RAYSSA S.

PATROCINIO

GUI ATHEREFERÊNCIADO

SIS TEMA
NERVOUS
Main topics about the base of
neuroscience
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Embryology of the Nervous System

The first neurons appeared in theexternal surfacetwo
organisms.

Origin of the docoderma.

First indicationneural plate.

Epidermis
Neural plate Neural prayer
Neural crests

Neural tube

Notocord

R E S U M I N D I N G ...

Theneural tubegives rise to the elements of the nervous system

central.

Aneural crestgives rise to the elements of the nervous system

peripheral.
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Neural tube
The neural tube begins to undergo constrictions giving rise to
primary vesiclesthat through other strangulations form
secondary vesiclesuntil the formation of the CNS.

Neural crest
The neural crests divide giving rise to thespinal ganglia.
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Neurophysiology
Allows you to interact with ourenvironment.

Divided into:CentralePeripheral
Centralbrain and spinal cord
Ring roadcomposed of nerves and their
components outside the CNS (ganglia)

Information
Affiliated:from the periphery to the CNS. Informationsensory(inputs).

Efferent:From SNC to the periphery. InformationmotorcyclesThey go in

direction to the glands, smooth muscle, and skeletal muscle
(outputs).

Components
Neurons

Glial cells- supports and protects the neurons, and forms a

stem cell reservoir.
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Neurons
Cellsexcitables.

Unitfunctionaldo SN.

The signal propagation is through theaction potential.

They communicate throughsynapses

ORGANIZATION

Cell body or soma or perikaryon:contains thecoreand it is where it is

produced asproteins and hormones.

The Nissl bodies are ribbons of endoplasmic reticulum.

The biosynthetic apparatus is related to the cell body.

So how muchgreaterthe production of proteins,greaterthe body
cell phone.

The molecules produced by the cell body are transported

for the synapses through microtubules.

Anterograde transport:from the pericaryon to the synapses

Retrograde transport:from the synaptic terminal to the pericaryon.

Need of neurons for trophic substances from targets
peripherals for survival. (feedback)
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Dendrites:responsible forreception of the synaptic stimulus(input).

Their extensions come out of the cell body and possess the apparatus
[Link] spinesthey are protrusions where they occur
the synaptic contacts. Thepostsynaptic densitiesit is the support that
keeps and organizes the receptors.

Axon:responsible forelectrical stimulus. axon coneis the

cell body terminal where the axon starts, is the place where
sum all the inputs of the neuron, both inhibitory and excitatory.
[Link] arborizationit is the place where the axon is
branches and communicates with other dendrites.

Dendrites

Cell body

Axonic cone
Myelin sheath

Axon - microtubules
Node of Ranvier
Terminal arborization

TYPES
They are classified according to thefunction, shape and size.
If there is similar morphology in the neurons, they are in regions
specific to the CNS
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MULTIPOLAR PSEUDOUNIPOLAR

Found in the spinal ganglia. It presents

More abundant. Found a peripheral branch of the axon that receives the
in the brain and in the spinal cord
sensory information from the periphery and sends it to
spinal the spinal cord without passing through the cell body.
They do not change the signal.

Bipolar INTERNEURONS

They are found in the retina and We communicate 2 different neurons. Example:
in the olfactory epithelium. They have It communicates the axon of a neuron with the
a dendrite that receives the dendrite from another
input that is taken to the
cell body and goes to the
axon.
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Synapses
It is the contact between twoneural cells.

The action potentialsthey codethe information that will be

processed by the SNC and it is through thesynapsesthat the information
is transmitted from one neuron to another.

AXODENDRITIC
More common

Between aaxonit is adendrite

Adendritic treereceives the inputs generating the potential of

action
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AXOSSOMATIC AXOAXÔNICAS

Umaxonin contact with Contact betweentwo axons

another neuron by
pericardiumfrom the cell, next
to the axonal cone

Glias
Cells ofsupporteNOT neural.

More numerous than neurons.

Astrocytes

Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells

SNC SNP
Microglia Satellite

Ependymal cells
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ASTROCYTES

Butabundant

Offersdirect supportfor the neurons and thestimulate.

I occupy andrecyclethe remainder of neurotransmitters.

In its branches - feet - the terminal astrocytic processes join.

to the blood vessels and formthe blood-brain barrier,
what separates blood from nervous tissue.

Do you have paper?signalingemodificationof the signal

TRIPARTITE SYNAPSE:neuron
pré- sináptico, pós-sináptico
and astrocytes. The astrocytes
can release
neurotransmitters in the gap
synaptic and reinforce the signal

PROTOPLASMIC FIBROUS
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OLIGODENDROCYTES

They are cellsmyelinatingdo SNC.

Responsible fortrainingfrom the myelin sheath.

An oligodendrocyte canmyelinatemultiple axons.

The thickness of the myelin sheath depends on the diameter of the

axon

MICROGLIA

Derivative of themonocytes

Cellsimmunedo SNC

Activities with the release of

inflammatory molecules
(cytokines)
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EPENDYMARIES

Cells thatthey coveros

ventricles andseparatethe liquid
cerebrospinal

Haseyelashes

SCHWANN CELLS

Cellsmyelinatingdo SNP

Myelinizesjust one neuron

At the neuromuscular junctioncaptureo

excess of neurotransmitters,
keeping thehomeostasis

Satellite Cells

It maintains a microenvironment
controlledaround the
neuron allowing
electrical insulationit is a way
for metabolic exchanges
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Blood-Brain Barrier
Islandeprotecteffectively the brain of the rest of the body.

Thetransportit occurs through the diffusion of lipophilic molecules, water

and the gas and the remaining molecules use active transport, which
limits the entry of drugs.

Types of ion channels

VOLTAGE-DEPENDENT ION CHANNELS
Onechangethe membrane potential causes the opening of the
canal
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MECHANICALLY DEPENDENT IONIC CHANNELS

The pores are openmechanically, they open to a
mechanical deflectionExample: the tactile receptors in the skin.

THERMO - DEPENDENT IONIC CHANNELS

Are regulated by thetemperature.

DEPENDENT LIGAND IONIC CHANNELS

They are regulated byspecific moleculeswhat connects in the channel that
open the pores
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Synaptic transmission
Membrane potential
BALANCE
It is thedifferencebetween the inner part and the outer part of the
extracellular membrane

It is thepotentialofrestfrom the cell.

Every cell has adifferenceof loads having more loads

more positive on the outside than on the inside.

In addition, the cells havemore sodiumon the outside andbut

potassiumon the inner side. This difference is maintained by the pump
sodium and potassium.
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The membrane is approximately 100xmore permeableto

potassium than sodium, thenmore potassium ions leaveyes
cell of what sodium enters.

If the membrane potential is

make it more positive
If the membrane potential is
makes it more negative

Action potential
DEPOLARIZATION
Load inversion, mainly due to sodium.

Sodium enters through controlled ionic [Link]

thus the initial speed is very low.

Sodium enters the cell up to the threshold, where the effect occursALL
or NOTHING.

If you reach thethresholdsodium

channels controlled by are activated
voltage releasing even more the sodium entry.

Thus it happens theinversion of signals, the external environment becomes more

negativeand the internal environment morepositive.

When the potential reaches+35mVthe Na+ channelsthey closee

the opening of potassium channels occurs.
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REPOLARIZATION
It occurs atopeningofK+ channels that exit the cell and
leaving your inside more negative.

When the potential reaches the membrane potential the cell

to become againpolarized.

HYPERPOLARIZATION
When toexitof K+ ions decrease the potential of
membrane.

Theclosurethe normal of the K+ channels is around-95mV.

Has effectinhibitory, decreasing the probability of the potential

of action.

HYPERPOLARIZATION
Increases toexcitabilityof the postsynaptic neuron, for bringing the
action potential closer to the threshold.
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CONTINUOUS DRIVING
In axonsunmyelinatedSlower driving

DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION

In axonsmyelinatedFaster driving

Neurotransmission
1. The precursor of neurotransmitters is captured.
2. Synthesis of the neurotransmitter.
3. Packaging in vesicles.
Excess transmitters are degraded.
5. Depolarization of the membrane
6. Opening of voltage-controlled calcium channels.
influx
7. With the increase of calcium ions, the vesicles are attracted
for the axonal membrane where they are released by exocytosis.
8. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic space and
diffusion occurs at the synaptic membrane.
9. Interaction with postsynaptic receptors
Some are inactivated
A part melts outside the synaptic space and are
captured for the synthesis of new vesicle
Others are captured by non-neuronal cells.
[Link] interact with presynaptic receptors
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EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL

The neurotransmitter secretion acts on the [Link]

increases topermeabilitysodium PPSE.

INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL

The opening of thechloride channelsthat enter the cell.

Staying longernegativeand the release of potassium causing the
hyperpolarization.

Synapse
Point ofcontactbetween one neuron and the next neuron.

They determine todirectionfor

which a stimulus will distribute
for the central nervous system.

CHEMICALS
Amajoritythe synapses.

The first neuron releases aneurotransmitterthat will act in

receptorsspecifics in the next neuron.
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ELECTRICAL
When neurons communicate with each othercommunicating junctions,
that allows that theionsand other molecules move between the
cells

Receptors
Postsynaptic receptors have aportion of connections
where they connect theneurotransmitters, and aportion that crosses
every membrane reaching the interior of the neuron.
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Oneunique synapse nohas the ability to bring closer the

neuron of threshold potential.

Only a cumulative effect of thousands of synapses will provoke the

TEMPORAL SPATIAL SUMMATION.

