University Center of Southern Minas - UNIS-MG 1

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Mechanical Engineering

Guia de Estudo:

Heat Transfer 1
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Heat Transfer 1

Professor:Luiz Carlos VieiraGuedes

Email Address:guedes@[Link]
Ementa:
-Introduction. Methods of Heat Transfer.
Heat transfer by conduction.
Fins.
Two-Dimensional Conduction.
Conduction in transient regime.
Introduction to convection.
Boundary layer.

Bibliography:
-INCROPERA, [Link] of Heat and Mass. 3rd ed. Rio de
January, Guanabara, 1985
-KREITH, F.; Bohn, M.S. Principles of Heat Transmission. 6th ed. São Paulo,
Thomson Learning Publisher. 2003
-OSIZIK, M. Necat. Heat Transfer: A Basic Text. Rio de Janeiro,
Guanabara, 1985
-ARAUJO,Celso. Transmissão de Calor. Rio de Janeiro: [Link]. 1995
BRAGA FILHO, Washington. Heat Transfer: Pioneira Thonsom Publishing
Leaning.2004

Prerequisite for this subject: Calculus, Transport Phenomena, and Thermodynamics.

Discipline for which this is the basis: Heat Transfer 2 Generation and Distribution of
Vapor.
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10Heat Transfer Class I

Topic: Introduction to Heat Transfer

1. Relevance of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is fundamental to all branches of engineering. Thus

how the mechanical engineer faces cooling problems of engines,
ventilation, air conditioning, etc., the metallurgical engineer cannot dispense with the
heat transfer in problems related to metallurgical processes and
hydrometallurgical, or in the design of furnaces, regenerators, converters, etc.

At the same level, the chemical or nuclear engineer needs the same science in
studies on evaporation, condensation or in works at refineries and reactors,
while the electrician and the electronics professional use it in the calculation of transformers and generators and

heat sinks in microelectronics and the naval engineer applies them in depth
heat transfer in boilers, thermal machines, etc.

Even the civil engineer and the architect feel the importance of, in their
projects, foresee the appropriate thermal insulation that ensures the comfort of
environments.

As seen, heat transfer is important for most processes.

industrial and environmental. As an example of application, let us consider the vital area of

energy production and conversion:

· In electricity generation (hydroelectric, nuclear fusion, fossil, geothermal, etc) there are
numerous problems involving conduction, convection and radiation and are
related to the boiler, condenser, and turbine project.
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· There is also the need to maximize heat transfer and maintain the

material integrity at high temperatures

· It is necessary to minimize heat discharge into the environment, avoiding pollution.

thermal through cooling towers and recirculation.

Heat transfer processes also affect the performance of systems

of propulsion (combustion engines and rockets). Other fields that require a
heat transfer analysis are heating systems, incinerators,
storage of cryogenic products, refrigeration of electronic equipment
refrigeration and air conditioning systems and many others.

Definitions:

Heat: it is energy in transit due to a temperature difference. Whenever there is a

Temperature difference in a medium or between mediums will result in heat transfer.

T1 T2 T T

Figure 1 - If T >1Tè T2 > T 1 > T 2

Heat Transfer: it is the science that explains how energy exchange occurs through
heat and at what rate this occurs. For this, it makes use of Thermodynamics (2nd law of
Thermodynamics: "It is impossible to have a process whose only result is a net transfer.

of heat from a cold region to a warmer one) and from experimental observations. There are
three distinct modes of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
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Heat Flow: "it is the amount of energy exchanged per unit of time and per unit of
perpendicular area to the direction of heat exchange" (Braga 2004), occurs through a gradient
of temperature.

3. Relationship Between Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics: deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy. Energy
can be transferred through interactions between the system and its surroundings. These
interactions are called heat and work.

·The 1st Law of Thermodynamics quantitatively governs these interactions.

The 1st Law of Thermodynamics can be stated as follows:

The net energy variation of a system is always equal to the net energy transfer.
in the form of heat and work.

