), occasionally plagioclase and microcline are
sandstone is Q79F9R12. The QFL data of sandstones plot found. Both biotite and muscovite occur in the sand-
within recycled orogen field (Dickinson et al., 1983) stone, but muscovite is a common type of mica present
(Fig. 10B). in the sandstone. The rock fragments include chert,
Sandstone in the Himmatnagar Formation is me- gneiss and polycrystalline quartz showing distinct
dium- to coarse-grained (Fig. 8B), poorly to moder- metamorphic fabric (Fig. 8D). The formation is domi-
ately sorted, consisting of sub-angular to subrounded nated by chalcedony cement (Fig. 8C) with
184 P.K. Rajak et al.

Fig. 9 Photomicrographs under the polarizing microscope showing zircon, rutile, tourmaline, apatite and staurolite grains from Kutch,
Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins (Kutch Basin-zircon (A), rutile (B) and tourmaline (C); Saurashtra Basin-apatite (D), zircon (E), rutile
(F) and tourmaline (G); Narmada basin-apatite (H), zircon (I), rutile (J) and tourmaline (K and L); Cambay Basin-staurolite (M), zircon (N),
rutile (O) and tourmaline (P).

subordinate ferruginous cement. Chalcedony cement plot of Folk (1974) (Fig. 10A). The average composition
mostly occupies the intragranular pore spaces of the Himmatnagar Sandstone is Q86F6R9. The QFL
(Fig. 7E). Rounded zircon and detrital quartz over- data of sandstones plot within the craton interior and
growth are common (Fig. 8C and F). Sandstones occupy recycled orogen fields (Dickinson et al., 1983)
the fields of sub-arkose and sub-litharenite in the QFR (Fig. 10B).
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 185

Fig. 10 A) QFR diagram of Folk (1974) and B) QFL tectonic setting diagram of Dickinson et al. (1983) showing sandstone data of Kutch,
Saurashtra, Narmada, and Cambay basins [For QFR, total Q = Qm + Qp(2e3) + Qp(>3), Total F = K + P + M and Total
R = Lv + Ls + Lm + Chert + Qp(>10) and QFL, Q = Qm + Qp(2e3) + Qp(>3) + Chert + Quartzite, F = K + P + M and L = Lv + Ls + Lm. Where
Q = Quartz, Qm = Monocrystalline quartz, Qp = Polycrystalline quartz; F = Feldspar, K = Orthoclase, P = Plagioclase and M = Microcline; L/
R = Lithic/Rock fragments, Lv = Volcanic lithic fragments, Ls = Sedimentary lithic Fragments, Lm = Metamorphic lithic fragments].

4.2. Heavy mineral study are dominantly sub-angular to sub-rounded and appear
greenish-brown to bluish-green (Fig. 9C). Rutile grains
Zircon, rutile, tourmaline, garnet and monazite with sub-angular to sub-rounded morphologies show a
occur as predominant heavy minerals within the sand- reddish-brown to amber-brown appearance (Fig. 9B).
stones of the Kutch Basin. Sub-rounded to rounded Heavy minerals of the Dhrangadhra Group in the
zircon grains appear colourless to pale pink, with a few Saurashtra Basin include tourmaline, rutile, zircon,
grains showing brown colour (Fig. 9A). Tourmaline grains opaques, monazite, apatite and staurolite. Zircon

Fig. 11 Concentrations of Cr and Nb in rutiles of Mesozoic sandstones. Cr vs Nb source rock discrimination plot (Triebold et al., 2012) of A)
Kutch, B) Saurashtra, C) Narmada and D) Cambay basins. While the Saurashtra Basin is dominated by only metapelitic sources, the Kutch,
Narmada and Cambay basins show dominance of a metapelitic source with minor metamafic input.
186 P.K. Rajak et al.

