Tutorial on Wave Loading Analysis by CAEPIPE 3D+
Introduction
Wave loading refers to the dynamic forces exerted by ocean waves on offshore and coastal structures,
including piping systems. In piping stress analysis, particularly for marine pipelines, risers, or platform-
mounted piping, wave loading is a critical consideration due to its potential to induce significant
dynamic stresses, vibrations, and fatigue over time. In most piping stress analysis software including
CAEPIPE, Wave Loading is included as Static Equivalent Force, ie., the maximum force that waves apply
on a given component.
When waves interact with submerged or partially submerged pipes, they generate forces primarily
due to:
• Drag Forces – caused by the relative motion of the water past the pipe.
• Inertia Forces – resulting from the acceleration of the surrounding water mass.
• Lift Forces – generated due to asymmetry in flow (especially if currents are present).
• Buoyancy Forces – due to the weight of displaced fluid.
To quantify these forces, the Morison Equation is widely used. It provides a semi-empirical method for
calculating wave-induced forces on slender members (like pipelines), combining drag and inertia
effects. The Morison's equation gives distributed wave force (drag + inertial) per unit length of the
member and is normal (perpendicular) to the member. It is written as,
𝒇 = 𝑪𝒅 |𝒖|𝒖 + 𝑪𝒎 𝒖̇
where,
𝑫.𝝆𝒘. 𝑪𝑫
Cd = Drag Constant = 𝟐.𝟎
𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝝆𝒘 𝑪𝑴
Cm = Inertia Constant = 𝟒.𝟎
CD = Drag Coefficient. See Note below.
CM = Inertia Coefficient. See Note below.
𝜌𝑤 = Density of Sea water
D = Outer Diameter of Pipe / Pipe Components inclusive of Insulation Thickness and Marine Growth
Thickness.
u = Fluid particle velocity
𝑢̇ = Fluid particle acceleration
f = Drag and Inertia Force acting on the pipe element per unit length.
Key Parameters influencing Wave Loading:
• Wave height and period (determining wave energy)
• Submergence depth of the pipe
• Pipe orientation and support conditions
• Presence of currents (which modify particle velocities)
• Marine growth (increasing effective diameter and drag)
Wave Parameter Inputs
Wave Direction
Input the direction of the wave using the direction cosines (for example: When the vertical axis is
parallel to Global Y, for wave in Z direction, X comp = 0.0, Y comp = 0.0, Z comp = 1.0; for wave in 45°
X-Z plane, X comp=0.707, Y comp=0.0, Z comp=0.707). See section titled “Direction” in this CAEPIPE
User’s Manual. CAEPIPE will allow inputting the wave direction only in the horizontal plane and NOT
in the vertical direction.
Mean Sea Level and Bottom Sea Level
Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the distance of the mean water surface from the global origin (it could be
positive or negative). It is NOT a measure of the depth of the pipe’s centerline.
In the 1st figure below, the distance of the water surface is 20’ feet above the global origin. The
horizontal pipe starts at, say, (10, 5, 0). So, the pipe is submerged 15’ (= 20’ - 5’) below the Mean Sea
Level into the water.
Similarly, Bottom Sea Level (BSL) is the distance of the sea bed level from the global origin (it could be
positive or negative). In the 1st figure below, the distance of the sea bed is -30’ feet below the global
origin. So, the pipe is located at a distance of 35’ feet from the Bottom Sea Level. This is indicated as
“y” (pipe centreline from BSL) in the figure.
Wave Depth (d) is computed as the difference between the Mean Sea Level and Bottom Sea level (i.e.,
d = MSL – BSL). So, in the 1st figure below, d = 20 – (-30) = 50’0”.
L
H
(0, +20’, 0)
Mean Sea
Level(MSL) Pipe Elevation = +5’
(0,0,0)
Global Origin
d = 20-(-30)=50’
y = 5-(-30) = 35’
Bottom Sea
Level(BSL)
(0, -30’, 0)
Given below is another example, wherein the global origin is above the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
(0,0,0)
Global Origin
L
H
(0, -20’, 0)
Mean Sea Pipe Elevation = -25’
Level(MSL)
d = -20-(-50)=30’
Bottom Sea y = -25-(-50) = 25’
Level(BSL)
(0, -50’, 0)
Density of Sea Water
Input the density of Sea Water. Seawater density varies depending on temperature, salinity, and
pressure. The average density of ocean is about 1030 kg/m3.
Wave Period / Wave Length
Input one of the following: wave period (sec) or wave length (ft or mm). Depending upon the
Wave Theory selected, CAEPIPE will internally compute the other parameters using the
dispersion relation. For example, if you input the wave period, CAEPIPE will automatically
calculate the wavelength (or vice versa) based on the selected wave theory (either chosen manually
or determined automatically when the 'Wave Theory' option is set to 'Automatic').
Wave Theories
The following wave theories are available for manual selection or will be automatically chosen by
the program when the 'Wave Theory' option is set to 'Automatic'.
1. Airy’s Linear Theory
2. Stokes 5th Order
3. Cnoidal 5th Order
Airy’s Linear Theory
The Airy’s linear wave theory is the simplest and most useful theory among various wave theories.