METABOTROPIC RECEPTORS
In these receptors aneurotransmitteris coupled to the cascade of
intracellular signaling(PROTEINS)

NT
RECEPTOR IONIC CHANNEL

PROTEIN G ENZYME 2ND MESSENGER

IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS

When a receiver ofneurotransmitteris coupled to acanal

ionic.

Thus, when a neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, a

conformational changethat allows ions to flow through
of the canal.
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Neuromodulation
When synaptic transmission serves for the cell
adjacent performenzyme cascadespecific resulting in
prolonged changesof the cell and its connections -
synaptic plasticity

SECOND MESSENGERS

[Link] the neurotransmitter is recognized in

surfacepostsynapticneighboring molecules areactivated.

These molecules activate an enzymatic mode capable of

producedsecond signal.

The receptor ofG proteinit changes your form and the

protein binds to the complex.

The portion releases itGDPand check it outGTPThiscomplexαGTPit is

free in the cytoplasm and can undergo 4 changes.

1. The opening of specific ion channels occurs in

[Link] channelthat opens in response to
G protein This channelremains open for a period of time
prolonged.
2. The G protein canactivatedirectly one or moreenzymes
intracellularThese enzymesinduce chemical functions
specific in the cell.
[Link] of cAMPactiveometabolismspecific of
neuron andtriggers chemical reactions.
[Link] activationThere may be the formation of new
proteins and structural and metabolic modification of the neuron.
Long-term memory process
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central
Nervous System

Composed ofbrainand by thespinal cord.

Amarrowspine has functions ofreceive sensory information

external andperform the processing.

Besidesto transportall amotor information.

Encephalon
Part of the SNCinsideofskull cavity.

It consists ofprosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon.

[Link] hemispheres, deep structures and

diencephalon.
[Link] and cerebellum:The mesencephalon and the
rhombencephalon.

GUIDANCE
Superior
Rostral PlanStructures
locatedtoward
nose to the mouthGo from the point
but later than the previous one
Flow Plan:Structures
but more localizedtowards
to the occipital bone.
Inferior
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GRAY MATTER

Accumulation ofcell bodiesneuronals.

The encephalon is in the cortical layer of the brain and cerebellum,

nuclei of the base and structure of the limbic system.

Nucleus

Collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS.

GANGlion

Set of nerve cells in the PNS.

Brain
It consists of the telencephalon and diencephalon.

Thetelencephalonconsists of a mass divided into 2 hemispheres.

Thediencephalonconsists of thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES

It has 2 anatomical hemispheres.

they are practically mirrored.

Each one divided into 4 lobes. The

cristasare calledturnse
asgroovesoffurrows.
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A. FRONTAL LOBE
Largest wolf of the brain
Separated from the parietal by thecentral
groove
Separated from the temporal bylateral groove

The anterocentral gyrus to the central sulcusResponsible for

primary motor areas.

Lateral and medial areaMotor, voluntary behavior.

Lateral areaExpressive and motor aspects of language.

Remaining:Prefrontal association - Responsible for functions such as

emotion, motivation, personality, initiative, judgment
concentration capacity and social inhibitions.

Circle of the girdle:Modules the emotional aspects of

behavior on the medial surface.

B. PARIETAL LOBE
Regulation of somatosensory functions.

Separated from the occipital lobe by theparieto-occipital sulcus

Opost-central turnit is the primary somatosensory area of the cortex.

Lateral and medial area -processing of touch, pain, and position of

member.

The dominant hemisphere (usually the left) has the aspects

receptive or sensory area of Wernicke.

In addition, aspectsorientation and perception complexes

spatial.
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C. OCCIPITAL LOBE
Processing of visual information

Nocalcarine sulcusit is the primary visual area.

D. TEMPORAL LOBE
Processing of auditory information.

The superior temporal gyrus is the area in which our ability to

to hear and interpret sounds

Lateral area– perception of language.

Previous and medial areasthey are important in aspects

learning, memory, and emotion complexes.

E. LIMBIC WOLF
Cortex ringthe turns of the cingulate and parahippocampal.

It covers parts of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.

BASE NUCLEI

They are a group of interconnected and interlinked nuclei.

They play an essential role ininitializationand nocontrolyes

voluntary motricity.

Limbic Structures

Motivation and [Link] act in memory– Amygdala and the

hippocampus in the temporal lobe.
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WHITE SUBSTANCE

Connects several cortical areas to each other.

The association fibers interconnect various cortical regions.

inside thesame hemisphere.

The commissural fibers connect those of the cortex of one hemisphere with
the corresponding areas of theopposite hemisphere.

The projection fibers transport information from the first to the

cerebral cortex.

Medulla
Receives sensory information from the
limbs, of the trunk and the internal organs.

Initial information processing.

Ventricular System
Space filled with liquid inside the brain – cerebrospinal fluid.

Lateral ventricles: There are 2 linked to the telencephalon, they have a shape in
"C". The septum pellucidum separates the ventricles. They are connected to the 3rd.
the ventricle is connected to the 4th ventricle by the aqueduct of
mesencephalon.
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Cerebrospinal fluid

Fills the ventricles and surrounds the brain in space

subarachnoid between the arachnoid and the pia mater.

It supports and dulls the brain.

[Link] production:produced by the choroid plexus located in

lateral ventricles and in the 4th ventricle. The CSF is similar to
plasma.

Meningeal Coating
3 layers of connective tissue.

Protects and contains structures such as blood vessels and six veins.

DURA-MATER

Outer layer is stronger andis connected to the skulle

contains the venous sinuses. Consists of the layerperiosteal
attached to the skull and ameningeal.
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These two layers are fused, only separated to form the

venous sinuses to which the cephalic veins drain.

The compartments are separated by the dural folds. The sickle of

the brain separates the two hemispheres, and contains the sagittal sinus
superior on the external edge and the inferior sagittal sinus on the free border
two hemispheres.

ARACHNOID

Partially fixed to the inner surface of the dura mater.

Has thesubarachnoid spacebetween the pia mater that is

filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

When bleeding occurs between the arachnoid and dura.

the mother has a subdural space.

PIA-MOTHER

Layer moreinternal

Adheres to the brain parenchyma andfollows all the spins and

furrows.
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Blood Supply
Who is thisinternal carotid and vertebral arteries.

The two vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery in

level of the brainstem. This system supplies both the spinal cord
how the brainstem forms theWillis polygon.

The internal carotid artery enters through the carotid canal. The artery
The middle cerebral is the extension of the carotid supplying most of it.
from the lateral surface of the building and base ganglia. The artery
anterior cerebral supply to the medial surface of the frontal lobes and
parietal. These two arteries are joined forming the artery
anterior communicator.
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Telencephalon
It is understood in both brain hemispheres and in the terminal lamina.

Corpus callosum:physically and functionally both

hemispheres.

The hemispheres have a cavity, theright lateral ventricle

the left, which are connected by the interventricular foramen to the III
ventricle.

Each hemisphere has three poles: Ffrontal, occipital and temporale

three faces:dorsolateral, medial, and inferior

Sulci and Gyri

Increase in surface area without increasing volume.
Groovescavities
Turnsturns

LATERAL

Separate thefrontal lobetwotemporal and parietal.

Central

Parieto-occipital
Lateral
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CENTRAL

Separate thefrontal
lobeparietal separates precentral gyrus
related to post-central motor skills with sensitivity

parietooccipital
On the medial face of the brain, theanterior limit of the occipital lobe.

Faces
Dorsolateral

Related to all bones.

Frontal Lobe
Precentral sulcus
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Called Broca's turn

Temporal Wolf
Superior temporal sulcus
Inferior temporal sulcus
Transverse temporal gyrus - hearing
Post-central sulcus
Intraparietal sulcus
Supramarginal gyrus
Angular turn

Wolf Isle
Circular sulcus of the insula
Central sulcus of the insula
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MEDIAL

Corpo caloso; Férnix; Septo pelúcido; Lobo occipital; Lobo frontal

the parietal.

INFERIOR

Temporal Wolf
Occipito-temporal sulcus
Collateral sulcus
Hippocampal sulcus

Frontal Lobe
Olfactory sulcus

Ventricles
Cavities lined with ependyma containing cerebrospinal fluid
spinal.
Anterior horn
Central part
Posterior horn
Lower horn
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Brain Lobes
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Wolves of the Isle

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Face Medial
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Inferior Face
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Thalamus
It is the target of all sensory information
(except olfactory) on the way to the
cortex.

Largest structure of the diencephalon.

Connects the cortical areas to each other,

modulating and controlling the flow of
information.

Anatomia
Located on both sides of the 3rd ventricle and the left lobe
it is connected to the right side by the interlaminar adhesion.

MEDIAL AND LATERAL NUCLEI

Divided by the layer of internal medullary lamina. It has the

centromedian nuclei, or parafascicular, dorsomedial,
dorsolateral, posterolateral, pulvinar.

LATERAL, MEDIAL AND POSTERIOR NUCLEI

Geniculate body that acts in the visual pathway

Medial geniculate body that acts in the auditory pathway

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Nucleus of the surroundings

Reticular nucleus of the thalamus formed by a layer of neurons.

Functions
Theretransmission cores(sensory and limbic motor) receive
inputs coming from the periphery and resend this information to the
cortex.

Theassociation nucleiconnects areas of the cortex to each other.

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Theintralaminar nucleiinterconnected with the functions of the ganglia

of the base and the limbic system.

Oreticular nucleisynchronizes the activities of the thalamus with the

cortex.