Fig. 12 The ternary Ca-Fetot-Mg plot (molecular proportion) (Henry and Guidotti, 1985) showing source rock characteristics of tourmalines
from the A) Kutch, B) Saurashtra, C) Narmada and D) Cambay basins. A total of 227 tourmaline grains from all these basins were analyzed,
with one measurement per grain. The numbered fields in the ternary Ca-Fetot-Mg plot represent different rock types: (1) Li-rich granitoid
pegmatites and aplites, (2) Li-poor granitoids and associated pegmatites and aplites, (3) Ca-rich metapelites, metapsammites and calc-
silicate rocks, (4) Ca-poor metapelites, metapsammites and quartz-tourmaline rocks, (5) Metacarbonates, and (6) Metaultramafics.

grains are colourless to pale pink (Fig. 9E). The shape rutile grains show sub-angular to sub-rounded shapes
of zircon varies from elongated, rounded to sub- (Fig. 9O). Staurolite shows angular to subangular
rounded and prismatic. Tourmaline is green, yellow shapes and is generally colourless (Fig. 9M).
and brown with angular to subrounded shapes
(Fig. 9G). Rutile grains are red to light brown, exhib- 4.2.1. Rutile mineral chemistry
iting elongated to subrounded shapes (Fig. 9E). The
apatite grains are elongated and colourless (Fig. 9D). A total of 113 rutile grains in sandstones of Kutch,
Heavy minerals in the Nimar Sandstone in the Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins were analyzed
Narmada Basin include tourmaline, rutile, zircon, (Supplementary Data 2). The average (of 38 grains) TiO2
ilmenite, apatite, opaques and monazite. Zircon grains content of rutile in Kutch sandstone is 98.30 wt%. The
are colourless, light yellow and light blue (Fig. 9I). The average (of 25 grains) TiO2 content of rutile in the Sau-
shape of the zircon grain varies from rounded to sub- rashtra Basin is 98.77 wt%. The Cr content of the ma-
rounded, prismatic and elongated. Tourmaline grains jority of the rutile grains remains within 2000 ppm,
show yellow, brown, green, and blue colours with whereas the Nb content of rutile varies from 500 to
shapes varying shapes (Fig. 9K and L). Rutile grains are 5000 ppm. The average Cr and Nb concentrations of
red to deep red and are angular to subrounded rutile grains in the Kutch Basin are 1161 and 2127 ppm,
(Fig. 9J). A few grains of apatite (Fig. 9H) and mona- respectively (Fig. 11A). Cr and Nd concentrations of
zite are found in sandstones. rutile grains in Saurashtra sandstones are 1204 ppm and
The most common heavy minerals in the sand- 2172 ppm, respectively (Fig. 11B). Although the average
stones of the Himmatnagar Formation in Cambay Basin (of 26 grains) TiO2 content of rutile grains in the Nimar
are tourmaline, zircon, rutile, ilmenite, opaques, Sandstone (98.78 wt%) is similar to those of Kutch and
staurolite and monazite. Zircon grains are sub-rounded Saurashtra sandstones. The average concentrations of
to rounded and are generally colourless to light blue Cr and Nb elements in Nimar sandstones are 1526 ppm
(Fig. 9N). Tourmaline grains are yellow and green and and 1818 ppm, respectively (Fig. 11C). The average TiO2
are sub-rounded to prismatic (Fig. 9P). The deep red content of 24 grains of rutile in the Cambay Basin is
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 187