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics points to the direction of these interactions, and

it can be stated like this:

It is impossible for the process whose only result is the net transfer of heat from one
cold region to a warm region.

However, there is a fundamental difference between heat transfer and the

thermodynamics.
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Although thermodynamics deals with heat interactions and the role it plays
it plays in the first and second law, it does not take into account even the mechanism of

transfer neither the methods for calculating the heat transfer data.

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states of matter where there is no

temperature gradient. Although thermodynamics can be used to determine the
amount of energy required in the form of heat for a system to go from one state
from one equilibrium to another, it cannot quantify the rate (speed) at which the
heat transfer occurs.

The discipline of heat transfer seeks to do what thermodynamics is.

inherently incapable of doing.
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Tema:Condução, convecção e radiação.

4. Heat Transfer Regimes

The concept of heat transfer regime can be better understood through

of examples. Let's analyze, for example, the heat transfer through the wall of
any greenhouse. Let us consider two situations: normal operation and shutdown or
reconnecting.

During normal operation, while the greenhouse is on, the temperature at the
The internal surface of the wall does not vary. If the external ambient temperature does not vary.
Significantly, the temperature of the external surface is also constant. Under these
the conditions the amount of heat transferred out is constant and the profile of
the temperature along the wall, shown in figure 2.(a), does not vary. In this case, we say
that we are in the permanent regime.

Figure 2 – types of heat flows

In the other situation, let's consider, for example, the shutdown. When the greenhouse is

the temperature on the internal surface gradually decreases, so that the

temperature profile varies with time, as can be seen from figure 2(b). As
consequence, the amount of heat transferred outward is progressively less. Therefore, the
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the temperature at each point of the wall varies. In this case, we say that we are in the regime

transient.

The problems of heat flow in transient regime are more complex.

Meanwhile, most heat transfer problems are or can be treated as
permanent regime.

4.1. Heat Conduction:

Conduction can be defined as the process by which energy is transferred from

a region of high temperature to another of lower temperature within a medium
(solid, liquid, or gas) or between different media in direct contact. The mechanism
The physics of conduction involves concepts of atomic and molecular activity.

what supports the transfer of energy from the most energetic particles
for the particles of lower energy of a substance due to
interactions that exist between particles. (figure 3).

Figure 3 - energy transfer of particles

When there is a temperature gradient in a stationary medium. What occurs
due to molecular interaction, where higher energy molecules transfer energy to
as the lowest.

A (cup) Spoon C(hand)

An exposed tip of a metal spoon that is immersed in a cup of coffee.
hot will finally warm up due to the conduction of energy through the spoon and with that
warm up the hand that is touching her.
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This process depends on the type of material that conducts heat. Metals are more
conductors of electricity and heat (free electrons).
Insulating materials heat transmission occurs only through the vibration of molecules.
hindered by the fact that there is the presence of air.

4.1.1. One-Dimensional Heat Conduction in Steady State

In a one-dimensional treatment, temperature is a function of only one.

coordinate. This type of treatment can be applied in many of the

industrial problems. For example, in the case of heat transfer
in a system that consists of a fluid flowing along a
tube (figure 4), the wall temperature of the tube can be considered
function only of the tube radius. This assumption is valid if the fluid flows.
evenly along the entire inner surface and if the tube is not
long enough for significant temperature variations to occur
of fluid due to heat transfer. The same situation occurs
in heat flows in a flat wall (figure 5).