INPUTS

[Link]:Contains information that must be sent to the

cortex.
[Link]:It modulates the information and regulates whether it will be or not.
not forwarded to the cortex

TRIGGER PATTERNS

[Link]:Linear transfer of information to the cortex.

[Link]:Detection of new stimuli.

MOTOR RETROCESSION NUCLEI

They are theanterior

and lateral ventral [Link] receive inputs
of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum and project to the
cortexes, primary motor and pre-motor.

Outputs from the basal ganglia

The motor nuclei relay the outputs of the ganglia to
frontal cortical areas and provide direct feedback to the
striated. The striated body receives cortical inputs to facilitate the
movement. The inputs from the striatal body to the thalamus result in
inhibition or disinhibition of the thalamus. The thalamus adjusts the information and

the feedback is sent back to the striated.

Outputs of the cerebellum

The inputs from the cerebellum to the primary motor cortex are
retransmitted via thalamic relay nuclei.
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Hypothalamus
Below the thalamus

Related to thelimbic systemMemory/Emotion

Participates in the regulation ofSNA(regulation of heart rate, temperature)

Hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Epithalamus
Above the thalamus

Habenula["I am","watchtower","pain","learning"]

Medullary striaHabenular bundles

Pineal glandmelatonin cardiac cycle

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Subthalamus
Below the thalamus.

Base core activity.

Makes the interface between the subthalamic nucleus

the pale nucleus.

Base Nuclei
Themotor command control of the NMScomes from two systems
distinct: nuclei of the base and cerebellum.

They control:
Movement decision
Direction of movement
Amplitude of the movement
Motor expression of emotions

The nuclei are large masses of gray substances inside.

deep in the cerebral hemispheres.
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CAUDATE NUCLEUS

It has the shape of a tadpole. Its head is located at thefloor of the

lateral ventricle.

PUTAME

It is the most lateral and is connected to the caudate, together they are called
striped.

The two are input nuclei for the basal ganglia,

they receive excitatory inputs from cortical and subcortical structures.

GLOBO PÁLIDO

Medially to the Putamen and laterally to the thalamus. It is the nucleus of

output of the basal ganglia andsend inhibitory projections to
thalamus.

nucleus accumbens

It is the anterior and ventral part of the [Link] extensive inputs

dopaminergic.

SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS

It is biconvex and located inferiorly to the [Link] afferences from

cortex and other structures of the cortexYour outputs are excitatory
through the glutamatergic projections to the pallidum and to SN.

BLACK SUBSTANCE

Small motor nucleus, located in the anterior part of the midbrain.

Despite its location in the midbrain,functionally it is
considered part of the core of the base.
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Deals
INPUTS

The inputs of the gangliago to the [Link] that the cell of

stratified receives inputs from various sources.

OUTPUTS

They are inhibitory via GABAergic neurons.

Circuits
Adirectly facilitatesan efficient behavior and oriented towards
target. Avia indirectasunprimesuperfluous behaviors do not
related to target behavior.

Direct pathway: Releases the thalamus from inhibitionleading to a greater

cortex excitation and more outputs.

The excitatory projections (Glu) from the cortex to the striatum make
synapse with the inhibitory neurons that project directly
for the GPi (internal pallidum). Then the inhibitory neuron
se projetam para o tálamo.

With this, the inhibitory inputs from the striatum to the GPi will inhibit the
inhibitory projection (GABA) to the thalamus, leading the thalamus to
increase the outputs and the excitatory pathway to the cortex.

Indirect pathway: Inhibits the outputs of the thalamus,leading minor

excitation of the motor cortex and lower motor outputs,
counterbalancing the effects of the direct route or 'brake'.
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Brainstem
Formed by the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

Place where everything happensascending and descending information

between the brain and the spinal cord

It has a nucleus integration function of the reticular formation.

Bulb
The medulla oblongata.

The caudal part continues with the spinal cord.

LIMIT:Foramen magnum

The most rostral portion is characterized by thepyramidsand by the part

flow offourth ventriclein the posterior portion.

Theinferior cerebellar pedunclesthey bring information from the marrow

and of the trunk.
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DESTRUCTION OF THE PYRAMIDS:

It is in the bulb that occurs thecrossing

of the nerve [Link]'s why the
the right hemisphere controls the left side.

It has nuclei associated with the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

Between the cerebellum and the bulb there is a space that is part of
fourth ventricle.

The upper limit has a groove that marks the division between the bulb and
the bridgebulbous groove little bridge.

Has themedian fissureanterior that ends superiorly in

a depression –Blind hole.

The pyramids are an elevation formed by the sets of fibers of

corticospinal tract.

Each side of the pyramids has a groove and more laterally the
olivewhich corresponds to the inferior olive nuclei.

4th Ventricle
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The back part of the bulb initially starts closed and then opens.
forming the fourth ventricle being continued by the central canal

Thecentral canalthe bulb continues with the medullary canal

where the liquor flows.

The 2 prominences of the posterior part correspond to the nuclei.

gracile and cuneiform

The medullary striae of the 4th ventricle border the pons and the medulla.

The cranial nerves are IX, X, XI, and XII.

Bridge
Intermediate portion of the trunk.

It can be called a protuberance.

Associated with the cerebellum and the telencephalic cortex incontrol of the
motor actions.

It has nuclei from the 5th to the 8th nerve and has its own nuclei.

It is crossed by theascending and descending dealswhat

connects the medulla with the upper centers.

It has a depression on the front part -BASilar SULCUSthat

it houses the basilar artery.

At the point of the trigeminal nerve, there is a limitation that marks the

transition of the bridge to themiddle cerebellar pedunclewhat does

communication of the bridge with the cerebellum.
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Mesencephalon
But higher.

The III and IV ventricles communicate.

It has nuclei of the III and IV cranial nerves and its own nuclei.
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Spinal Cord
Medullary Column

Separated into 5 regions:

[Link] vertebrae: 7
2. Thoracic vertebrae: 12
3. Lumbar vertebrae: 5
4. Sacral vertebrae: 5 as a child and 1 adult
5. Coccyx: 4 when child and 1 adult

Definition
Simplest part of the CNS.

It is inside the vertebral canal.

An adult man measures around 45 cm, being a little shorter.

in the woman.

It is a direct continuation of the bulb of the brainstem.

it passes through the foramen magnum and ends around the L1 and L2 vertebrae.

At the caudal portion, it ends by tapering off forming themedullary cone,

that continues with a thin meningeal filament -flament
terminal.

The spinal nerves exit the spinal cord at each vertebral level. The
dorsal and ventral roots from the end of the spinal cord to its
the respective vertebral levels are calledcauda equina.
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Structure
Cylindrical shape and slightly flattened from ventral to dorsal.

It has 2 swellings, which are areas with a greater amount of

neurons that will form 2 plexuses.

[Link] swelling: Brachial plexus - innervation of the limbs

inferiors.
2. Lumbar swelling: Lumbosacral plexus - innervation of the
lower limbs.

The external surface of the medulla is marked by fissures and grooves.

1. Median posterior sulcus: Separates the dorsal surface into 2

metades.
2. Anterior median fissure: The spinal artery can be found.
anterior.
3. Anterior lateral sulcus: Exit for the motor ventral roots.
4. Posterior lateral sulcus: Entrance of sensory dorsal rootlets.
5. Posterior intermediate sulcus: Only in the cervical spinal cord.
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The white substance is formed by myelinated axon fibers.

ascendants and descendants.
Ascending pathways carry sensory information to the brain.
Descending pathways carry motor commands and signals
medullary of the brain to the muscles.

Posterior median sulcus

Intermediate dorsal sulcus

Posterolateral sulcus

White Substance
Posterior root of
spinal nerve

Grey Matter

Previous root of
spinal nerve Radicles of
spinal nerve

Anterior median fissure Gray Matter

The posterior column in the regions

cervical and upper thoracic is
divided into long fascicles that
they carry sensory information up to
the marrow.

Fascicle graceful load

information at the bottom of
trunk and lower limbs.
Cuneiform fascicle: carries information from the upper part of
trunk and upper limbs.
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The lateral column contains the ascending and descending tracts.

main.
Lateral corticospinal tract: carries motor information from
cortex for the cells of the ventral horn.
Ventrolateral tract: carries information of pain and temperature
on the contralateral side of the body.

The posterior column in the cervical and upper thoracic regions is

divided into long fascicles that carry sensory information
to the marrow.
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Sensory of the lower limb

Sensory of the upper limb
Motor for ipsilateral ventral
Proprioception of the limbs for the
cerebellum
Pain and temperature on the side
contralateral
Motor for the ventral horn
ipsilateral and contralateral - do
cortex for the lower limbs.

Meninges
They are extensions of the roofs of
meninges of the brain.
[Link] mater:but external.
[Link]:The subarachnoid space
is filled with LCS.
[Link] mater:adhere to the surface of the
medulla.

Spinal Nerves
It has 31 pairs. Each nerve is composed of dorsal roots.
(sensory) and motor or ventral. The roots join at the foramen
intervertebral where the spinal ganglia is located.

When the spinal nerve is mixed, it divides into anterior and

posteriors.

As the dorsal root approaches the spinal cord, it divides into

rootlets.
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Dermatomes: Area of the skin

innervated by a single nerve
spinal cord or spinal segment.

Miótomo: Innervated muscles

by a single spinal nerve.

Gray Matter
Contains cell bodies.

Nocorno anteriors are the lower motor neurons and

modulatory interneurons Renshaw cells.

The posterior nocorn has a set of interneurons responsible

through the 1st integration of sensory information - PAIN and TEMPERATURE
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Nocorno lateralcontém copos celulares motores viscerais

preganglionic.