97.54 wt%. Cr and Nb concentrations in the rutile are quartz grains in these basins are possibly derived from
1884 and 1296 ppm, respectively (Fig. 11D). The rela- a granitic source (cf. Basu et al., 1975). Polycrystalline
tionship between Cr and Nb reveals a metapelitic origin quartz grains consist either of a few subgrains with
for the majority of rutile grains for all basins straight to slightly curved boundaries or a large num-
(Fig. 11AeD). A few rutile grains, however, show a ber of elongated crystals, exhibiting irregular to
metamafic origin. serrated grain boundaries (Figs. 6A, 7F and 8D). The
first type of polycrystalline quartz indicates its deri-
4.2.2. Tourmaline mineral chemistry vation from plutonic igneous rocks (Blatt and Christie,
1963; Folk, 1974; Blatt et al., 1980), whereas the
A total of 227 tourmaline grains were analyzed in second type of polycrystalline quartz suggests a
sandstones of Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay metamorphic origin (Blatt et al., 1980). Hence, the
basins (Supplementary Data 3). Schorl and dravite are nature of quartz grains demonstrates their derivation
the most common varieties of tourmaline. In the Ca- from a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic
Fetotal-Mg plot (cf. Henry and Guidotti, 1985), the sources. The content of feldspar is highest within the
majority of data plot at the bottom part of the trian- sandstones of Kutch. The abundance of feldspar is
gular diagram, covering both Fe and Mg ends. The controlled by two factors e a) the transport distance
average FeO, MgO and CaO contents of tourmalines of of sediments from source to sink and/or b) the pres-
Kutch sandstones are 7.56, 4.91 and 0.65 wt%, ence of local feldspathic source rocks (Dickinson and
respectively. The Ca-Fetot-Mg plot (Fig. 12A) indicates Suczek, 1979). The sandstones in all four basins indi-
the derivation of tourmaline grains primarily from cate the dominance of felsic composition in source
type-4 (Ca-poor metapelites, metapsammites and rocks. The abundance of feldspars in the Kutch Basin
quartz-tourmaline) and type-2 (Li-poor granitoids, possibly corresponds to the orthoclase-rich, syenitic
pegmatites and aplites) fields with minor inputs from basement rocks in the source (Biswas and Deshpande,
type-3 (Ca-rich metapelites, metapsammites and calc- 1968). The presence of angular rutile grains and
silicates) field. The average FeO, MgO and CaO con- rounded tourmaline minerals suggests the derivation
tents of tourmalines of Dharangadhara sandstones are of sediments from both nearby and long-distance
8.54, 5.95 and 0.93 wt%, respectively. The Ca-Fetotal- sources, indicating multiple sources. Rounded zircons
Mg plot data of tourmalines plot exclusively within and abraded overgrowth of quartz grains in the Kutch,
type-4 field (Fig. 12B). The average contents of FeO, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins suggest a
MgO and CaO in the tourmaline of Nimar Sandstone are polycyclic origin of the sediments (Figs. 7A, D, 8C, F
10.78, 3.83 and 0.60 wt%, respectively. The tourmaline and 9A) (Pettijohn et al., 1987; Zuffa, 1987). The
data plots in equal proportions within type-2 and type- paleocurrent data of fluvial sandstones in the Kutch,
4 fields (Fig. 12C). The FeO, MgO and CaO contents of Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins infer an
tourmaline in the Himmatnagar Sandstone are 9.09, overall southwesterly paleoslope (Fig. 2; see also
5.76 and 0.85 wt%, respectively. Most data plot within Aquil, 1982; Biswas, 1987; Ahmad and Akhtar, 1990;
the type-4 field while a few data occupy type-2 and Casshyap and Aslam, 1992; Bhatt et al., 2016; Mandal
type-3 fields (Fig. 12D). et al., 2016; Arora, 2017; Khan et al., 2017; Chaudhuri
et al., 2020b). Therefore, sediments in these Mesozoic
basins were mostly derived from common source
rocks.
5. Discussion
5.2. Rutile and tourmaline chemistry for
5.1. Source implications of major minerals in source characterization
sandstones
Rutile grains are commonly identified in medium-to
Sandstones of the Saurashtra Basin are primarily high-grade metamorphic rocks and as well as in silici-
sublitharenite with minor quartz arenite, whereas clastic sedimentary rocks (Force, 1980, 1991). Because
sandstones of the Narmada and Cambay basins are of high mechanical and chemical stability, it is one of
classified as sublitharenite and subarkose (Fig. 10A). the significant heavy minerals for provenance studies
However, the sandstones of the Kutch Basin are pre- (Morton and Hallsworth, 1999). The contents of Cr and
dominantly of arkosic type with minor subarkose Nb in rutile distinguish between metamafics and met-
(Fig. 10A). Sandstones show a predominance of apelites source lithologies (Zack et al., 2002, 2004b;
monocrystalline quartz with a minor proportion of Triebold et al., 2007, 2012; Meinhold et al., 2008). The
polycrystalline quartz grains. The monocrystalline average TiO2 content of rutile in all basins is broadly
188 P.K. Rajak et al.