Figure 4 - Heat Flows in Pipe

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Figure 5 – Heat Flow in Flat Wall

4.1.2. Conduction Law:

It is based on the observations of Fourier (Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier - 1768 to 1830 -

proposed this law in 1822): Fourier's law is phenomenological, that is, it was developed to
part of the observation of natural phenomena in experiments.

proportional
The thermal conductivity constant is then introduced (the amount of heat that
will flow per unit of time through a unit of area.

where,
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heat flow by conduction in the x direction per unit area (Kcal/h in the system
metric);

k, condutvidade térmica do material;característco de cada material

A, the area of the section through which heat flows by conduction, measured perpendicularly to
2
direction of the flow (m);

temperature gradient in the section, that is, the rate of change of temperature T
o
with the distance, in the x direction of the heat flow ( C/h)

The reason for the minus sign in the Fourier equation is that the direction of the

increase in distance x must be the direction of positive heat flow

(figure 6). As heat flows from the point of highest temperature to the
at lower temperature (negative gradient), the flow will only be positive
when the gradient is positive (multiplied by -1).

Figure 6 – flat wall with heat flow

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The proportionality factor k (thermal conductivity) that arises from the equation of
Fourier is a property of each material and expresses the greater or lesser ease.
that a material presents to heat conduction. Its unit is easily obtained from
the Fourier equation itself (equation 3.2), for example in the practical metric system we have
:

Thermal Conductivity k characteristic values

Metals 30 (cast iron) to 240 (silver)

Liquids 0.1 (gasoline) to 0.4 (water)

Insulating Materials 0.02 to 0.1

Gases 0.004 to 0.1

Table extracted from: BRAGA FILHO, Washington. Heat Transmission. São Paulo: Ed
Thomson, 2004.

The numerical values of k vary over a wide range depending on the composition.
chemistry, physical state and temperature of materials. When the value of k is high,
material is considered thermally conductive, otherwise it is a thermal insulator. Regarding
At temperature, in some materials like aluminum and copper, k varies very little.
with the temperature, however in others, like some steels, k varies significantly with
the temperature. In these cases, an average value of k is adopted as an engineering solution.
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in a temperature range. The variation of thermal conductivity (in S.I.) with the
temperature is shown in figure 7 for some substances.

Figure 7 – graph of thermal conductors

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4.1.3Heat Conduction in a Flat Wall

Figure 8 - flat wall with heat flow

On a flat wall subjected to a temperature difference.

heat source, with a constant and known temperature, on one side, and a sink of
heat from the other side, also at a constant and known temperature. In figure 8, a
wall that has thickness L, cross-sectional area A and was built with material of
thermal conductivity. On the inside, the heat source maintains the temperature at
the internal surface of the wall is constant and equal1 to the external heat sink

(environment) causes the external surface to remain equal to T. 2

By Fourier's Law, we have:

separating the variables:

integrating:
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4.2. Convection

Convection refers to the transfer of heat that will occur between a surface and
a fluid in motion or stationary when they are at different temperatures.
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Definition: the process by which energy is transferred from the hot areas to the
cold portions of a fluid through the combined action of heat conduction,
energy storage and mixing movement. (convection = conduction + transport
of mass). Example: jump into the pool after hours of sun.

Forced Convection: the fluid is moved artificially. The mechanism of convection

It can be more easily understood by considering, for example, a printed circuit.
(chip) being cooled (ventilated air), as shown in figure 7.

Figure 9 – Forced Convection

The speed of the air layer close to the surface is very low due to the forces.
viscosity (friction).

In this region, heat is transferred by conduction. Therefore, there is storage.

of energy by the particles present in this region.

As these particles move into the high-speed region, they are

carried by the flow transferring heat to the cooler particles.

Natural Convection: movement solely due to buoyancy forces (caused by the

temperature differences.
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A well-known example of natural convection is the

heating water in a household pot as shown in the
figure 10. In this case, the movement of water molecules can be
visually observed.

Figure 10 – Natural Convection

4.2.1. Law of Convection:

Newton's law of cooling:

h = heat transfer coefficient by convection (W/m2K)

ASsurface area, or contact area.
TSsurface temperature of the piece
T00fluid medium temperature

Some factors influence heat transfer by convection:

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-Nature of the fluid. - body outside the pool

Relative flow speed - hand out of the moving car
Geometry - hot day relaxed body, cold day rigid body.
Surface finish - golf ball with grooves.