Blood Supply
Those from the vertebrobasilar system and by the
segmental arteries.

A branch from each vertebral artery

join to form a spinal artery
anterior that supplies 2/3 of the spinal cord.
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peripheral
Nervous System

Composed of thecranial and spinal nerves.

Cranianemerge from the brain and the brainstem.
Spines:we emerge from the spinal cord.

Peripheral nerves transport sensory inputs to the system

central nervous system, where stimuli are processed and the CNS sends stimuli
motors for the muscles.

The informationreceivedtwo peripheral nerves enter through the

dorsal part of the spinal cord(sensory).

The informationsentfor the peripheral nerves emerge from

ventral portion of the spinal cord.

Efferent visceral fibers:or visceral motor or system

autonomous nervous system.

Efferent somatic fibers:or motors carry information to

musculature.
Afferent visceral fibers:they carry the information of the viscera.
Afferent somatic fibers:They take information from the skin, muscle.
skeletal, joints...

Autonomous Nervous System

Formed byvisceral efferent [Link] is divided into:
[Link]:only innervate the central region (viscera)
[Link] motor innervations to the viscera and to the
periphery of the body The ganglia are cell bodies outside of
SNC
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Visceral afferent
general (ACG)
Aferent
Sensory
Somatic afferent
general (ASG)

SNP Center
Nice
Visceral efferent
general (EVG) f
Parasympathetic
Efferent
(Motor)
Somatic efferent
general (ESG)

Peripheral nerve
They are bundles of axons or nerve fibers surrounded by various
layers of connective tissue.

It carries somatic and visceral information.

They are extensions of cranial and spinal nerves.

ORGANIZATION

Arranged in bundles or fascicles

The axons are covered by the ENDONEURIUM

Each fascicle is covered by PERINEURUM

The outermost layer that surrounds several perineurium is the EPINEURIUM.

Schwann Cells: Myelinating cell of the PNS

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CLASSIFICATION

Reflects on the speed and diameter of

axon
Fibers A: faster.
Type B fibers are smaller myelinated fibers
and normally visceral motors
pre-honeyed.
C fibers: small and not
myelinated.

Sensory Receptors
We detect information from the environment.

They act as transducers, transforming a physical stimulus or

chemical in electric impulse.

POTENTIAL RECEPTORS: They are electrical impulses translated by

sensory receptor.
They are extensions of cranial and spinal nerves.

CLASSIFICATION

Exteroceptors: Skin endings, respond to pain,

temperature, touch, pressure.

Proprioceptors: Signal the awareness of the body's position

and motor skills.

Enteroceptors: monitor internal body events.

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DETECTION MODE

Chemoreceptors: detect molecules that bind to

receptor.

Photoreceptors: detect light in the retina.

Thermoreceptors: detect temperature on the skin.

Mechanoreceptors: stimulated by mechanical opening of

channels.

Nociceptors: Detect signals associated with tissue damage.

ADAPTATION OF THE RECEPTOR: Sensory receptors become

less sensitive to a stimulus over time.

Effector terminations
Motor unit: Neuromuscular junction – chemical synapse between
motor nerve fibers and muscle fibers.

Neuromuscular Junction: The action potential travels along the

motor neuron and depolarize the axonal terminal.

This increases the influx of calcium that causes the vesicles to fuse.
with the membrane and eliminate acetylcholine.

ACh binds to the receptor in the membrane of the skeletal muscle,

causing the influx of Na+ and the generation of EPSP. This change
triggers the opening of Ca2+ channels in the reticulum
sarcoplasmic.

The influx of CA2+ causes muscle contraction

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visceral
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Maintains the homeostasis of our body;

Monitors and controls the function of our internal organs, vessels and
structures in the skin;
It has an afferent and an efferent component.

AVGs: carry information from the center of the body, from the organs
interns.
EVGs: control the smooth muscle, the cardiac muscle and
glands

VISCERAL AFFERENTS RELATED TO PAIN:

They are located in the spinal ganglia of T1 and L2 and travel through the
sympathetic efferent fibers. The efferent fibers enter the horn
dorsal and end in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus that
project to the insular cortex where visceral pain is
interpreted.

AV RELATING TO PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS:

Origin of the pelvic nerves. The cell bodies of the sacral fibers.
They are in the spinal ganglia S2-S4. The fibers enter the spinal cord
spinal cord with parasympathetic fibers at the level of the cranial nerves or
no sacral through the ventral root. They cross the white commissure
anterior and ascend in the ventrolateral system.
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Motor
It is under central control.

The signals originate in the hypothalamus and do not go to autonomic nuclei.

in the brainstem and spinal cord.

Neurons can be influenced by transmission nuclei.

in the reticular formation of the brainstem and limbic structures
like the amygdala. That's why we sweat when we are nervous.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are antagonistic to each other.

STRUCTURE

It consists of 2 neurons in the periphery. 1 pre-ganglionic neuron leaves the CNS.

and forms synapse in a peripheral ganglion as a post neuron
ganglionar. Since a single pre-ganglionic neuron can
make synapse with several postganglionic neurons.

Ganglion

N. pre-ganglionic

N. post-ganglionic
Viscera
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ACTIVATION

Thesympathetic gangliaare located near the SNC,

while the parasympathetic ganglia are near or within the
nerves that innervate.

Foractivation we use AChThe release of ACh from neurons

postganglionic parasympathetic fibers for the internal organs
they increase intestinal motility and decrease muscle contraction
cardiac.

The postganglionic sympathetic fibers use norepinephrine which is

the reverse of ACh.

Some sympathetic neurons project to the adrenal medulla and

using ACh stimulates the secretion of hormones like Ne,
Epinephrine and endorphins in the bloodstream causing a
nice response. fight or flight.
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Parasympathetic
Maintains the state of rest and digestion.

When activated, it decreases cardiac output and pressure.

blood-related, accelerates peristalsis, increases salivation and causes
pupil constriction and urination.

Nice
Fight or flight system.

Raises blood pressure, increases blood sugar levels,

redirects blood flow to the skeletal muscle and
far from the visceral and cutaneous circulations, it dilates the pupil and
decreased salivation.
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Enteric
Divided into the myenteric plexus between the muscle layers and
submucosal plexus. The myenteric plexus is the
main controller of liquid absorption.

Somatic SNP
(volunteer)

SNP
Sympathetic SNPA
SNP Visceral
Autonomous,
Involuntary SNPA Parasympathetic

SNP
Somatic

Nice

SNP
Autonomous

Paras-
nice
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Nervos

Cranianos
Nerves are whitish cords made up of bundles of
nervous fibers, reinforced by connective tissue.

They join the CNS with the PNS and connect to the brain.

It has the function of conducting nerve impulses through two fibers.

(afferent and efferent).

The nerves are highly vascularized, which allows for the removal of
epineurium. However, the nerves are practically devoid of
sensitivity, thus, when a nerve is stimulated along the
The painful sensation is felt in the territory it innervates.

REAL ORIGIN OF THE NERVE: Location where the bodies are located
cell phones

APPARENT ORIGIN: Place where the nerve enters the CNS

GHOST PAIN

When a member is amputated, the irritated nerve quotas can

originating nerve impulses that are interpreted by the brain
as if it originated in the amputated member

Nerves can bifurcate or anastomose, forming a

rearrangement of nerve fibers
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Conduction of nerve impulses

The conduction of sensory or afferent nerve impulses is through
of the peripheral extensions of sensory neurons.

The body is located in the ganglia of some cranial nerves. They are
pseudounipolar cells (from the cell body, a branch emerges)
which will later be divided into two)

The peripheral extension connects to the receptor and the extension

The central part is connected to the brainstem. One part, the peripheral, acts
the dendrite acts as one part, and the central part acts as the axon.

The sensory nerve impulse is conducted from the prolongation

peripheral to the central and do NOT pass through the cell body.

FIBERS

They are classified into 3 groups:

1. A-rich myelinated fibers of mixed nerves. It can be

divided into "alpha", "beta" and "labida" according to the
driving speed.
2. Fibers B: They are preganglionic fibers (that connect the first
axon)
3. C fibers: They are unmyelinated postganglionic fibers of the
autonomous system and some fibers responsible for imp
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Peripheral nerve injuries

Peripheral nerves are often traumatized, resulting in
in crushing or sections that cause loss or diminishment of
sensitivity and motor skills.

Degenerations occur in the distal part of the axon and the sheath of
myelin (Wallerian degeneration).

In the proximal body, there is degeneration only of the Ranvier node

closer.

In the cell body, there is chromatolysis (dissolution of chromatin) which is

inversely proportional to the distance of the injury.

In each proximal section, the membrane is quickly reconstituted.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

Nervous Terminations
At the peripheral extremities, the nerve fibers of the nerves
modify giving rise to the nerve endings. These
endings can be of two types:

Sensory or afferent: They are stimulated by a form of energy.

mechanics, heat, light. Thus, after being stimulated, they give rise to
nerve impulses that travel along the fiber towards the nerve body.

These impulses are taken to the central nervous system and reach
specific areas of the brain where they are interpreted, resulting
in different forms of sensitivity

Sensory receptor
Neuronal or epithelial structure capable of transforming physical stimulus
or chemicals in bioelectric activity (signal transduction) to be
interpreted in the CNS

SPECIAL RECEPTORS

They are more complex and relate to a neuroepithelium (cells

sensory that are specialized in capturing external stimuli
of our senses) and are part of the special organs: vision,
hearing and balance, taste and smell.

