Oscillations

Periodic motion:
“Any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.”

A few examples of periodic motion are

(1) The motion of any planet around the sun in an elliptical orbit is periodic.
(2) The revolution of moon around the earth is a periodic motion with time period 27.3
days.
(3) The motion of the hands of a clock is periodic.
(4) The heartbeats of a human being are periodic with time period of about 0.8 second for a
normal person.

Oscillatory motion:
“If a body moves to and fro repeatedly about its mean position, its motion is said to be
oscillatory or vibratory or harmonic motion.”

Few examples of oscillatory motion are,

(1) The swinging motion of the pendulum of a wall clock.
(2) The oscillations of a mass suspended from a spring.
(3) The motion of the piston of an automobile engine.
(4) The vibrations of the string of a guitar.

Periodic functions
“A function is said to be periodic if it repeats itself after time period T i.e. the same function is
obtained when the variable t is changed to t + T.”
Consider the following periodic functions:
2𝜋 2𝜋
f(t) = sin t and g(t) = cos t
𝑇 𝑇

Here, T is the time period of the periodic motion and is equal to 2π radians. We can see that if
the variable t is changed to t + T, the same function results i.e.

f(t+T) = sin [ 2𝜋
𝑇
(t + T)] = sin (
2𝜋𝑡
𝑇
+ 2π) = sin
2𝜋
𝑇
t [∵ sin (𝜃 + 2π) = sin𝜃]
⇒ f (t + T) = f(t)
Similarly, g(t+T) = g(t)
It can be easily verified that, f (t + nT) = f(t) and g (t + nT) = g(t) where n = 1,2,3, ………….
Further, a linear combination of sine and cosine functions like f(t) = A sin𝝎t + B cos𝝎t is also a
periodic function with a period T.
Taking A = D cos 𝜙 and B = D sin𝜙, we have
f(t) = D sin𝜔t cos𝜙 + D cos𝜔t sin𝜙

⇒ f(t) = D sin (𝜔t + 𝜙)

Here D and 𝜙 are constants whose values are given by,

A2 + B2 = D2(cos2𝜙 + sin2𝜙) = D2 ⇒ D = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2

𝐵 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝐵
and = = tan 𝜙 ⇒ 𝜙 = tan-1( )
𝐴 𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝐴

Note: The periodic functions which can be represented by a sine or cosine curve are called
harmonic functions.
All harmonic functions are necessarily periodic, but all periodic functions are not
harmonic. The periodic functions which cannot be represented by single sine or cosine
functions are called non-harmonic functions. For example, tangent and cotangent functions are
periodic with period π while secant and cosecant are periodic with period 2π but such functions
take values between zero and infinity. So, these functions cannot be used to represent
displacement functions in periodic motions because displacement always takes a finite value in
any physical situations.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

“A particle is said to execute SHM if it moves to and fro about a mean position under the
action of a restoring force which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean
position and is always directed towards the mean position.”
Restoring force ∝ displacement i.e.
F ∝ x

⇒F=-kx
This equation defines SHM. Here k is a positive constant called force constant or spring factor
which can be defined as the restoring force produced per unit displacement. The SI unit of k is
Nm-1. The negative sign in the above equation shows that the restoring force F always acts in
the opposite direction of the displacement x.
According to Newton's second law, F = ma

⇒ ma = - k x
 𝑘
⇒a=- x i.e. a ∝ x
𝑚

Hence, SHM can also be defined as,

“A particle is said to possess SHM if it moves to and fro about a mean position under an
acceleration which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and is
always directed towards the mean position.”
Examples of SHM:
(1) Oscillations of a loaded spring.
(2) Vibrations of a tuning fork.
(3) Vibrations of the balance wheel of a watch.
(4) Oscillations of a freely suspended magnet in a uniform magnetic field.

Differential equation for SHM

In SHM, the restoring force acting on the particle is proportional to its displacement. Thus

F=-kx
𝑑2 𝑥
⇒m =-kx
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑘
⇒ =- x = - 𝜔2 x (By taking 𝜔2 = )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⇒ + 𝝎2 x = 0 ………… (1)
𝒅𝒕𝟐

This is the differential equation of SHM. Here 𝜔 is the angular frequency.

