9

EQUATIONS
DIFFERENTIALS

The address fields

they allow us to make a
outline of solutions
from an equation
differential without one
explicit formula.

Perhaps the most important of all the applications of calculus is to equations.

differentials. When scientists use calculus, it is often to analyze
a differential equation that has arisen in the process of modeling some phenomenon that
they are studying. Even though it is often impossible to find an explicit formula
for the solution of the differential equation, the graphical and numerical approaches
they provide the necessary information.

566
 9.1 MODELINGWITHDIFFERENTIALEQUATIONS
& Now is a good time to read (or When describing the representation process in section 1.2, it was mentioned to formulate a
re-read the presentation of a representation mathematical model of a real-world problem, either through intuitive reasoning
mathematician on page 24.
about the phenomenon or a physical law based on the evidence of experiments. The
mathematical model often takes the form of a differential equation, that is,
an equation that contains an unknown function and some of its derivatives. This is not
surprising, because in the real world problem, it is common to observe that occurrences happen cam-
bios and it is desired to predict future behavior regarding how the va- change
current phenomena. It begins by examining several examples of how equations arise.
differentials when representing physical phenomena.

POPULATIONGROWTHMODELS

A model for the growth of a population is based on assuming that the population-
tion grows in a quantity proportional to the size of the population. That is a supo-
reasonable size for a population of bacteria or animals under ideal conditions
(unlimited environment, adequate nutrition, absence of predators, immunity to diseases
medad).
The variables in this model are identified and named:

t time͑the independent variable͒.

P number of individuals in the population͑the dependent variable͒.

The growth rate of the population is the derivative dP.͞So the assumption of
that the rate of population growth is proportional to the size of the population,
it is written as the equation

dP
1 kP
dt

where is the constant of proportionality. Equation 1 is our first model for-

it is population growth; it is a differential equation because it contains a function
unknownPy and its derivativeDPd ͞ t.
Once a model is formulated, its consequences are considered. If a po-
Population of 0, therefore P͑t͒ Ͼ 0 for everyone. So, yesϾ 0, then equation 1 shows-
between whatЈ͑t͒ Ͼ 0 para todat. Esto significa que la población siempre está creciendo. De
fact, when it grows͑t͒ equation 1 shows quedP͞it becomes bigger. In other
words, the growth rate increases when the population grows.
Equation 1 asks to find a function whose derivative is a constant multiple of itself.
same. It is known from chapter 3 that exponential functions have that property. From
P
made, if established͑t͒ Thiskt , in that case

PЈ͑t͒ C͑kekt͒ k͑Thiskt͒ kP͑t͒

Thus, any exponential function of the form P͑t͒ Thisktit is a solution of the equation
t
1. When this equation is studied in detail in section 9.4, it will be seen that there is no other
solution.
If it is allowed to vary for all real numbers, the family of so-
lucionesP͑t͒ Thisktwhose graphs are shown in figure 1. But the populations have-
only positive values and, therefore, is only interested in solutions with
FIGURA 1 CϾ And probably there is interest only in values greater than the initial time.
The family of solutions ofdP/dt=kP cialt 0. The solutions with physical meaning are shown in figure 2. If it is written

567
568 |||| CHAPTER 9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

P t 0, obtainedP͑0͒ Thisk͑0͒ C, so the constant C turns out to be the population

initial,P͑0͒.
Equation 1 is suitable for representing population growth under conditions.
ideal, but it must be acknowledged that a more realistic model should reflect the fact that
a certain environment has limited resources. Many populations begin to incre-
0 t growing exponentially, but the population stabilizes as it approaches
support capacity K (or decreases towards K if it ever exceeds K). For a
The model takes both trends into account, and two assumptions are made:

dP
&
Ϸ small kPsiPes (at the beginning, the growth rate is proportional
dt
FIGURE2 aP).
The family of solutionsP(t)=Ce kt
withC>0 yt˘0
dP
&
Ͻ 0 siPϾ K decreases if it never exceeds K.
dt

A simple expression that incorporates both assumptions is the following equation.

2
dP
dt
kP1Ϫͩ P
K
ͪ
Note that if P is small compared to K, then P͞As it approaches 0 and,
therefore, dP͞dtϷ kP. SiPϾ K, then 1Ϫ P͞What is negative and, therefore,
dP͞dt0.Ͻ
Equation 2 is called the logistic differential equation, and it was proposed by the biologist.
Dutch mathematician Pierre-François Verhulst in the 1840s as a model for
the global population growth. Techniques will be developed that allow finding solutions.
explicit forms of the logistic equation in section 9.4, but for now they can be
deduce qualitative characteristics of the solutions directly from equation 2. It
First, observe that the constant functions P͑t͒ 0 yP͑t͒ Kson solutions for-
P that, in any case, one of the factors on the right side of equation 2 is zero.
This undoubtedly makes physical sense: if the population is ever 0 or at capacity.
of support, remains so). These two constant solutions are called solutions of
P =K balance.
If the initial population P(0) is between 0 and K, then the right side of equation 2
it is positive, therefore͞dtϾ 0 and the population grows. But if the population exceeds the
solution of
balance support capacity͑PϾ K ͒ , so 1Ϫ P͞What a negative, this is how it ended upd͞ t0 y Ͻ
the population decreases. Note that, in any case, if the population tends to the
P =0 support capacity͑PlK͒, entoncesdP͞dtl0, which means that the population is
0 t stabilizes. Thus, it is expected that the solutions of the logistic differential equation ten-
gan graphs that look like something like those in figure 3. Note that the graphs are
FIGURE3 they move away from the equilibrium solution P 0 and move towards the equilibrium solution
Solutions to the logistic equation P K.