GENERAL RECEPTORS

It occurs throughout the body and responds to different stimuli (touch,

temperature, pain
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Specificity

The sensitivity is maximum for a certain stimulus.

Classification of Receptors
CHEMORECEPTORS

They are receptors sensitive to chemical stimuli OLFACTION and

TASTING and the carotid body receptors capable of
detect variations in circulating oxygen levels.

OSMORECEPTORS

Receptors capable of detecting osmotic variation (pressure

contrary to osmosis

PHOTORECEPTORS

Light-sensitive receptors

THERMAL REPAIRS

Receptors capable of sensing cold and heat. They are endings

free nervous. In the hypothalamus, they are responsible for detecting the
blood temperature.

nociceptors

They are receptors activated by various mechanical and thermal stimuli.

or chemicals, but at an intensity sufficient to cause injuries of
fabrics and pain
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MECHANORECEPTORS

They are sensitive receptors to mechanical stimuli. They are the receptors.
of hearing and balance of the inner ear, the receptors of the sinus
carotid (baroreceptors), from the viscera, cutaneous.

Cranial Nerves
They connect with the brain
OLFACTORY: TELECEPHALUS
OPTIC:DIENCEPHALON
OTHER: BRAIN STEM

They are listed in the craniocaudal sequence.

AFFERENT FIBERS: They are responsible for carrying information from

external environment to the CNS – SENSORY NERVES

EFFERENT FIBERS: Ensure that the impulses from the nervous system
reach the effector organs MOTOR NERVES and MIXED

SOMATICS: Veiling of the body with the external environment - linked to

skeletal musculature

VISCERAL: Related to vegetative life. Controls

AFFERENT COMPONENTS

GENERAL SOMATIC AFFERENT FIBERS

They originate from exteroceptors (sensory cells that can
capture the stimuli of the environment) and proprioceptors (organs
sensitive receptors located in the muscles, tendons, and ligaments
conducting impulses of temperature, pain, pressure, stem and
proprioception.
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SPECIAL SOMATIC AFFERENT FIBERS

They originate in the retina and in the inner ear, relating to the
vision, hearing and balance.

GENERAL VISCERAL AFFERENT FIBERS

They originate in visceroceptors and conduct, for example, impulses.
related to visceral pain.

SPECIAL VISCERAL AFFERENT FIBERS

They originate from taste and olfactory receptors and are
considered viscera for being located in systems
visceral.

EFFERENT COMPONENTS

The branchiomeric muscles are derived from the branchial arches.

what are considered visceral and the fibers that innervate the muscles
they are considered special visceral efferent fibers.

Visceral efferent fibers are related to the

innervation of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands - ANS
parasympathetic. They are pre-ganglionic fibers. The fibers that innervate
The striated myotomic muscles are called efferent fibers.
somatic.

The innervation of the brachiometric muscle receives in each arch

branchial a cranial nerve that innervates the musculature that is there
shape.
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Smell
The sense of smell and taste are part of the body's chemical senses.

They determine and modify the quality of these chemical products in

electrical stimuli that are interpreted by the brain as smell
and I like.

Some chemicals like camphor are detected by the

Trigeminal nerve.
ANOSMIA: inability to smell
AGEUSIA: inability to taste.

The effects can bring sensations of euphoria or aversion.

Olfactory System
Composed of olfactory epithelium that contains receptor neurons,
through the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, and cerebral cortex.

It is the only one in which the primary sensory receptors are cells.
bipolar cells in the epithelial lining of the nasal cavity. These
cells undergo replacement throughout life.

These primary receptors synapse with olfactory neurons.

secondary in the olfactory bulb. From the bulb, the signals are sent
for cortex, without passing through the thalamus.
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Olfactory Epithelium
Specialized mucosa on the roof of the nasal cavity.

It extends from the upper lateral wall of the nasal cavity along
from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and by the medial wall.

The odors are dissolved in the mucus.

CELLS OF THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM

The primary olfactory neurons are bipolar and each of them

it has a unique dendrite that extends to the epithelial surface,
which expands into the olfactory bulb with cilia. The cilia
contain molecular receptors for the detection of the odorant.

The central processes of these neurons come together to cross the

cribriform plate and synapsing with the neurons' cells
secondary olfactory bulbs.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Basal cells:Located in the membrane and generate new cells

Support cells:Support

Secretory cells:Mucus that dissolves the odorants

OLFACTORY PROCESSING AND CODING

The connection of the odorant with the primary neurons activates the protein
G que ativa a adenilato ciclase que produz o AMPc ativando os
permeable Na+ and Ca+ ion channels.

This causes depolarization of the neuron and the production of potential

of action.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Olfactory Bulb
The primary olfactory neurons send projections to the bulb.
olfactory that is resting on the cribriform plate.

No bulbs, these primary neurons synapse with the cells.

with mitras and in tuft, in the glomeruli (specialized area).

All the first neurons that detect the same odor

converge to the same glomerulus, increasing sensitivity.

The periglomerular cells mediate contacts between the glomeruli and

Glandular cells mediate between two mistresses or two cells.
in a cloud.

This integration helps in adjusting the signal.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

1. Odorants bind to the receptors of primary neurons and

they depolarize the cell.
2. The signals are transduced to the second order neurons
in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb. The primary neurons perform
synapses with the mitral cells and in tufts.
The periglomerular and granular cells make inhibitory synapses,
improving contrast through lateral inhibition of mitral cells
in the stroma of adjacent glomeruli.
4. The axons of the mitral and tufted cells project to the
olfactory cortex

Central Projection
The axons of the mitral and tufted cells pass through the tract and through the
olfactory trigone.

The triangle is an expansion of the tract.

The fibers pass laterally in front of the perforated substance.

anterior to form the lateral olfactory stria (primary) directing -
even the primary olfactory area for the conscious appreciation of
smell.

The primary olfactory area consists of the cortex of the uncus and area
entorhinal (anterior part of the gyrus to the hippocampus) of limit of the
insula (point of junction between the insular lobe cortex and the cortex
of the frontal lobe); and from the part of the amygdala (a nuclear complex
located above the tip of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle
The uncus, the entorhinal area, and the limen of the insula together are
called piriform area.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

SECONDARY OLFACTORY CORTEX

The primary olfactory areas of the cortex, the profuse projections go

directly to the olfactory association area in the cortex
entorhinal or secondary olfactory cortex.

ANTERIOR OLFACTORY NUCLEUS

Some collateral branches of the axons of secondary neurons

they end in a group of cells called the olfactory bulb
anterior. From this nucleus, the postsynaptic fibers project to the
contralateral olfactory bulb via the anterior commissure

Scheme
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Hearing and Balance

They are sensations transmitted by special somatic afferents that
they form the vestibulocochlear nerve.

Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Eighth cranial nerve. It is a SENSORY nerve.

Issues 2 branches:
Entrance exam:Transmits impulses related to balance.
CochlearRelated to hearing.

Located in the bony part of the temporal bone.

Receives stimuli from the specialized terminal organs that contain

mechanoreceptors - hair cells - that respond differently
to the sound and position and the movement of the head.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Hearing
Sounds are audible variations in air pressure.

The frequency is the number of compressed air passages that go through the
Our ears to every second - Hz. High frequencies contain more
compressed and rarefied regions.

Our auditory system responds within the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz.

The perception of pitch as sharp or deep is determined by

frequency.

Amplitude determines the volume we perceive; loud sounds have

greater amplitude.

The middle ear is important for amplifying the signal, since only
the pressure of the waves on the oval window would not be able to move the
liquid. The force on the oval window is greater because the ossicles
act as a lever.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Ear
Divided into 3 regions

External
Collects the sound waves and directs them inward.

Formed by the auricular pavilion, by the external acoustic meatus and

through the tympanic membrane.

The ear or pavilion is a skin fold on the lateral face of the

head, reinforced by cartilages.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Accidents
Helix:margin of the pavilion, having the branch of the helix, the
spine and the tail.
Antelice:crest parallel and anterior to the helix.
Triangular fossa:depression between the helix and the antihelix.
Earlobe:lower cutaneous pleat.
Auriclecentral part excavated protected by
I bring.

The sound waves captured by the ear are conducted through the
external acoustic meatus and cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate.

The external acoustic meatus is a curved tube about 2.5 cm long.

which is located in the temporal and leads to the tympanic membrane. Its
the coating has glands.

The tympanic membrane or eardrum is a thin division and

semitransparent between the external acoustic meatus and the middle ear.

The sensory innervation comes from the auriculotemporal nerve (branch of the
trigeminal) and the pavilion is also innervated by the 7th, 9th, and 10th.

Ceruminous glands:Seal the wax. The combination between

Hair and earwax prevent the entry of dust and foreign objects,
in addition to preventing damage to the meatus.

Media
It is a small cavity filled with air and lined with epithelium.
situada na petrosa do temporal.

Separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane and from the ear
internal through a thin bony division that contains 2 small
openings: the vestibule window and the cochlear window.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

The sound waves captured in the outer ear cause the vibration of the
membrane in the eardrum. These mechanical vibrations to a chain of
ossicles, fixed to the membrane of the eardrum.

They are the 3 smallest bones in the body and are connected by joints.
sick
[Link]:The cable connects to the inner face of the membrane.
tympanic. The head is articulated to the body of the anvil.
[Link] middle bone articulates with the head of the stirrup.
[Link]:The base fits into the oval vestibule window.

The tensor tympani muscle inserts into the manubrium of the malleus and
limits movement and increases tension of the tympanic membrane
avoiding damage to the inner ear due to loud noises - N.
triple (V).