It assumes small wave steepness (H/L) and small relative water depth (H/d), which allows the free
surface boundary conditions to be linearized and satisfied at the Mean Sea Level (also known as
Still Water Level, SWL).
Stokes 5th Order
The Stokes wave theory assumes that the velocity potential and free water surface level as power
series in terms of a non-dimensional small perturbation parameter 𝜀 which is defined as the
product of wave number and wave amplitude. Stokes 5th Order theory considers power series until
5th order. Stokes wave theory is most useful when the depth to wave length ratio, d/L is greater
than 1/8 to 1/10.
Cnoidal 5th Order
Finite amplitude long waves of permanent form in shallow water are better described by the
Cnoidal wave theory. The Cnoidal wave is a periodic wave that usually has sharp crests separated
by wide troughs. The theory accounts for a large class of long waves of finite amplitude. The
approximate range of validity of the theory is d/L < 1/8 and the Ursell parameter, 𝑈𝑟 ≥ 25. Note
that the Ursell parameter is defined as UR = HL2/d3.
To apply any of the theories listed above, enter the required parameters for the wave. CAEPIPE
uses these parameters along with the dispersion relation to determine the wave length or wave
period.
After calculating the wave length (L) and/or wave period (T), CAEPIPE determines the horizontal
and vertical particle velocities (u & v), as well as the horizontal and vertical particle accelerations
(du/dt & dv/dt), for various phase angles at 22.5 degree intervals (from 0 to 180 degrees) at the
pipe centerline elevation, referenced from the bottom sea level. These velocity and acceleration
values at each phase angle are then used in Morison’s equation (in both horizontal and vertical
directions) to compute the maximum concentrated forces due to Drag, Inertia and Lift in the three
global directions (FX, FY and FZ) at each node.
Wave Theory Selection
User can select the Wave Theory Manually or instruct CAEPIPE to determine the appropriate
Wave Theory by selecting the option “Automatic”.
When the option “Automatic” is selected, then CAEPIPE computes the Ursell (UR) parameter
using the wave parameters input in the dialog along with the chart given below to decide the Wave
Theory. Ursell parameter is defined as UR = HL2/d3, where d = Wave Depth as explained above,
H = Wave Height and L = Wave Length.
1. “Airy’s Linear Theory” is selected when UR < 1.00 and H/L < 0.0064. This region is
shown in YELLOW in the below chart.
2. “Stokes 5th Order” is selected when the UR computed internally is within the BLUE
region shown below in the chart, and
3. “Cnoidal 5th Order” is selected when the UR > 26.0 and within the RED region shown
below in the chart.
Note:
If Wave Length required for computing the Ursell parameter is not input, then CAEPIPE
computes the Wave Length by solving the dispersion relation as per Airy’s Theory using Wave
Period.
Marine Growth Thickness and Density
The effect of accumulation of algae, sea weed, coral, etc., surrounding the pipe can be considered
in the analysis by specifying the Marine Growth Thickness and Density. Marine Growth leads to
an increase in Outer Diameter of the piping thereby affecting the Buoyancy, Weight of the piping
and Wave Kinematics. In addition, when you input a non-zero value for Marine Growth Thickness
in the dialog, then CAEPIPE considers the pipe surface as “Rough” while determining the Drag,
Inertia and Lift coefficients. On the other hand, when the Marine Growth thickness is input as
0.00 or left BLANK, then CAEPIPE considers the pipe surface as “Smooth” while computing
these coefficients.
Drag, Inertia and Lift Coefficients
The Drag Coefficient (CD) represents the resistance encountered by the body due to the flow of fluid
(viscous effects). The Inertial Coefficient (CM) captures the accelerative impact of wave forces generated
by the pressure field around the body. The Lift Coefficient (CL) indicates the normal force perpendicular
to the flow, arising from phenomena like vortex shedding and asymmetric flow patterns.
Any of the coefficients can be entered in the following ways:
• Non-zero positive value: Applied to all elements selected for the wave analysis, considering both
horizontal and vertical fluid velocities and accelerations.
• +999.0: CAEPIPE computes the corresponding coefficient internally and applies it to the elements
selected, considering both horizontal and vertical fluid velocities and accelerations.
• Non-zero negative values: The absolute value of the coefficient entered will be used, but only
horizontal fluid velocities and accelerations are considered (vertical components are excluded).
• -999.0: CAEPIPE computes the value internally and applies it to the elements selected, but only
horizontal fluid velocities and accelerations are considered (vertical components are excluded).
• Zero (0.0): The effect of that force is ignored entirely in the analysis (e.g., setting CD to 0.0 ignores
Drag force).
Wave Load Application in CAEPIPE 3D+
At present, in CAEPIPE 3D+ V14.00, user can enter up to four (4) wave load data namely Wave Load 1,
Wave Load 2, Wave Load 3 and Wave Load 4.