MODELFORTHE MOVEMENTOFASPRING

Now an example of a model from the physical sciences is examined. The movement is considered
movement of an object with a mass at the end of a vertical spring (as shown in figure 4).
In section 6.4, Hooke's law was analyzed, which states that if a spring is stretched
(or compress) x units from its natural length, then it exerts a force that is pro-
proportional ax:

restoration force Ϫkx

 SECTION 9.1 MODELING WITH DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS |||| 569

where you have a positive constant (called the spring constant). If the forces are ignored
external resistance forces (due to air resistance or friction) then, due to the
second law of Newton (force is equal to mass times acceleration), it is given

d 2x
m position of 0 3 m Ϫkx
balance
dt2
This is an example of what is called a second-order differential equation because
it has to do with second derivatives. We will see what can be conjectured about the for-
x m
the solution directly from the equation. The equation 3 can be rewritten in the form
x
d 2x k
FIGURE4 Ϫ x
dt2 m
It says that the second derivative of x is proportional to x but has the opposite sign.
two functions with this property, the sine and cosine functions. In fact, it turns out
that all the solutions of the equation 3 can be written as combinations of certain
sine and cosine functions (see exercise 4). This is not surprising; it is expected that the re-
sort oscillates with respect to its equilibrium position and, therefore, it is natural to think that they are
involving trigonometric functions.

GENERALDIFFERENTIALEQUATIONS

In general, a differential equation is an equation that contains a function of unknowns.

and one or more of its derivatives. The order of the differential equation in the order of the
higher-order derivatives that occur in the equation. Thus, equations 1 and 2 are of first
order, and equation 3 is of second. In the three equations, the independent variable is
llamaty represents time, but in general the independent variable does not have to represent.
spend time. For example, when considering the differential equation

4 yЈ xy
It is understood that yes, it is an unknown function dex.
A function f is called a solution of a differential equation if the equation is satisfied.
when f͑ x͒ and its derivatives are substituted into the equation. Thus, it is a solution of the
equation 4 yes

fЈ͑ x͒ xf͑ x͒
for all values leave some interval.
When solving a differential equation, it is expected to find the possible solutions of
the equation. Some particularly simple differential equations have already been solved.
those of the form
yЈ f͑ x͒
For example, it is known that the general solution of the differential equation

yЈ x3
is given by
x4
y ϩC
4
where C is an arbitrary constant.
But, in general, solving a differential equation is not an easy matter. There is no technique
systematic approach that allows for the resolution of all differential equations. However, in the
Section 9.2 will look at how to draw approximate graphs of solutions even when one does not have
explicit formula. You will also learn how to find numerical approximations to solutions.
570 |||| CHAPTER 9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

V EXAMPLE 1Show that any member of the family of functions

1ϩ thist
y
1Ϫ thist
1
it is a solution of the differential equation yЈ ͑ y 2Ϫ2 1͒.
SOLUTIONThe quotient rule is used to derive the expression for y:

͑1Ϫ thistt͑͒ hist ͒ Ϫ ͑1ϩ thistϪ

͑͒ thist͒
yЈ t 2
͑1Ϫ this ͒
thist Ϫ c 2e 2t ϩ thistϩ c 2e 2t 2cet
͑1Ϫ thist͒ 2 ͑1Ϫ thist ͒ 2

& Figure 5 shows the graphs of seven The right side of the differential equation becomes
family members of example 1. The equation

ͩͫ ͪ ͬ ͫ ͬ
differential shows that yesϷ Ϯ1, therefore 2
yЈ Ϸ 0. This is confirmed by the smoothing of the 1 1 1ϩ het 1 ͑1ϩ thist͒ Ϫ2 ͑1Ϫ thist͒ 2

2 ͑ y 2Ϫ 1͒ Ϫ1 2
graphics near you 1yy Ϫ1. 2 1Ϫ thist 2 ͑1Ϫ itt͒
5 1 4cet 2cet
2 2
2͑1Ϫ thist͒ ͑1Ϫ thist͒

_5 5 Therefore, for every value of dec, the given function is a solution to the equation
differential.