The stapedius muscle inserts into the stirrup and is the smallest muscle in the
body. It avoids large vibrations by protecting the foyer window and
reducing the auditory sensitivity - Facial Nerve (VII)

The tympanic cavity is a pneumatic space that communicates with

the pharynx through the auditory tube. During swallowing and to
bocejar her opens allowing air to escape to equalize the
pressures.

It has 6 walls:
[Link] wall:epitympanic recess is above the level
of the tympanic membrane
[Link] wall:separates the tympanic cavity from the carotid artery
internal
[Link] wall:on the eardrum
[Link] Wall:Ceiling of the cavity
[Link] wall:where is the superior bulb of the jugular vein located
internal
[Link] wall:medial limit of the cavity
@rayssapatrocinio1
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Internal
It can be called a labyrinth.

Formed by 2 divisions: The external bony labyrinth that encapsulates

an internal membranous labyrinth.

The space located between the membranous labyrinth and the bony labyrinth has
aperilinfa, which is similar to LCS. (Periasteo) [K+] [Na+]

The membranous labyrinth contains endolymph.

high levels of potassium which play an important role in generation
of auditory signals.

Excess perilymph can be drained through the perilymphatic duct.

in the space between the meninges, and the endolymph can flow through the duct
endolymphatic that ends beneath the dura mater.

OSSEOUS LABYRINTH

The vestibule is the central oval part. The vibrations of the stirrup are
transformed into liquid waves.

The vestibule is formed by 2 sacs, the utricle and the saccule.

Three semicircular canals emerge from the vestibule forming right angles.

Thus, the horizontal lateral, the anterior laterolateral and the

posterior or anteroposterior, one end of each channel is
finds in a widening called deampola.

The vestibular nerve consists of the ampullary, utricular, and saccular nerves.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Previously to the vestibule is the cochlea, which is a canal

bone spiral that resembles the shell of a snail and revolves around
2.5 turns around a central bony core called
modiolus, which contains the spiral ganglion of the cochlear part of the nerve
cochlear vestibule.

The cochlear duct is a continuation of the membranous labyrinth.

Above the duct there is a ramp from the vestibule.

The channel below is the tympanic ramp. The two ramps only...
communicate at the end – helicotrema.

MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH

It is the essential part of the oregano of the ear and of the sense of
balance.

In the cochlear labyrinth, the spiral organ rests on the basilar membrane.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Spiral organ:it is a spiral blade that contains epithelial cells

of sustentation and hair cells that are the receptors of
hearing. The hair cells can be inner, which are
organized in a single row, or outer hair cells, that
are organized in 3 rows.

On the apical portion of the cells, there are stereocilia.

At the basal end, the hair cells form synapses with the
first order sensory neurons and motor neurons
from the cochlear part.

The hair cells are covered by the tectorial membrane, which is

gelatinous, flexible.

Bone Membranous
@rayssapatrocinio1
@rayssapatrocinio1
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Attenuation reflex:O
start of a noisy sound
trigger a neural response
what makes the muscles
tensors of the eardrum and the
stapedius muscles contract, being
that the attenuation of sound is
much greater for frequencies
drops do what for
high frequencies.

It has a delay of 50 to 100.

ms, so damage may occur. Used when the individual
start to vocalize.

The reflection makes it easier to understand speech in a

noisy environment.

Som
The human ear can hear frequencies between 20 to 20,000 Hz.

When a sound wave reaches the inner ear, a wave in

the basilar membrane is initiated at the same frequency.

The base of the basilar membrane is narrow and rigid and is where it begins to
propagation. The tip is wider and more flexible, being where the sounds of
low frequencies are perceived TONOTOPIA.

Most sounds are a combination of frequencies.

Células ciliadas: The vibrations on the basilar membrane create a

shear force against the tympanic membrane causing the
stereocilia of the outer hair cells move.
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The inner hair cells are activated by the movement of the fluid.
since they are not in contact with the tecloria membrane.

The movement of the tallest cilia causes depolarization and the

minor displacements cause hyperpolarization.

The eyelashes are interconnected by apical connections that transmit the

force to an elastic fashion that opens and closes the channels that are of
mechanotransduction.

As the stereocilia are bathed in endolymph, rich in K+, the

opening of cationic channels causes a rapid influx of K+
depolarizes causing the opening of Ca2+ channels.

The influx of calcium causes the vesicles filled with neurotransmitters to

glutamate will be released. The cochlear afferent neurons are
stimulated and transmit this signal to the CNS.

[Link]:Hearing
[Link]:We amplify the signals
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At high frequencies, contraction of the outer hair cells occurs.

on the base.

At low frequencies, they cause contraction at the apex.

This influences the movement of the basilar membrane by increasing the fluid.
around the cells what amplifies the influx of K+ increasing the
signal.

The outer hair cells are innervated by efferent fibers.

originating from the auditory pathway that hyperpolarize or inhibit the
response to basilar displacement which helps in focusing sounds.

Central Routes
We transport the signal from the cochlea to the CNS

1. The movement towards the quinocilio causes the K+ channels

mechanosensitive channels open and the K+ present in the endolymph
penetrates the cell.
2. Depolarization occurs.
[Link] of Ca2+ channels.
4. Exocytosis of neurotransmitters, exciting the neuron.

1 ganglion innervates several external ciliated cells.

Several ganglia innervate 1 internal cilia.

VIA CENTRAL FOR FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE

Each fiber of the cochlear nerve only transmits information from one
specific frequency spectrum.
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The central processes of first-order neurons do

The synapse in the cochlear nuclei is divided into anterior and posterior.
and cross the middle line to the inferior colliculus.

From there, the fibers are directed to the medial geniculate body of the
thalamus and then to the primary auditory cortex.

As the stimulus becomes more intense, the membranes

depolarize and hyperpolarize more intensely, this causes
that neurons fire potentials at higher frequencies.

The volume of sound that we perceive is correlated to the number of

active neurons of the vestibulocochlear nerve.

Tonotopia:The frequency that causes a maximum deformation of

the basilar membrane gradually decreases. It occurs throughout
auditory system.

The vertical localization of sound occurs in the outer ear. Sounds

they reach the tympanic membrane both directly and by
reflection in the outer ear.

Pavilion
Trajectory 1
Auricular
As Reflected

Trajectory 1
I am direct

Trajectory 2
I am direct
Trajectory 1
As reflected

Trajectory 3 Trajectory 3
I am direct As reflected
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Vago
The largest of the nerves, the vagus distributes throughout practically the entire territory.

of parasympathetic innervation.

Place

Real origin:Bulb

Apparent origin in the brain:Posterolateral sulcus of the bulb

Apparent origin in the skull:Jugular foramen
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GENERAL SENSORY AFFERENT COMPONENT

It leads to general sensitivity (pain, touch, temperature). The bodies

cells are in the lower ganglion of the vagus nerve. The stimulation of
Auricular nerve at the external acoustic meatus can result in reflex.
of coughing, vomiting, and even fainting due to the activation of the nucleus
posterior of the vagus nerve. The meningeal branch carries information from
meninges, and the cell bodies are located in the ganglion
superior of the vagus nerve. The central processes of the inferior ganglia
The superior part enters the bulb and descends through the spinal tract of the nerve.
trigeminal to make synapses of the spinal nucleus of this nerve. The
second-order neurons leave the nucleus and travel along the tract
anterior trigeminothalamic to the contralateral VPM nucleus of the thalamus,
the third-order axon of the thalamus projects to the
primary somatosensory cortex.

GENERAL VISCERAL AFFERENT COMPONENT

Feeling of feeling unwell. The fibers arise from the plexuses around the
viscera of the abdomen and thorax that connect with the vagus nerve
right and left. The components of the aortic arch conduct
information from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors that maintain
the blood pressure. The cell bodies are located in
inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve, the central processes enter the
bulb, descends through the solitary tract and makes synapses in the caudal part
of the solitary nucleus. From the nucleus, it makes bilateral connections with the
reticular formation and the hypothalamus. In visceral reflexes, the
projections go to the posterior nucleus, to the ambiguous nucleus and
for the rostral portion of the bulb.

SPECIAL VISCERAL EFFERENT COMPONENT

Axons from pre-motor, motor, and other cortical areas

sending bilateral fibers through the posterior branch of the internal capsule
to make synapse with motor neurons in the ambiguous nucleus that
is located posterior to the inferior olivary complex of the bulb. The nucleus
solitary begins reflex responses to vomiting and coughing.
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GENERAL VISCERAL AFFERENT COMPONENT

The posterior nucleus and the medial portion of the ambiguous nucleus contain
bodies of the nerve cells of the parasympathetic component. The
the dorsal motor nucleus extends from the floor of the fourth ventricle
up to the central gray substance of the bulb. Pre- neurons
ganglia of the posterior nucleus of the vagus nerve synapse in
visceral thoracic plexus to innervate the lung and in the pre-plexus
vertebral in the abdomen to innervate the intestine and its derivatives. The
Pre-ganglionic fibers from the ambiguous nucleus synapse in the plexus
cardiac and innervate the heart. In the lung, the post- fibers
ganglion cells cause bronchoconstriction. Along the intestine, the
fibers of the vagus nerve synapse in ganglia in the plexuses
myenteric and submucosa, where it promotes peristalsis, absorption
of liquids and innervate the glands. The axons that innervate the
the heart has the role of slowing down the heart cycle.

Functions
80% of the fibers of the vagus nerve are afferent.

Controls inflammation in the body.

When electrically stimulated, there is a reduction in proteins.

inflammatory substances such as cytokines.
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Scheme
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Nervous Plexuses
Network of the previous branches of the spinal nerves.