similar. The majority of rutile grains in these basins interior signature due to the long-distance trans-
derive from metapelitic source rocks (Fig. 11AeD). portation and weathering, sourced by granitoid and
Rutile mineral data reveals minor inputs of sediments gneiss (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979). The quartzo-
from metamafic sources in the Kutch, Saurashtra and feldspathic sandstone indicates transitional continen-
Narmada basins. Although Cr and Nb contents of rutiles tal signatures due to the mixing of sediments from
of Mesozoic sandstones broadly overlap, Narmada data stable craton interior and uplifted basement rocks
show a distinct cluster showing an intermediate Nb and (Dickinson and Suczek, 1979). The sandstones of the
intermediate to high Cr concentrations. Kutch Basin indicate the predominance of transitional
Tourmaline compositions are characterized by the continental provenance, with signatures of the uplif-
range of elbaite-schorl and schorl-dravite/uvite solid ted basement in the older Mesozoic (Fig. 10A and B;
solution series (von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999). The see also Chaudhuri et al., 2018). The whole-rock
composition of tourmaline varies widely based on the geochemistry of shales in the Kutch Basin further
nature of source rocks. The Ca-Fetotal-Mg plot shows supports the passive continental margin setting
the compositional variation of tourmalines about their (Chaudhuri et al., 2020a). Sandstones of Saurashtra,
source rocks (Henry and Guidotti, 1985). The Ca-rich Narmada and Cambay basins show the predominant
tourmalines, that originated from Li-rich granitoid, sediment inputs from a recycled orogeny (Fig. 10).
pegmatite and aplite, are classified as type-1. The Fe- However, a few data of Saurashtra and Cambay sand-
rich tourmaline grains, classified as type 2, typically stones suggest a craton interior setting (Fig. 10A and
occur in Li-poor granitoid, pegmatite and aplite. The B). Lithic fragments (chert, gneissic rocks and poly-
Ca-rich tourmalines in metapelites, metapsammites crystalline quartz), abraded quartz overgrowths and
and calc-silicates are considered as type-3. The type-4 rounded zircons are common in these basins. The high
tourmaline is Mg-rich, occurring in Ca-poor meta- lithic content in sandstones relates to local sediment
pelites, metapsammites and quartz-tourmaline rocks. inputs, possibly from rift shoulders. As vast areas of the
Types 5 and 6 tourmalines are usually observed in outcrop are covered by Deccan Traps and Holocene
metacarbonates and metapyroxenites, respectively. sediments, it is difficult to differentiate the sources of
The Ca-Fetotal-Mg plot suggests the derivation of lithics (Fig. 2).
tourmaline in the Mesozoic sandstones from Ca-poor
sources (Fig. 12). Tourmalines in the Kutch, Narmada 5.4. Inferred sources for Mesozoic sandstones
and Cambay basins are primarily derived from Li-poor
sources (Fig. 12A, C and D) with a minor contribution The disintegration of India from Gondwanaland
from Ca-rich source rocks (Fig. 12A and D). Rutile turned the craton-margin rifts into passive margins as
chemistry shows the dominance of metapelitic signa- the Indian plate took a northward drift. Sedimentation
tures in the Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay took place in shallow marine settings in the Mesozoic
basins (Fig. 11). Tourmalines in Saurashtra sandstone interlinked basins during the Jurassic and Cretaceous
correspond to Ca-poor metapelites, metapsammites periods. The Narmada Basin was the last to form at the
and quartz-tourmaline source rocks. Kutch and Cam- western margin of India during the Late Cretaceous
bay basins show minor contributions of tourmaline period (Fig. 2; Tandon, 2000; Kumari et al., 2020;
grains from Ca-dominated metapelites, meta- Keller et al., 2021).
psammites and calc-silicates rocks (Fig. 12A and D). Owing to the southwesterly paleoslope of the
The rutile and tourmaline mineral chemistry results Kutch, Saurashtra and Narmada basins, the sediments
are consistent with the petrographic observations, were derived primarily from source rocks occurring to
indicating multiple sediment sources for the Mesozoic the northeast of the study area. The Cambay Basin,
basins. Although previous studies indicated multiple formed at the eastern margin of both basins during the
sediment sources for the Mesozoic sandstones of Kutch Early Cretaceous. Although the initial subsidence of
(Chaudhuri et al., 2018, 2020a,b,c, 2021), the present the Cambay Basin was slow, it subsided rapidly during
investigation demonstrates variable sediment sources the Cenozoic time. During this time, the Narmada
for Mesozoic sandstones in four Mesozoic basins in Basin was extended up to the central part of the Indian
western India. Craton. The Aravalli highlands, comprising igneous and
metamorphic rocks of felsic and mafic composition,
5.3. Paleotectonics lied to the north and northeast of these basins. Paleo-
to Mesoproterozoic metasediments of the Aravalli Su-
The QFL triangular plot of Dickinson et al. (1983) pergroup and Meso- to Neoproterozoic Delhi Super-
distinguishes between various tectonic settings. group, along with Neoproterozoic Erinpura Granite,
Quartzose sandstones retain the dominant craton Malani igneous suites, Idar Granite, constituted the
Tracking sources and paleotectonic settings of Mesozoic sandstones, western India 189