Physical Situation Values of h (kW/m)2K)

Natural Convection, air. 0.006 - 0.035
Forced Convection, air. 0.028 – 0.851
Natural Convection, water. 0.170 – 1.14
Forced Convection, water. 0.570 – 22.7
Boiling water 5.7 - 85
Condensation Vapor 57 - 170
Forced Convection, sodium 113 - 227

Table extracted from:

- BRAGA FILHO, Washington. Transmissão de Calor. São Paulo: Ed Thomson, 2004.

5- Thermal Radiation:
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Heat transfer that occurs when there is no physical medium between the bodies.
All surfaces at a non-zero temperature emit energy in the form of waves.
electromagnetic. Therefore, in the absence of an intervening medium, there is transfer of
heat by radiation between two surfaces that are at different temperatures. The
the most common source of radiation is the sun.

Thermal Radiation is the energy emitted by all matter that is at a

non-zero temperature. It occurs perfectly in a vacuum, therefore, there is no
need for a material medium for particle collisions or mass transfer.
All waves have a characteristic wavelength, , and an amplitude, A.
frequency, λ, of a wave is the number of cycles that pass by a point in a
second.

Figure 11 – Waveforms
Thermal radiation is, therefore, a wave phenomenon similar to waves of
radio, light radiations, X-rays, rays- g, etc, differing only in length of
wave. This set of phenomena of different wavelengths, represented
simplified in figure 12, it is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Figure 12 - Electromagnetic Spectrum

The human body has a temperature of about 310 K and primarily radiates
no long infrared. If a photograph of a person is taken with a sensitive camera
to infrared, we obtain a thermal photograph. An engineer is holding a
lit phosphorus. The image is color-coded to show differences in
temperature. Observe the white and dark red of the flame and the palm of the hand of
engineer (where your blood vessels are closest to the surface) and the blue of your
cold glasses. This infrared photograph demonstrates that the images in infrared
red shows energy in the form of heat and its distribution.
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Figure 13 - Photo in Infrared

We can observe the existence of thermal radiation by approaching a.

glowing ember. Even if the air around us is cold, we perceive a
warming of our skin. In this situation, most of the heat that reaches us does not
propagates by convection in the air, but rather in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

We also noticed this radiation in the reddish color acquired by the coal when
to burn. Coal is normally black, that is, it does not reflect light, but when it reaches a
sufficiently high temperature, begins to emit in the visible part of the spectrum a
sufficient amount of radiation for observation.
If we observe the heating of a piece of iron with an intense source of
heat, for example, a forge, we may notice, besides the rapid increase with the
temperature of the amount of emitted radiation, a modification in the color of the object: after

to turn red, the object will begin to acquire a white or even bluish color. This indicates
that the radiation distribution in wavelength shifts with the increase in
temperature for lower values. Equivalently, the distribution of radiation in
frequency shifts to higher values.
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The fact that there is a correlation between temperature and radiation emission is not

It's surprising. After all, according to the corpuscular view of matter, temperature is
a measure of the agitation of the particles. As the particles that constitute matter
charged particles and moving charges in acceleration emit radiation.

Figure 13 - Temperature Rise

Black Body:
A black body or ideal radiator is a body that emits and absorbs, at any
temperature, the maximum possible amount of radiation at any wavelength.
The ideal radiator is a theoretical concept that establishes an upper limit of radiation.
according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a standard theoretical concept with which the

The radiation characteristics of other media are compared.

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Figure 13 – Black Body

Emissivity is the relationship between the emission power of a real body and the emission power

of a black body.

Where:
Ecemission power of a gray body
En emission power of a black body

Gustav Kirchhoff: in 1859, showed that the energy emitted by the black body depended on
only from its temperature and the wavelength emitted.

Planck's theory: for him, energy should be discontinuous and exist in the form of
pacotes mínimos, quantum, mais tarde batzado por Gilbert Lewis de fóton.