The nerves that emerge from the plexus are named according to the
region that supplies

Scheme
Formed by the roots of the first 4 cervical nerves.

Above the skin, the muscles of the head, neck, and parts
superiors of the shoulder and chest.

The phrenic nerve originates that has motor fibers for the diaphragm.

Brachial
Formed by the roots of the previous branches of the spinal nerves C5 to
C8 and T1.

The roots of several spinal nerves join together to form trunks in the
lower part of the neck upper trunk, middle trunk and trunk
inferior. Subsequently, the clavicles, the trunks branch out into
divisions - anterior division and posterior division. In the axillas, the divisions
they come together to form the fascicles – lateral, medial, and
posterior. The branches of the fascicles form the main nerves of
brachial plexus.

Provides innervation to almost the entire shoulder and upper limbs.

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Original 5 major terminal branches: Axillary nerve, Musculocutaneous nerve

cutaneous, radial nerve, median nerve and ulnar nerve.

Lombar
Formed by the roots of the nerves L1 to L4.

From each side of the 4 lumbar vertebrae, it projects

obliquely. In the heads of the psoas major muscle, the roots of
Lumbar plexuses are divided into anterior and posterior divisions.

Supra the anterolateral abdominal wall, the genital organs

externals and part of the lower limbs.
 Sacral and Coccygeal
Roots of the nerves L4 and L5 and S1-S4 form the sacral, innervating the regions.
glutes, the perineum and the lower limbs - originates the nerve
sciatic

Roots of the S4-S5 nerves and the coccygeal nerves.

Nisotgmo: Reflex that occurs during head rotation,

way to stabilize the image, involuntary eye movement.

Hearing loss:Hearing loss or deafness

Hypoesthesia:Decreased sensitivity.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Eye fundus examination:

DIRECT: optic nerve
INDIRECT: posterior pole and periphery of the retina

Dizzying crises:Illusion of movement.

Paroxysmal crises:They are an intensification of sudden recurrences.

of symptoms, spasms and seizures
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Motor
Organized in hierarchical levels of control.

High – neo cortex – basal nuclei: strategy

Intermediate - motor cortex - cerebellum: Tactic

Low – Brainstem – spinal cord: execution

SENSORIMOTOR SYSTEM
The highest level generates a mental image information of the image in
relation to the environment.

The intermediate level makes tactical decisions based on the

memories of sensory information.

The low level uses sensory feedback to carry out

the movement
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Descending spinal tracts

side roadsvoluntary movement distal musculature - control

direct cortical.

Ventromedial pathways– posture and locomotion control – control

brainstem.
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Lateral Paths
Corticospinal tract:originating in the neocortex. The axons coming from the
cortex passes through the internal capsule, bridging
between the telencephalon and the thalamus, they cross the base of the cerebral duct and

they pass through the bridge to form a tract at the base of the bulb.
At the junction of the bulb with the medulla, the tract crosses, causing the
contralateral movements. In the gray matter, the tract
finds with motor neurons and interneurons.

Spinal treatment:originates in the red nucleus of the midbrain. The

axons decussate in the pons and join with the axons of the tract
corticospinal.

Studies in monkeys have shown that when injuries occur in

corticospinal tracts, over time the pathway
corticorubrospinal partially compensates for the loss of the pathway
corticospinal

Ventral pathways
Vestibulospinal tract:keeps the balance of the head over the
shoulders as the body moves. Originally in the cores
bulbar vestibular that transmits sensory information from
ear labyrinth.

Spinal cord treatment:it originates in the superior colliculus of the midbrain,

which receives information from the retina. The superior colliculus
build a map of the world around us. The axons
They leave the colliculus, decussate, and project to the muscles.

Reticulospinal tract and bulb:Origin of the formation

reticular of the brainstem. The pontine tract increases the
antigravitational reflexes of the medulla. The bulbar tract has an effect
opposite, freeing the muscles.
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Cerebral Vascularization
SN - requires greater blood supply (glucose and oxygen).

Functional activity– carbohydrate oxidation process

(Aerobic).

10 seconds without circulation – Loss of consciousness.

5 minutes without circulation – Irreversible losses.

The last place to be injured is the respiratory center.

Cerebral Blood Flow

It is only surpassed by the kidney.

Consumes 20% of available O2.

It receives 15% of the blood flow.

Vascular brain resistance depends on:

[Link] pressure:Raise the resistance.
[Link] of the vascular wall:Elevate RCV.
[Link] viscosity.
[Link] of the cerebral vessels:regulated by humoral factors and
nervous.
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Arterial
The brain is supplied by the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
originated in the neck.

At the base of the skull forms the Circle of Willis, the location from which part of the

main arteries.

The brain's vascularization does not have a hilum.

The arteries have thin walls, which makes them more prone.
hemorrhages.

The medium tunic has fewer muscle fibers and elastic tunic.
the internal is thicker and tortuous, this thickening constitutes a
two devices that protect nervous tissue, cushioning it
systolic wave shock.

ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY

Medial face of each hemisphere, frontal lobe to the sulcus

parietoccipital, the highest part of the dorsolateral face of each
hemisphere.

The obstruction causes paralysis and decreased sensitivity of the

lower limb on the opposite side.

MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY

Largest part of the lateral dorsal face of each hemisphere.

Obstructions can be fatal or cause paralysis and loss of sensitivity of

opposite side (except lower limbs)
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POSTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY

Inferior surface of the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe.

Your obstruction causes blindness.

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Veins
They do not accompany the arteries.

Drenam to the breasts of the dura mater that converge towards the
internal jugular.

The walls of the veins are thin and devoid of muscle tissue. Thus
active regulation is governed by 3 factors:

[Link] of the thoracic cavity:more evident at the beginning of the

aspiration.
[Link] of gravity:does not require valves, since the return
sanguine is in favor of gravity.
[Link] of the arteries.

SUPERFICIAL VEIN SYSTEM

Consisting of veins that drain the cortex and white matter

they form large venous trunks and drain into the dural sinuses
mother.

Superiors:Prove from the medial and superior face of the dorsal face
lateral of each hemisphere.
Inferiors:Lower half of the dorsolateral face and lower face.

DEEP NERVOUS SYSTEM

Understand the veins that drain blood from regions located

profoundly as striated body, internal capsule, diencephalon and
large part of the white medullary center.

The magna cerebral vein is formed by the confluence of the veins.

internal cerebrals.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

The first few millimeters are surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid, which reduces the
impact of arterial pulsation.

Internal carotid artery

It is a bifurcation branch of the common carotid.

Penetrates the cranial cavity through the carotid canal of the bone
temporal, crosses the cavernous sinus, forms an 'S' which is the siphon
carotid

Perforates the dura mater and the arachnoid at the beginning of the lateral sulcus.

divides into 2 terminal branches: middle and anterior cerebral arteries.

The internal carotid artery originates the ophthalmic artery (bulb),

posterior communicating (anastomoses with the cerebral artery
posterior) and the anterior carotid artery that irrigates the plexuses
corticosteroids and part of the internal capsule, basal nuclei and
diencephalon.

Vertebral and Basilar Arteries

Branch of the subclavian.

They rise the neck inside the transverse foramina of the vertebrae
cervical, penetrate the atlantooccipital membrane, the dura mater and the
arachnoid penetrates through the foramen magnum, fusing and forming the
basilar artery.

The vertebral arteries also give rise to the cerebellar arteries.

lower posterior that irrigate the lower and posterior portions
of the cerebellum.

Branches of the basilar artery:

 @rayssapatrocinio1

1. Superior cerebellar artery:the midbrain and the part

superior of the cerebellum
2. Anterior inferior cerebellar artery:anterior and inferior face of
cerebellum
3. Labyrinth artery:vascularizes the structures of the inner ear
4. Ramos dots

Willis polygons
Arterial anastomose.

Located at the base of the brain.

Formed by the proximal portions of the anterior cerebral arteries,

media and posterior, by the anterior and posterior communicating artery.
@rayssapatrocinio1
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Dopamine
Catecholamine.

Predominant transmitter of the system

extrapiramidal (área tegumentar ventral).

Produced in black substance and ATV.

Synthesis
First phenylalanine molecule.

Starting from tyrosine by tyrosine hydroxylase which is activated after

stimulation of the sympathetic nerves or the adrenal medulla.

They are stored in vesicles.

It is related to melanin, which is why it has a gray color.

in the black substance.

Receptors
D1 receptors:The subfamilies D1 and D5. They couple with the Ge protein.
stimulating the cAMP. They are found in the putamen, substantia nigra,
hypothalamus, frontal cortex, olfactory bulb, kidneys, queen, system
cardiovascular.

D2 Receptors:It is in the brain (striatum, olfactory, cortex,

amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, substantia nigra) are coupled to
G1 protein and inhibit the cAMP.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

D3 receptors:Express in the limbic region of the brain. Signal

through the G protein.

D4 Receptors:Expressam na retina e no hipotálamo, córtex

prefrontal, amygdala, hippocampus, and pituitary. Linked to the Gi protein.

D5 receptors:They couple to Gs protein, they are mainly in

black substance, hypothalamus, striated, cortex, olfactory.

Actions
Hearts and vessels: In [], dopamine stimulates Di, causing
vasodilation, BP, cardiac. As the DA increases,
she is able to activate the beta-adrenergic receptors, increasing the
cardiac contractility. At high [] it increases the BP.

Rins: It is linked to the D1 and D2 receptors, increasing natriuresis.

increases blood flow, renal flow, and glomerular filtration.