Aravalli-Delhi fold belt (Figs. 1 and 2) (Crawford, 1975; and Cambay basins witnessed a period of non-deposition
Trivedi et al., 1987; Gupta et al., 1997; Roy and Jakhar, and Deccan volcanism during this time. The west to
2002; Sinha-Roy et al., 2013). The Bundelkhand west-southwestward paleoslope of the Narmada Basin
Craton, located to the east of the study area, consists indicates sediment supply from both east and north.
of Bundelkhand massif, Bijawar Group of rocks, Gwa- The AravallieDelhi fold belt contributed major
lior Group of rocks and Vindhyan sediments. The Bun- sediment supply to the Kutch, Saurashtra and Cambay
delkhand massif is composed of Mesoarchean basins (Fig. 2). Rutile and tourmaline chemistry bear
Bundelkhand Gneissic Complex (BnGC) with Tonali- imprints of metapelitic sources in sandstones of the
teeTrondhjemiteeGranodiorites (TTG), Neoarchean Kutch, Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins.
volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Greenstone belt, Mineral chemical data of Nimar sandstones in the
Neoarchean granites, Proterozoic quartz reefs and Narmada Basin are unlike Aravalli metapelities, sug-
mafic dykes (Sharma, 2000; Rao et al., 2005; gesting derivation of major sediment input from
Bhattacharya and Singh, 2013; Singh and Divedi, 2015). Bundelkhand Craton besides minor inputs from the
The Vindhyan Supergroup, located to the east of the Aravalli Craton.
study area, predominantly comprises calcareous, In summary, the comparative provenance study of
arenaceous and argillaceous sediments, and overlies these Mesozoic basins identifies the banded gneissic
the BnGC in the SE, S and SW regions. The Lower Pro- complex, Aravalli and Delhi supergroups as the major
terozoic Gwalior Group, consisting of shales, sand- sediment contributors for Kutch, Saurashtra and
stones, cherts, conglomerates and grits, occurs Cambay basins. The Narmada Basin received sedi-
towards the northwest of the BnGC. The Bijawar ments primarily from Bundelkhand Craton, Bijawar,
Group, to the south of Bundelkhand craton, comprises Gwalior Group and Vindhyan Supergroup, with minor
sandstone, shale, dolomite, chert, conglomerate, inputs from Aravalli and Delhi supergroups.
breccia, volcanic traps, phosphorite and quartzite
(Kumar et al., 1990).
The basin architecture and tectonics control the 6. Conclusions
sedimentation history and geotectonic evolution of the
studied basins with geological time (Biswas, 1982, 1) The petrography and heavy mineral chemistry of the
1987). Extensive study of Mesozoic Kutch Basin sedi- sandstones belonging to the interlinked Kutch, Sau-
ments revealed several possible source rocks, including rashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins at the western
banded gneissic complex, Aravalli and Delhi super- margin of India indicate multiple source rocks,
groups, Nagar-Parkar igneous suite and Malani igneous dominated by felsic rocks. The texture of heavy
suite (Chaudhuri et al., 2018, 2020a,b,c,d). Detrital minerals bears a recycled nature of sediments.
geochronology of zircon and monazite suggests the 2) Rutile mineral chemical data indicate the predom-
dominance of source rocks equivalent to the Pan-African inance of metapelitic source rocks in the Kutch,
Orogeny (Chaudhuri et al., 2020b). The paucity of out- Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay basins.
crops related to the Pan-African Orogeny could be 3) The mineral chemical data of tourmaline points to
attributed to the extensive cover of Deccan volcanic the predominance of Ca-poor metapelites, meta-
rocks (Fig. 1, Chaudhuri et al., 2020b). The Saurashtra psammites and quartz-tourmaline sources in all
Basin formed on the continuity of the Aravalli trend and four basins. Li-poor granitic source rocks are
possibly received sediments from source rocks similar to envisaged as an additional source for the Kutch,
Kutch Basin. The Kutch and Saurashtra basins could have Narmada and Cambay basins.
formed a thick pile of sediments until Early Cretaceous 4) The Kutch Basin received sediments dominantly
time. The Saurashtra Basin was uplifted during the from a transitional continental tectonic setting. In
Upper Cretaceous and the Cambay Basin came into ex- contrast, the Saurashtra, Narmada and Cambay
istence (Hardas, 1980; Biswas, 1987). The NNWeSSE basins were dominated by sediments derived from a
oriented Cambay Basin, sloping towards the south, recycled orogeny, with minor craton interior tec-
formed during the Early Cretaceous, which separated tonic settings during the Jurassic to Cretaceous
the Kutch-Saurashtra basins from the Aravallis (Fig. 2). period.
The fluvial sandstones of the Cambay Basin are corre- 5) The present study established multiple igneous and
latable with Lower Cretaceous fluvio-deltaic deposits of metamorphic source rocks for four Mesozoic basins
Kutch-Saurashtra, implying possible cross-trends across in western and northwestern India. Banded gneissic
the Cambay Basin (Biswas, 1987). Sedimentation took complex, Aravalli and Delhi supergroups supplied
place in the Narmada Basin during the Late Cretaceous sediments to the Kutch as well as Saurashtra and
due to the subsidence of the Narmada graben. The Kutch Cambay basins. However, the Narmada Basin
190 P.K. Rajak et al.