Maxwell's theory: light is an electromagnetic wave, the more intense the light was
a major incident would be the energy supplied to the electrons.
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Josef Stefan: the energy emitted by a hot body (above absolute zero) was
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: the radiation that is emitted by a surface originates from

internal energy of the matter that is limited by the surface and the rate at which the energy is
released per unit area (W/m²) is called the emissive power E of the surface, its
the limit is provided by:

Ts: absolute temperature (K) of the surface

σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 x 10-8W/m2K4

The radiant thermal flux for a real surface is lower than that emitted by a
black body at the same temperature.

ε: emissivity with values 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, this property provides a measure of

emission capacity of a surface in relation to a black body.
Real bodies do not meet the specifications of an ideal radiator and emit
radiation at a lower rate than black bodies. If they emit at a
temperature equal to that of a black body, a constant fraction of the body's emission
black in each wavelength, they will be called gray bodies" Kreith
The heat transfer rate of a gray body is:
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Form Factor:

One of the questions in heat transfer by radiation is to determine the amount

of radiation that comes from a certain body and is intercepted in another.

Figure 14 - Form Factor

Considering two black surfaces with areas separated in space and with
different temperatures. We have F1(fraction of energy that leaves surface 1 and reaches
surface 2) and F2(energy fraction that leaves 2 and arrives at 1).

energy that comes out of 1 and reaches 2

energy that goes from 2 and arrives at 1

If we consider that both temperatures are at the same value, then

q has a value equal to zero.
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like E1= E2

the equation is:

Substituting in the formula for heat flow calculation

By the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

For large parallel black surfaces:

Large gray parallel surfaces:

Gray surface(1) much smaller than gray surface(2)

6- Energy Balance on the Surface:

The generation and storage of energy on the surface are not relevant.
EINEout= 0
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The rate at which energy is transferred to the surface is equal to the rate at which the
energy is transferred from the surface.

qradiation Neighborhood

T1 q"Cond

T00
Fluid
q"Conv o

The energy balance assumes the following condition

q"driving– q”convection– q”radiation= 0

7- Analogy between thermal and electrical resistance:

There is an analogy between heat flow systems (temperature potential)

and electrical circuits (potential voltage). From the law of electrical resistance (Ohm's law)

ΔV = voltage variation
R = resistance
I = current

From Fourier's law

ΔT = is the difference between the temperature of the hot face and the cold face, consisting of a potential.
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= is equivalent to electrical resistance.

q"

T1 T2

ΔT

In the case of having two plates of different materials juxtaposed to each other, this will be
equivalent to having a resistance in series. The equivalent thermal resistance is equal to
sum of the other two.

k1 k2 k3
T1
T2
T3 .
q
T4

L1 L2 L3

Figure 15 - Resistance

Series Resistance:
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Highlighting the temperatures:

Highlighting the heat flow and substituting the values of the resistances

thermals

Resistance in Parallel:
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Figure 15 - Resistance in Parallel

Admitting that the total flow is the sum of the other flows:

From the definition of thermal resistance:

Substituting the equations:

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Note: the deductions of the resistances were taken from the handout Introduction to Transfer.
Heat of Eduardo Emery Cunha Quites and Luiz Renato Bastos Lia.

8- Heat Conduction - Radial Systems

In industry, cylindrical geometry is widely used; just check the quantity.

of existing tubes. Another study in this course is the heat exchangers that are
made up of large quantities of tubes.

Cylindrical and spherical systems usually have gradients of

temperature in a single direction (one-dimensional).

Figure 14 – heat flow in cylindrical configuration

8.1 - Heat Conduction - Cylinders

Hollow cylinder whose external and internal surfaces are exposed to fluids in
different temperatures, in steady state, without heat generation. By using
Fourier formula.
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applying the property of logarithms:

Electrical Resistance conduction:

Electrical Resistance Convection

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8.2 - Heat Conduction - Spheres

Figure 15 – heat flow in spherical configuration

A = 4 π r2
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Convection resistance:

9- Fins:

Used to increase the efficiency of heat exchange, in collection (heat collectors)

or in dissipation (motors). The principle of using fins is based on the law of cooling
of Newton.