When applying differential equations, one is usually not so interested in finding a

_5
family of solutions (the general solution) as in determining a solution that satisfies
FIGURE5 any additional requirement. In many physical problems, it is necessary to find the solution
particular that satisfies a condition of the form͑t0 ͒ y0 This is called a condition
initial, and the problem of finding a solution to the differential equation that satisfies the
initial condition is called a problem with initial values.
From the geometric point of view, when an initial condition is imposed, it is considered
From the family of solution curves, one is chosen that passes through the point.͑t0 ,y0P
͒ hysically
this corresponds to measuring the state of a system over time0 and use the solution of the pro-
initial value problem to predict the future behavior of the system.
1 2
V EXAMPLE 2Find a solution to the differential equation.Ј ͑ yϪ 1͒ that
2 satisfies
the initial condition͑0͒ 2.

SOLUTIONWhen substituting the values 0 yy 2 in the formula

1ϩ cet
y
1Ϫ thist
from example 1, it is obtained

1ϩ this0 1ϩ c
2
1Ϫ this0 1Ϫ c
1
If this equation is solved for c, it yields 2.Ϫ 2c 1ϩ c, what d'ac 3 Therefore,
the solution of the problem with initial values is

1ϩ 13e t 3ϩ e t
y
1Ϫ 13e t 3Ϫ e t
 SECTION 9.1 MODELING WITH DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS |||| 571

9.1 EXERCISES
1. Show what xϪ x Ϫ1it is a solution of the equation 9. A population is represented by a differential equation.

ͩ ͪ
differentialxyЈ ϩ y 2x.
dP P
1.2P1Ϫ
[Link] that senxcosxϪ cosx is a solution of dt 4200
problem with initial values
For what values of population is growth occurring?
yЈ ϩ ͑thank you͒ y cos x
2
y͑0͒ Ϫ1 (b) For what values of the population is it decreasing?
What are the equilibrium solutions?
in the intervalϪ 2͞ Ͻ xϽ 2͞ . 10.A function͑t͒ satisfies the differential equation

3. (a) For what values of the function y e rxsatisfies the equation dy

y 4Ϫ 6y3ϩ 5y2
differential 2yЉ ϩ yϪЈy 0? dt
Sir1year2these are the values obtained in section (a),
prove that any member of the family of What are the constant solutions of the equation?
(b) For what values does it decrease?
functions and ae r xϩ be r xit is also a solution.
1 2
For what values does it decrease?
4.(a) For what values of the function y it satisfies 11. Explain why the functions with the given graphs do not
differential equation 4yЉ Ϫ25 years? they can be solutions of the differential equation
(b) For those values of k, verify that any member of
the family of functions Ascentϩ Bcoskttambién dy 2
e t͑ yϪ 1͒
it is a solution. dt
(a) y (b) y
[Link] of the following functions are solutions to the equation
differentiallyЉ ϩ y sense?
(a)y thank you (b)y cosx
1 1
(c)y xsenx (d)y Ϫ xcosx 1 1
2 2

6.(a) Show that any member of the family of functions

1 t 1 t
y ͑lnxϩ C͒is a solution of the differential equation
x2yЈ ϩ xy 1.
; (b) Illustrate item (a) by graphing different members of the [Link] function with the given graph is a solution to one of the
family of solutions on a common screen. following differential equations. Decide which is the equation
Find a solution to the differential equation that correct and justify your answer.
satisfies the initial condition͑1͒ 2. y
(d) Determine a solution of the differential equation that
satisfies the initial condition͑2͒ 1.
7. What can be said about a solution of the equation
yЈ Ϫy 2observing only the differential equation?
(b) Check that the family members 0 x
y 1͑͞xϩ C ͒ they are solutions of the equation in part (a).
(c) Can you think of a solution to the differential equation
yЈ Ϫy 2 that is not a member of the family of paragraph (b)? A.yЈ 1ϩ xy B.yЈ Ϫ2xy C.yЈ 1Ϫ 2xy
(d) Find a solution to the initial value problem
13. Psychologists interested in learning theory study
yЈ Ϫy 2 y͑0͒ 0.5 learning curves. A learning curve is the graph
of a function P͑tt͒ he performance of someone who learns
[Link] can be said about the graph of a solution of a skill as a function of training time.
the equationЈ xy 3when x is close to 0? What happens if The derivativei͞ t represents the speed at which it improves
big eyes? performance.
(b) Verify that the family members (a) When do you think Pse increases more rapidly?
y ͑cϪ x 2Ϫ1͒͞ 2they are solutions of the equation What happens with PW ͞ hat is growing? Explain.
differentiallyЈ xy 3. If it measures the maximum level of performance of which it is capable.
; (c) Graph different members of the solution family student, explain why the differential equation
on a common screen. Do the graphs confirm what
predicted in subsection (a)? dP
k͑MϪ P͒ is a positive constant
(d) Find a solution to the initial value problem. dt
yЈ xy 3 y͑0͒ 2 It is a reasonable model for learning.