So, a possible solution of eqn (1) may be of the form,
x = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝑑𝑥
⇒ = - 𝜔 A sin (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
⇒ = - 𝜔2 A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0) = - 𝜔2 x
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥
⇒ + 𝜔2 x = 0 which is same as eqn (1).
𝑑𝑡 2

Hence the solution of eqn (1) is, x = A cos (𝝎t + 𝝓0) ……………………… (2)
It gives the displacement of the harmonic oscillator at any instant. Here A is the amplitude of
the oscillating particle. (𝜔t + 𝜙0) is called the phase of the oscillating particle. The constant 𝜙0 is
called the phase constant.
Time period of SHM: We have x = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
2𝜋
If we replace t by (t + ), then we get
𝜔
2𝜋
x = A cos [𝜔(t + ) + 𝜙0] = A cos [(𝜔t + 2π) + 𝜙0] = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋
i.e. the motion repeats after time interval . Hence is the time period of SHM.
𝜔 𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋
∴T= = = 2π √𝑚𝑘
𝜔 𝑘
√
𝑚

Some important terms related to SHM

(1) Harmonic oscillator: “A particle executing simple harmonic motion is called a harmonic
oscillator.”
(2) Displacement: “The distance of the oscillating particle from its mean position at any
instant is called its displacement.” It is denoted by x.
(3) Amplitude: “The maximum displacement of the oscillating particle on either side of its
mean position is called its amplitude.”
It is denoted by A. xmax = ± A.
(4) Oscillation or Cycle: “One complete to and fro motion of a particle starting and ending
at the same point is called a cycle or oscillation or vibration.”
(5) Time period: “The time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation is called its time
period.” OR
“It is the smallest time interval after which the oscillatory motion repeats.”
It is denoted by T.
(6) Frequency: “It is defined as the no. of oscillations completed per unit time by a particle.”
𝟏
It is denoted by 𝜈 and 𝝂 = .
𝑻
Unit of frequency is S-1 or Hertz (Hz) or cycle per second (CPS).
(7) Angular frequency: “It is the quantity obtained by multiplying frequency 𝜈 by a factor of
2π.” It is denoted by 𝜔.
𝟐𝝅
∴ 𝝎 = 2π𝝂 = . Its SI unit is rad s-1.
𝑻
(8) Phase: “The phase of a vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle as
regards its position and direction of motion at that instant.”
It is equal to the argument of sine or cosine function occurring in the displacement
equation of SHM.
 Suppose a simple harmonic motion is represented by, x = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0).
Then phase of the particle is, 𝝓 = 𝝎t + 𝝓0.
Clearly, the phase 𝜙 is a function of time t. It is usually expressed either as the fraction
of the time period or fraction of angle 2π that has elapsed since the vibrating particle
last passed its mean position in the positive direction.

𝜋 3𝜋
𝝓 = 𝝎t + 𝝓0 0 π 2π
2 2
x = A cos (𝝎t + 𝝓0) +A 0 -A 0 +A
Thus, the phase 𝜙 gives an idea about the position and the direction of motion of the
oscillating particle.
(9) Phase constant or Initial phase: “The phase of a vibrating particle corresponding to time
t = 0 is called its initial phase or phase constant.”
At t = 0, 𝜙 = 𝜙0.
It tells about the initial state of motion of the vibrating particle.
SHM and Uniform circular motion
Consider a particle P moving along a circle of radius A with uniform angular velocity 𝜔. Let N be
the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point P to the
diameter XX’. Then N is called the projection of P on the diameter
XX’. As P moves along the circle from X to Y, Y to X’, X’ to Y’ and
Y’ to X, N moves from X to O, O to X’, X’ to O and O to X. Thus,
as P revolves along the circumference of the circle, N moves to
and fro above the point O along the diameter XX’. The motion
of N about O is said to be simple harmonic. Hence,
“Simple harmonic motion may be defined as the projection of
uniform circular motion upon a diameter of a circle.”
The particle P is called reference particle or generating particle and the circle along which the
particle P revolves is called circle of reference.

Displacement in SHM
Consider a particle moving in anticlockwise direction with uniform angular velocity 𝜔 along a
circle of radius A and center O. Suppose at time t = 0, the reference particle is at point Q such
that ∠XOQ = 𝜙0. At any time t, suppose the particle reaches the point P such that ∠QOP = 𝜔t.
Draw PN ⊥ XX’.

Clearly the displacement of projection N from center O

at any instant t is
x = ON.
In right ΔONP, ∠PON = 𝜔t + 𝜙0.
 𝑂𝑁 𝑥
∴ = cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0) ⇒ = cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝑂𝑃 𝐴

⇒ x = A cos (𝝎t + 𝝓0)

This equation gives displacement of a particle in SHM at any instant t. The quantity (𝜔t + 𝜙0) is
called the phase of the particle and 𝜙0 is called initial phase or phase constant of the particle.
The quantity A is called amplitude of the motion. It is a positive constant whose value depends
on how the motion is initially started.
As shown in figure, if the reference particle starts motion from

the point Q such that ∠QOX = 𝜙0 and ∠QOP = 𝜔t, then

∠PON = 𝜔t - 𝜙0.