To improve a heat exchange, one can act in three ways, one can increase
h, there is the temperature difference. To increase h (convective coefficient) is
it is necessary to change the fluid, sometimes this is impossible. Increase the temperature difference.
it is necessary to cool the fluid, an action that is usually expensive. The only plausible solution is

increase the heat exchange surface, using fins) (Figure 16)..

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Figure 16 - Fins

Figure 17 - Heat Flow in Fins

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In symbolic form, this equation becomes:

Where P is the perimeter of the fin, A is

t the cross-sectional area of the fin, and ([Link]) is the area.
between the sections x and (x+dx) in contact with the fluid. If h and k can be considered
constants, simplifying the equation:

(eq. 1)
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The equation 1 it is a second-order ordinary linear differential equation

order, whose general solution is:

(eq.2)

where C
1 and2C are constants to be determined through the boundary conditions.
appropriate. The first boundary condition is that the temperature at the base of the bar
is equal to the surface temperature to which it is attached, that is:

According to the second boundary condition, which depends on the adopted conditions,
we will have three basic cases:

Case (a)® Infinitely long bar

In this case, your temperature approaches the temperature of the fluid when x® g,

you T=Tg in x® gBy substituting this condition into equation 2, we have:

(eq: 3)
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As the second term of equation 3 is zero, the boundary condition is satisfied.

only if C = 0.
1 Substituting C by 01 in equation 2, we have:

and the temperature distribution becomes:

( eq. 4 )

As the heat transferred by conduction through the base of the fin must be transferred by
convection from the surface to the fluid, we have:

( eq. 5 )

Differentiating equation 4 and substituting the result for x=0 in equation 5, we obtain:

( eq. 6)

Equation 6 provides a reasonable approximation of the heat transferred, in the unit

in time, in a finite fin, if its length is very large in comparison
with the area of its cross-section.
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ml >2.65 long fin

Case (b)® Finite length bar, with heat loss at the end
despicable

In this case, the second boundary condition will require that the gradient of
temperature at x=L is zero, that is, with x = L. Under these conditions:

( eq. 7 )

Substituting equations 7 into equation 3, we obtain:

( eq. 8 )

Considering that the hyperbolic cosine is defined as the equation

8 can be placed in a simplified dimensionless form:

Heat transfer can be obtained through equation 5, substituting the

temperature gradient at the base:
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( eq. 9 )

The heat transferred, per unit of time, is then:

( eq. 10 )

Case (c)® Finite length bar, with heat loss by convection through the
extremity

In this case, the algebra involved is somewhat more complicated, however the principle is the

even the heat flow transferred is:

TYPES OF FINS

Various types of fins are present in a wide range of industrial applications. Below
we will see some of the most commonly found industrial dostpos.

· Rectangular Section Fins

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Figure 18 - Rectangular section fins

In figure 18 we observe a rectangular section fin seated

longitudinally on a flat surface. Considering that the fin has thickness
width (small thickness in relation to width), the coefficient of the blade can be
calculated like this:

( eq. 11 )
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·Non-Rectangular Section Fins

Figure 19 - Non-Rectangular Fins

In this case, we have a triangular section fin shown in figure 19. Fins of
parabolic, trapezoidal sections, etc., are also common. The calculation of the coefficient can

to be done similarly to the previous case, considering an average cross-sectional area.

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· Curved Fins

Figure 20 – Non-Rectangular Fins

The fins placed on curved surfaces can have radial placement.