received the majority of its sediments from Bun- (Ph.D. dissertation). Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
delkhand Craton, Bijawar Group and Vindhyan Su- Uttar Pradesh, India.
pergroup, with a minor contribution from Aravalli Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Lee, Y.I., Kasper-Zubillaga, J.J., Car-
ranza-Edwards, A., Garcia, D., Eby, G.N., Balaram, V.,
and Delhi supergroups.
Cruz-Ortiz, N.L., 2012. Geochemistry of beach sands
along the western Gulf of Mexico, Mexico: Implication
for provenance. Geochemistry, 72, 345e362.
Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Machain-Castillo, M.L., Rosales-
Conflicts of interest Hoz, L., Carranza-Edwards, A., Sanchez-Cabeza, J.A.,
Ruíz-Fernandez, A.C., 2015. Provenance and depositional
The authors declare that there is no conflict of history of continental slope sediments in the South-
interest. western Gulf of Mexico unraveled by geochemical anal-
ysis. Continental Shelf Research, 95, 15e26.
Armstrong-Altrin, J.S., Lee, Y.I., Kasper-Zubillaga, J.J., Trejo-
Ramírez, E., 2017. Mineralogy and geochemistry of sands
Acknowledgements along the Manzanillo and El Carrizal beach areas, southern
Mexico: Implications for palaeoweathering, provenance
The authors are pleased to the Indian Institute of and tectonic setting. Geological Journal, 52, 559e582.
Arora, A., Banerjee, S., Dutta, S., 2015. Black shale in late
Technology Bombay for infrastructure facilities. The
Jurassic Jhuran Formation of Kutch: Possible indicator of
authors are also thankful to S.C. Patel and Javed M. oceanic anoxic event. Journal of the Geological Society,
Shaikh for providing analytical support at the DST-IITB 85, 265e278.
National facility for EPMA, Department of Earth Sci- Arora, A., Dutta, S., Gogoi, B., Banerjee, S., 2017. The ef-
ences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. Authors fects of igneous dike intrusion on organic black shale
thank Indian Institute of Technology Bombay for the and its implications: Late Jurassic Jhuran Formation,
financial support (RI/0220-1000613-001) to SB. India. International Journal of Coal Geology, 178, 84e99.
Arora, A., 2017. Integrated Sedimentological and Organic
Geochemical Investigations of the Mesozoic Jhuran For-
mation of Kutch for Palaeo-Environmental Interpreta-
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