∴ x = A cos (𝝎t - 𝝓0). Here -𝜙0 is the initial phase of the particle.

Velocity of a particle in SHM

Consider a particle P moving with uniform angular speed 𝜔 in a circle of radius A. Its velocity
⃗ is directed along the tangent and the magnitude of this velocity vector,
vector 𝒗

v = angular velocity x radius = 𝜔 A

Draw PP’ and QQ’ perpendiculars to the diameter XX’. The

motion of P’ is simple harmonic. Clearly, the instantaneous

velocity of a particle executing SHM will be

v(t) = velocity of the particle P’ at any instant t

= projection of the velocity v of the reference particle P
𝑃𝑄
= P’Q’ = PQ = - v sin (𝜔t + 𝜙0) [∵ sin (𝜔t + 𝜙0) = ]
𝑣

The -ve sign shows that the velocity of P’ is directed towards left i.e. in the negative X- direction.
Moreover, v(t) = - 𝜔A sin (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝑥2
= - 𝜔A √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙0 ) = - 𝜔A √1 −
𝐴2
[∵ x = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)]
⇒ v(t) = - 𝝎 √𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
Special cases: (1) When the particle is at the mean position, then x = 0.
∴ v(t) = - 𝜔 √𝐴2 − 02 = - 𝜔 A
This is the maximum velocity which a particle in SHM can execute and is called velocity
amplitude, denoted by vmax.
2𝜋
∴ vmax = 𝜔A=
𝑇
A
(2) When the particle is at the extreme position, then x = ± A.
∴ v(t) = - 𝜔 √𝐴2 − 𝐴2 = 0.
Thus, velocity of a particle in SHM is zero at either of its extreme positions.

Acceleration of a particle in SHM

Consider a particle P moving with uniform angular speed 𝜔 in a circle of radius A. The particle
has the centripetal acceleration ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑐 acting radially towards the Centre O. The magnitude of this
acceleration is,
𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔 2 A
Draw PP’ and QQ’ perpendiculars to the diameter XX’. The motion of P’ is simple harmonic.

Clearly, the instantaneous acceleration of a particle executing

SHM will be
a(t) = velocity of the particle P’ at any instant t
= projection of the accn 𝑎𝑐 of the reference particle P
= P’Q’
= - 𝑎𝑐 cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
= - 𝜔2A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0) [∵ cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0) = 𝑃′𝑄′
𝑎
]
𝑐
⇒ a(t) = - 𝝎 x
2

This equation expresses the acceleration of a particle executing SHM. It shows that,
“The acceleration of a particle in SHM is proportional to its displacement from the mean
position and acts in the opposite direction of the displacement.”

Special cases: (1) When the particle is at the mean position, then x = 0.
∴ a(t) = - 𝜔2 x 0 = 0
Hence acceleration of a particle in SHM is zero at the mean position.
(2) When the particle is at the extreme position, then x = A.
∴ a(t) = - 𝜔2A
This is the maximum value of acceleration which a particle in SHM can possess and is called
acceleration amplitude, denoted by amax.
2𝜋
∴ a = 𝜔2A = ( )2A
max
𝑇
 Phase relationship between displacement, velocity and acceleration
If the particle executing SHM passes through its +ve extreme position (x = +A) at time t = 0, then
its displacement equation can be written as,
x (t) = A cos 𝜔t
𝑑𝑥
∴ Velocity, v(t) = 𝑑𝑡 = - 𝜔A sin 𝜔t = 𝜔A cos (𝜔t + 𝜋2 )
𝑑𝑣
and Acceleration, a(t) = = - 𝜔2A cos 𝜔t = 𝜔2A cos (𝜔t + π)
𝑑𝑡
Using the above relations, we determine the values of displacement, velocity and acceleration
at various instant t for one complete cycle which is shown below:
𝑇 𝑇 3𝑇
Time (t) 0 T
4 2 4
2𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
Phase Angle, 𝜔t (= 𝑇 t) 0 π 2π
2 2
Displacement, x (t) +A 0 -A 0 +A
Velocity, v(t) 0 - 𝜔A 0 + 𝜔A 0
Acceleration, a(t) - 𝜔 2A 0 + 𝜔 2A 0 - 𝜔 2A

If we plot separately the x ~ t, v ~ t and a ~ t curves for a SHM, then it will be as follows:

Conclusion: From the above graph, we can draw the following conclusions about SHM.
(1) Displacement, velocity and acceleration all vary harmonically with time.
(2) The velocity amplitude is 𝜔 times and acceleration amplitude is 𝜔2 times the
displacement amplitude A.
 𝑇
(3) Clearly, the velocity curve is shifted to the left of displacement curve by an interval of 4 .
Thus, the particle velocity is ahead of its displacement by a phase angle of 𝜋2 radian. This
means that whichever value displacement attains at any instant, velocity attains a similar
𝑇
value at time earlier. When particle velocity is maximum, the displacement is
4
minimum and vice versa.
(4) Clearly, the acceleration curve is shifted to the left of displacement curve by an interval
of 𝑇2. Thus, the particle acceleration is ahead of its displacement by a phase angle of π
𝜋
radian or acceleration is ahead of its velocity in phase by 2 radian. When acceleration
has maximum positive value, displacement has maximum negative value and vice versa.
When the displacement is zero, the acceleration is also zero.

Energy in simple harmonic motion

(1) Kinetic energy: At any instant, the displacement of a particle executing SHM is given by
x = A cos (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
𝑑𝑥
∴ Velocity, v = 𝑑𝑡 = - 𝜔A sin (𝜔t + 𝜙0)
Hence, kinetic energy of the particle at any displacement x is given by,
K = ½ mv2 = ½ m 𝜔2A2 sin2(𝜔t + 𝜙0)
= ½ m 𝜔2A2 [ 1 - cos2(𝜔t + 𝜙0)]
= ½ m 𝜔2 [ A2 - A2cos2(𝜔t + 𝜙0)]
⇒ K = ½ k (A2 – x2) where k = m 𝜔2

(2) Potential energy: When the displacement of a particle from its mean position is x, the
restoring force acting on it is,
F = - kx.
If we displace the particle further through a small distance dx, then work done against
the restoring force is,
dW = - F dx = + k x dx
The total work done in displacing the particle from mean position (x = 0) to
displacement x is given by
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = k [ 2 ] 0
⇒ W = ½ kx2
This work done against the restoring force is stored as the potential energy of the
particle. Hence, potential energy of the particle at displacement x is given by,
U = ½ kx2 = ½ m 𝝎2 x2 = ½ m 𝝎2A2cos2(𝝎t + 𝝓0)

(3) Total energy: At any displacement x, the total energy of a harmonic oscillator is given by,
E = K + U = ½ k (A2 – x2) + ½ kx2 = ½ k A2
 ∴ E = ½ k A2 = ½ m 𝝎2 A2 = 2π2m𝝂2A2 (∵ 𝜔 = 2π𝜈)

Thus, the total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is independent of time or

displacement.

Graphical Representation: (1) At the mean position, x = 0.

Kinetic energy K = ½ k (A2 – 02) = ½ k A2
and potential energy U = ½ k x 02 = 0.
Hence at the mean position, the energy is all kinetic.

(2) At the extreme positions, x = ± A.

Kinetic energy K = ½ k (A2 – A2) = 0.
and potential energy U = ½ k x2 = ½ k A2.
Hence at the two extreme positions, the energy is all potential.

Fig. (1) shows the variation of kinetic energy (K), potential energy (U) and total energy (E) with
displacement x. Fig. (2) shows the variations of K, U and E of a harmonic oscillator with time t.

Oscillations due to a spring

(1) Horizontal oscillations of a body on a spring:
If the body of mass m is pulled towards right through a small distance x and released, it starts
oscillating back and forth about its equilibrium position under the action of a restoring force,
F = - kx
where k is the force constant.
𝑑2 𝑥
If is the acceleration of the body, then
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥
m =-kx
𝑑𝑡 2
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘
⇒ =- x = - 𝜔2 x
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
This shows that the acceleration is proportional to displacement x and acts opposite to it.
Hence, the body executes SHM.

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒎
Its time period is given by, T = = = 2π √
𝝎 √
𝒌 𝒌
𝒎

𝟏 𝟏 𝒌
Frequency of oscillation will be, 𝝂 = = √
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝒎

(2) Vertical oscillations of a body on a spring:

If a spring is suspended vertically from a rigid support and a body of mass m is attached to its
lower end, the spring gets stretched to a distance d due to the weight mg of the body. Because
of the elasticity of the spring, a restoring force equal to kd begins to act in the upward direction.
Here k is the spring factor of the spring.
In the position of equilibrium, mg = kd
If the body be pulled vertically downwards through a small distance x from its equilibrium
position and then released, it begins to oscillate up and down about this position. The weight
mg of the body acts vertically downwards while the restoring force k (d + x) due to elasticity
acts vertically upwards.
Therefore, the resultant force on the body is,