(transversal) as shown in figure 18 or axial (longitudinal), setting the flanges
rectangular shown in figure 19. The radial or axial placement of fins on
The cylindrical surface depends on the direction of the flow of the external fluid, as the fins
must not harm the film coefficient as little as possible, that is, they cannot
provoke stagnation of the fluid. The calculation of the coefficient for the fin in figure 20 is done

in the following way:

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· Pine Fins

Figure 21 - Pine Fins

In certain applications, aletastpo pins are necessary to avoid harming.

excessively or film coefficient. Figure 14 shows a pin fin of section
circular. Neste caso o cálculo do coeficientemé feito assim :
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EFFICIENCY OF A FIN

Let us consider a base surface on which blades of section are fixed.

uniform transversal, as shown in figure 22. The fins have thickness and height
largurab. The base surface is at a temperature T greater
s than the ambient temperature
T¥ .

Figure 22
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The total heat flow transferred through the surface with the fins is equal to
flow transferred by the exposed area of the fins (A)Aplus the flow transferred by the area

exposed from the base surface ( A

R) :

The temperature difference for the area of the fins (T -? ¥T) is unknown.

temperature T sis at the base of the fin, as the fin loses heat, its

temperature decreases, that is, A does

A not work with the same thermal potential in
relation to the fluid.

For this reason, calculated with the potential (T - T), it

s¥must be corrected by multiplying.
this value by the efficiency of the finhThe efficiency of the fin can be defined as follows:

Therefore,

From equation 6.18 we obtain the heat flow exchanged by the area of the fins:
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The heat flow in a fin where heat exchange at the tip is negligible is
obtained through equation 6.10, obtained previously:

It is obvious that disregarding heat transfer at the tip of the fin is

simplification for industrial use fins. However, as the fins have thickness
small, the heat exchange area at the end is small; besides this, the difference in
the temperature between the fin and the fluid is lower at the end. Therefore, in most of the

cases, due to the small heat exchange area and the lower thermal potential, the
heat transfer by the tip of the fin can be neglected

Matching the two equations for heat flow

Isolating the efficiency of the fin, we obtain:

q. 6.20

The heat exchange area of the fin can be approximated as:

Substituting equation 6.21 into equation 6.3, we obtain:

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The coefficient of the fin (m) can be introduced into equation 6.22 to give the expression
final efficiency of the fin:

The equation shows that the efficiency of the fin is a function of the product 'm.l'.

Observing a table of hyperbolic functions, it is noted that as the product

The efficiency of the fin decreases as 'm.l' increases, because the numerator increases to a lesser extent.
proportion. Therefore, the higher the fin coefficient and/or the greater the height,
lower is the efficiency. On the other hand, the taller it is, the larger the area of

heat transfer from the fin ( A ). A

Back to the equation, the heat flux exchanged on a finned surface can be
calculated like this:
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By putting the ∆T and the film coefficient in evidence, we obtain:

The efficiency of the fins is obtained from the equation and the non-fin area (A) and
R
the fins (A) are
A obtained through geometric relationships.

10- Convection:

Heat Exchange Processes that involve the transfer of heat between a

solid surface and a fluid, liquid or gas. Up to this point in the course, when it
I wanted the convection heat transfer coefficient; it was given in the problem.
meanwhile several other factors influence this value, factors such as speed,
characteristic of the fluid. From now on, these factors will become part of our
calculations.

A fluid is capable of resisting any shear stress imposed on it. It can

enter into motion due to differences in specific mass (buoyancy) or due to differences in
Pressure. Convection based on buoyancy is called Free or Natural Convection.
Convection driven by pressure differences is called Forced Convection.

So far we have calculated convection by the cooling law of

Newton

where,

heat flow transferred by convection (kcal/h);

heat transfer area (m) 2

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DT = the temperature difference between the surface (T) and

s that of the fluid in a quite location
o
away from the surface (T)g (C).

h = heat transfer coefficient by convection or film coefficient.

Figure 23 - Convection

10.1- Boundary Layer:

When a fluid flows along a surface, whether the flow is in regime

laminar or turbulent, the particles in the vicinity of the surface are decelerated in
virtue of viscous forces. The portion of fluid contained in the region of substantial variation.
of velocity, illustrated in figure 24, is called the hydrodynamic boundary layer.