User can apply a wave load to the whole or parts of the model. To apply the wave load to the required
portion of the layout, input "Y(es)" under the Layout Window > Misc > Loads > Wave Load 1/Wave
Load 2/Wave Load 3/Wave Load 4. When done, CAEPIPE internally computes wave load for each
element and applies it as a lumped load (i.e., concentrated force) equally at the two nodes of each
element (i.e., it is not a distributed load along the element).
When an element is subjected to a wave load, CAEPIPE computes forces due to Drag, Inertia and Lift
due to Horizontal particle Velocity, Current Velocity and Horizontal particle Acceleration as well as
Drag, Inertia and Lift due to Vertical particle Velocity and Vertical particle Acceleration. The forces thus
computed are considered in Occasional load case.
Apart from the above, the element is also subjected to Buoyancy force. At present, this buoyancy force
is computed using the properties input under Wave Load 1. This effect reduces the apparent weight of
the piping as it acts against the gravity. Hence, the Buoyancy effect is included in Sustained load case.
Drag and Inertia forces generally act in the direction of the wave velocity and Lift force will be normal
to the direction of the wave velocity. For example, when the wave direction is parallel to Global Z with
Vertical axis being parallel to Global Y, then the Drag and Inertia forces will act in Global Z direction and
Lift force will be in the plane normal to Global X and Z directions (i.e., parallel to Global Y direction).
For further details, refer to the Section titled “Wave Load” in CAEPIPE Code Compliance Manual.
Below is a sample tutorial that has 4 waves with 3 manual selections (Airy’s, Stokes 5th Order, Cnoidal
5th Order) and 1 automatic selection of wave theory.
Tutorial
Step 1 (Layout and Graphics Windows):
Snapshots shown below are from a sample CAEPIPE Stress layout that is used for Pipe stress analysis
using Wave Loading (see the “[Link]” file). The piping code selected for this analysis is ASME
B31.3 (2024).
Step 2 (Materials, Sections, Loads):
Material, Section properties and Loads used for this stress layout are given below.
Step 3 (Waves):
Input the Wave parameters through Layout Window > Loads > Wave 1. Select Wave Theory as “Airy’s
Linear Theory”. Once all inputs are done, copy the wave data to wave 2, wave 3 and wave 4; change
the wave theory in Wave 2 (through Layout Window > Loads > Wave 2) to Stokes 5th Order Theory, in
Wave 3 to Cnoidal 5th Order Theory and in Wave 4 to “Automatic”.
Step 4 (Loads):
Assign the defined waves to Loads by selecting Layout Window > Misc > Loads or (Ctrl + Shift+ L).
Double click the Load 1 and turn on Wave load 1, Wave load 2, Wave load 3 and Wave load 4 as shown.
Step 5 (Load Cases):
Select Wave 1, Wave 2, Wave 3 and Wave 4 along with Sustained, Expansion 1 and Operating 1 in Load
cases to be analysed through Layout Window > Loads > Load Cases… Finally, Save and Analyze.
Step 6 (Results):
The effect of wave loading in CAEPIPE Results can be seen in Sorted stresses, Code Compliance,
Elemental Forces & Moments, Support Load summary etc. As explained earlier, Forces and Moments
due to Wave Loading are added in Occasional case and Buoyancy Forces are added in Sustained case.
Below are a few snapshots of the Wave Loading related results reported in CAEPIPE 3D+.
Sorted Stresses, Support load Summary, Elemental Forces & Moments, Displacements
Support Loads
From the above support load snapshots for wave 1, wave 2, wave 3 and wave 4, the following
observations can be made:
• Based on the input wave parameters, “Automatic” wave selection correctly chose the wave
theory as “Cnoidal 5th Order theory” for this case (Results of Wave 3 and Wave 4 are identical).
• The Forces and Moments at Anchor Node 70 are tabulated below. In the table, FR and MR are
the resultant Force and Resultant Moment calculated as 𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑋 2 + 𝐹𝑌 2 + 𝐹𝑍 2 and
𝑀𝑅 = √𝑀𝑋 2 + 𝑀𝑌 2 + 𝑀𝑍 2 .
At Anchor Node 70
Case Wave Theory FX FY FZ FR (lb) MX MY MZ MR (ft-lb)
Wave 1 Airy 65 -65 114 146.45 128 767 226 810.95
Wave 2 Stokes 5th Order 10 -49 169 176.26 254 1229 4 1254.90
Wave 3 Cnoidal 5th Order 149 171 260 344.99 291 1724 641 1860.57
Wave 4 Automatic 149 171 260 344.99 291 1724 641 1860.57
From the table above, it is evident that Airy’s theory (Wave 1) predicts the lowest loads,
followed by Stokes 5th order (Wave 2), while Cnoidal 5th Order theory (Wave 3) yields the
highest. Note that Wave 4 (automatic selection) produces results identical to Wave 3, as it
internally selects the most appropriate wave theory — which, in this case, is Cnoidal 5th Order
theory.
Conclusion:
CAEPIPE 3D+ has correctly selected the appropriate wave theory to be Cnoidal 5th Order for this case
and a quantitative comparison of Airy’s, Stokes 5th order, Cnoidal 5th Order theories has been carried
out for the given layout.