F = mg – k (d + x) = kd – kd – kx (∵ mg = kd)
⇒ F = – kx
𝑑2 𝑥
⇒m = - kx
𝑑𝑡 2
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘
⇒ =- x = - 𝜔2 x
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
Thus, acceleration is proportional to displacement x
and is directed opposite to it. Hence, the body executes

SHM and its time period is,

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝒎
T= = ⇒ T = 2π √
𝜔 √
𝑘 𝒌
𝑚

Obviously, the force of gravity has no effect on the force constant k and hence the time period
of the oscillating mass.
 Oscillations of Loaded Spring combination
(1) Springs connected in parallel:
Let two springs with spring constants k1 and k2 are connected in parallel. Let x be the extension
produced in each spring. Restoring forces produced in the two springs will be,
F1 = - k 1 x and F2 = - k2 x.
The total restoring force is,
F = F1 + F2 = - (k1 + k2) x ………………… (1)

If k is the force constant of the parallel

combination, then
F = - k x …………………... (2)
From (1) and (2), k = k1 + k2.
∴ Time period of the parallel combination,
𝒎 𝒎
T = 2π √ = 2π √
𝒌 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
and frequency, 𝝂 = = √
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝒎

(2) Springs connected in series:

Let two springs with spring constants k1 and k2 are connected in series. Let x1 and x2 be the
extensions produced in the two springs. The restoring force F acting in the two springs is same.

∴ F = - k1 x1 = - k2 x2

𝐹 𝐹
⇒ x1 = - and x2 = -
𝑘1 𝑘2
Hence total extension,
𝐹 𝐹
x = x1 + x2 = - -
𝑘1 𝑘2
⇒ x = - F ( 𝑘 + 𝑘 ) ……………………. (1)
1 1
1 2

If k is the force constant of the series combination,

𝐹
then F=-kx ⇒x=- ………………… (2)
𝑘
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
From (1) and (2), = + or k =
𝒌 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
∴ Time period of oscillation of the series combination, T = 2π √𝒎𝒌 = 2π √
𝒎(𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 )
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
and frequency, 𝝂 = = √
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝒎(𝒌 𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 )

1
Note: (1) When length of a spring is made n times, its spring factor becomes times and hence
𝑛
time period increases √𝑛 times.
(2) When a spring is cut into n equal pieces, spring factor of each part becomes nk.

𝒎
∴ Time period, T = 2π √𝒏𝒌 .

Simple Pendulum
“A simple pendulum consists of a particle suspended by an unstretchable and weightless
string from a rigid support.”

Expression for Time period:

Consider a simple pendulum of length l and m is the mass of its bob. Suppose at any instant
during oscillation, the bob lies at position B such that the thread makes an angle 𝜃 with the
vertical. The forces acting on the bob are,

(1) Weight mg of the bob acting vertically downwards.

(2) Tension T along the thread towards the point of
suspension S.

The force mg has two rectangular components:

(a) mg cos𝜽 acting along the thread.
(b) mg sin𝜽 acting ⊥ to the thread.

Since the motion of the bob is along a circle of radius l

and center S, the bob has a radial acceleration 𝜔2l which is provided by the net radial force
T - mg cos𝜃 and also has a tangential acceleration which is provided by tangential force mg sin𝜃.
∴ Restoring torque about the support S due to the tangential force is,
𝜏 = - l (mg sin𝜃) ……………………. (1)
Here -ve sign shows that restoring torque tends to reduce angular displacement 𝜃.
Now, if I is the moment of inertia of the system about S and α is angular acceleration, then
𝜏 = I α ……………………. (2)
 𝑚𝑔𝑙
From (1) and (2), I α = - mgl sin𝜃 ⇒α=- sin𝜃
𝐼
Clearly the oscillations are not simple harmonic because the angular acceleration is not
proportional to the angular displacement 𝜃.
𝜃3 𝜃5
We know that, sin𝜃 = 𝜃 - + …………. where θ is in radians.
3! 5!

If 𝜃 is small, then higher powers of 𝜃 can be neglected so that sin𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 .

𝑚𝑔𝑙
⇒α=- 𝜃 ……………………………… (3)
𝐼
Hence, for small oscillations, the motion of the bob is simple harmonic.
𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑔 𝑔
Comparing (3) with a = - 𝜔2 x, we get 𝜔2 = = = ⇒𝜔=√
𝐼 𝑚𝑙2 𝑙 𝑙

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝒍
Its time period is, T = = ⇒ T = 2π √
𝜔 𝑔 𝒈
√
𝑙