Figure 24 - hydrodynamic boundary layer

10.1.1- Thermal Boundary Layer:

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Let's now consider the flow of a fluid along a surface.

when there is a temperature difference between the fluid and the surface. In this case, the
A fluid contained in a region of substantial temperature variation is called a layer.
thermal limit.

Figure 25 - Thermal Boundary Layer

The mechanism of convection can then be understood as the combined action of

heat conduction in the low-speed region where there is a gradient of
temperature and mixing movement in the high-speed region. Therefore:

¨ low-speed areaè the conduct is more important

¨ high-speed region è mixture between the hottest and the coldest fluid
substantially contributes to heat transfer

In the thermal boundary layer, there are therefore high temperature gradients and
It can be said that the study of the convection phenomenon reduces to the study of conduction.

through it.

10.2- Determination of the Film Coefficient (h):

The coefficient h is a complex function of a series of variables related to the

following characteristics:
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Characteristic Dimension ( D )

D: it is the dimension that dominates the phenomenon of convection.

diameter of a tube, height of a plate, etc

- Physical Properties of the Fluid ( )

dynamic viscosity of the fluid;

fluid density;

specific heat of the fluid;

thermal conductivity of the fluid;

volumetric expansion coefficient

Fluid Motion State ( V, g,DT )

V : fluid velocity;

g: acceleration due to gravity;

DT: temperature difference between the surface and the fluid

Logo, h is a dotpo function:

A formula that took into account all these parameters would be extremely
complex. The problem is then circumvented by dividing the study into particular cases.
For example, the study of convection in gases can be subdivided as follows:
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For each particular case, empirical equations are obtained through the technique of
combined dimensional analysis with experiments, where the film coefficients are
calculated from empirical equations obtained by correlating the data
experimental with the help of dimensional analysis.

· Forced Convection the equation is dotpo:

Flow of a fluid inside a tube of diameter D in the regime of

turbulent flow ( Re > 3300 ). In this case, we use the following equation :

· Natural Convection and the equation is given by:

Natural convection over vertical plates of height D and large cylinders

8 In this case, we use the following equation:
diameter and height D (for [Link] < 10).

Heat Transfer in Cylinders:

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Involve in the external flow the movement of the fluid in the perpendicular direction

to the axis of a circular cylinder.

At the stagnation point, there is a raise in temperature, the pressure decreases.
with the elevation of x, the boundary layer develops under pressure, on the rear face
there is a decrease in this pressure.
Unlike the flow in flat plates, in this case there is a change in
flow velocity. The Reynolds number for this case is

Laminar boundary layer Re ≤ 2 x 105

Transition boundary layer Re ≥ 2 x 105

Experimental methods were used in the sense of determining the effects of

heat and mass transfer. From the engineering calculation standpoint, the use of
Hilpert's empirical correlation.

C and m are constants according to the table, and it can also be adopted for gases in
flow over cylinders with straight or non-circular cross-section.

Table of flow across a circular cylinder

ReD C m
0.4 – 7 0,989 0.330
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4 - 40 0.911 0.385
40 - 4,000 0.683 0.466
4,000 – 40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000 - 400,000 0.027 0.805

Other correlations can be used for circular cylinder, the correlation of

Zhukauskas.

All properties are estimated at T00except Prswhat is estimated based on

do Ts.
The constants C and m are tabulated, if:
The constants C and m are tabulated, if:

Pr > 10, n = 0.36, se Pr ≤ 10, n = 0.37

ReD C m
1 – 40 0.75 0.4
40 – 1000 0.51 0.5
103- 2 x 105 0.26 0.6
2 times 105- 106 0,076 0.7

Churchill and Bernstein proposed an equation that covers the entire

Re intervalDfor which experimental data is known, and also covers the

Pr interval. This equation should be used when ReDPr > 0.2.
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All properties must be estimated at the film temperature.