Pituitary: Primary regulator of prolactin secretion. It acts in

D2 receptors.

SNC: It is projected through 4 ways:

[Link]:Associated with rewards and less with the
learned behaviors. Dysfunctions are related to
schizophrenia, psychoses, learning deficit.
[Link]:Importante para funções cognitivas incluídas
motivation, reward, emotion. Dysfunctions same 1 Hypothalamus.
[Link]:Key regulator of the movement: Diseases of
Parkinson. Fine motor control.
[Link] blood supply up to the
pituitary gland to regulate prolactin. In the anterior pituitary.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Dopaminergic neurons are influenced by glutamate.

and by GABA

Parkinson
Loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.

Usually with aging we lose neurons

dopaminergic.

Levodopa
Metabolic precursor of DA.

Quickly absorbed TGI.

Penetrates the blood-brain barrier through a transporter

of the membrane.

In the brain, it is converted into DA.

Without an inhibitor, little SNC would reach.

Carbidopa
Peripheral action inhibitor that does NOT penetrate the CNS.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Dopamine is synthesized from tyrosine, then it is sequestered.

by VMAT2 in the storage granules and released by
exocytosis. Synaptic dopamine can be captured and activate the
presynaptic autoreceptors and by post D1/D2 receptors
synaptic. Cytosolic dopamine is subject to degradation by
MAO e pela ALDH.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Serotonin
Serotonin is found in high concentrations in the gastrointestinal tract.
storage granules of platelets and dispensing in the CNS.

Regulates smooth muscle in the system

cardiovascular.

Increases platelet aggregation

no TGI.

Synthesized from theTryptophan.

Produced by the nuclei of the raphe.

Serotonin is degraded by MAOI.

Receptors
Majority is coupled to the G protein.

Others coupled to a ligand-regulated ion channel that

controls Na+ and K+.

5-HT1
5 members that couple to the Gilo protein and inhibit adenylate cyclase
cyclase. They activate the K+ channel and inhibit the Ca2+ channel controlled by
voltage.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

5-HT1A: Raphé nuclei - acts with autoreceptor

somatodendritic inhibitory.

5-HT 1B|D:Autoreceptor inhibiting the release of 5-HT.

5-HT1D: The black substance and basal nuclei regulate the rate of
download the cells that contain DA.

5-HT2
I couple to the Ga protein.

5-HTA1 and 5-HT2C: Activates phospholipase A2, promoting the

release of arachidonic acid.

5-HT2A: Distributed in the SNC and the TGI.

5-HT2B: Found in the gastric fundus and its expression is

restricted to the SNC.

5-HT2C: Highly found in the choroid plexus, tissue

primary epithelial of cerebrospinal fluid.

5-HT3

The ligand-operated ionic channel corresponds to receptor M.

Triggers a rapid desensitizing depolarization. Acts on
TGI is not in SNC.

5-HT4

It couples to the Gs protein increasing the intracellular cAMP.

Distributed by the organism.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Actions
PLATELETS

Adhesion, agglutination, and thrombus formation, and 5HT may act.

with vasoconstrictor.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Constriction in the renal, splanchnic, pulmonary, and cerebral circulations.
Exerts positive inotropic and chronotropic functions on the
heart.

Thank God It's Friday

Greater storage of 5-HT in the body. The basal release of

5-HT increases due to mechanical stretching caused by food.
or by vagal efferent stimulation. The released 5-HT enters the vein
and is metabolized by MAOA in the liver being captured
by the platelets.

SNC

Influence on sleep, cognition, sensory perception, mood, appetite,

temperature, hormonal secretion.

Agonists
Selective for 5-HT1S:Antihypertensive agents.

5-HT1B|D Agonists:Migraine treatment.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

Agonists
5-HT2 receptors:they block the 5-HT2A receptors.

5-HT3 receptors:used as antiemetic drugs.

5-HT4 receptors:stimulate peristaltic activity.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

Eye
It is a sphere filled with fluid, closed by 3 layers of
fabric.

Responsible for the detection, location, and analysis of light

Anatomy
ApupilIt is the opening that allows light to enter the eye and
It reaches the retina. It is dark due to the pigments that absorb light.

A irisThe iris surrounds the pupil and its pigmentation gives the color of the eye.

The eye has 3 layers of tissue:

The innermost oneis formed by theretinathat has neurons
sensitive to light and are capable of transmitting visual signals to the
visual center

The intermediate layervascular tunic or tract

ureal, formed by thecorrodethat houses the blood vessels that
stimulate the retina, ciliary body, adjusts the shape of the lens and its
refraction, and by doing so it adjusts the pupil's opening.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

The outermost layeris thesclerarigid connective tissue

that shapes the front part of the eye to form the cornea –
Protection and support.

The eye is formed by 2 spheres; The first is associated with the

curvature of the cornea with a radius of approximately 8 mm and
incorporating the rest, a larger sphere with a radius of 12mm.

In addition, it is made up of 3 layers:

The anterior, between the cornea and the iris, the posterior between the face
the back of the iris and the beginning of the human tear where it is produced
aqueous humor, and the last chamber is the vitreous chamber.
The anterior and posterior chambers form the anterior segment, and the
The vitreous chamber forms the posterior segment.
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Fibrous Tunic
CORNEA
Transparent structure, covering the iris and the pupil.

It is the structure that causes refraction - 43 diopters.

Then there is a refinement of the light ray in the lens that

suffers alteration for nearby or distant objects -
ACCOMMODATION

Histologically, the cornea is made up of 5 layers: epithelium,

Bowman's layer, stroma, Descemet's membrane
endothelium. All tissues have a lot of organization so that there is
transparency.

ENDOTHELIUMBarrier-selection

SCLERA

White part, to reflect the light rays.

It has disorganization of the collagen fibers of the stroma and therefore

is opaque.

LIMBOTransition from the cornea to the sclera.

Funciona como suporte e como ponto de inserção para os músculos

extra orbitals.

Continues with the dura mater of the optic nerve -cribrous lamina– for
where the axonal beams pass.
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Vascular Tunic
Composed of 3 structures, the choroid, by the ciliary body and by the iris.

IRIS

Divided into 3 regions: Pupil zone, closest to the pupil, zone

ciliary, mostly, root of the iris.

Has 2 smooth muscles:

[Link] of the iris:Circular format around the pupil with function
to decrease the size of the pupil opening – PARASYMPATHETIC.
[Link] dilator:Dilates the pupil - NICE

Both function as a diaphragm.

Ciliary Body

Triangle format.

It has the ciliary muscle – regulates the shape of the lens.

next rounder – to keep the focus – ACCOMMODATION –
PARASYMPATHETIC.

The epithelium is responsible for the aqueous humor.

CHOROID

Very vascularized
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Neural Tunic
The retina is composed of 10 histological layers.

The nuclear layers where the bodies of neurons are located.

Nuclear external nacama is the location where the

cell bodies of the photoreceptors that make up the first
neuron.

The internal nucleus has bipolar cells that...

communicate with the photoreceptors and with the ganglion cells,
These bipolar cells form the second neurons via the optic pathway.

When analyzing the fundus examination, we see a reddish body.

what is of the choroid, having 2 important points, the fovea and its
around the fovea that together form the clinical macula, the region of greatest,
visual acuity – clarity of vision, perception of details and colors.
It is the place where the light rays arrive.

Eye orbit
It has 4 walls made up of 7 bones:

Upper wall:Frontal bone, Sphenoid bone;

Lower wall:Maxillary, Palatine, Zygomatic;

Side wall:Zygomatic, Sphenoid;

Medial wall:Maxilla, Lacrimal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

Anatomy
MUSCLES

Most of the muscles originate in the Zinn ring.

medial, lateral, inferior and superior.

Above the optical channel we have the superior oblique. Below it

we have the inferior oblique.

Above the upper straight we have the upper eyelid elevator.

Oculomotor nerve (III)

Upper challenge
Media challenge
Lower challenge
Inferior oblique
Levator of the upper eyelid.

Trochlear (IV)
Superior oblique - passes through the trochlea

Abducens (VI)
Retro lateral
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EYELID

The eyelid skin is the thinnest tissue in the body.

Orbicularis oculi muscle innervated by the facial nerve.

Arbitrary concept forms a barrier.

The skeleton of the eyelid.

 @rayssapatrocinio1

The gray line is a specialization of the orbicular muscle.

The Muller muscle is innervated by the sympathetic system, below the

levator of the upper eyelid.

CONJUNCTIVA

Covers the anterior surface of the eyeball and the eyelid.

A caruncle specialization of the conjunctiva.

3 portions: palpebral, fornix (function of the punch) and abulbar.

LACRIMAL DUCTS

Tear production mainly happens due to 3

main glands.

[Link] lacrimal gland:Located in the upper portion of the

orbit.

[Link] glandProduces the lipid layer that decreases

the evaporation - inside the tarsus.

3. Goblet cells:Conjunctiva

Functions:Removal of foreign bodies, hydration, oxygenation

from the cornea, protection, repair of injuries. The ducts of the gland
superior lacrimal ducts open into the superior lacrimal fornix. It is
drained through the upper and lower tear ducts that
drain into the tear sac through the nasolacrimal duct
draining into the inferior nasal meatus.
 @rayssapatrocinio1

Visual System
Remembering the 10 layers of the retina.

As the 3 main layers synapse with each other, forming 2

synaptic layers, inner and outer plexiform layer.

Thetorsoit is the skeleton of the eyelid.

Agray lineit is a specialization of the orbicular muscle.

The Müller muscle is innervated by the sympathetic, below the

levator of the upper eyelid.

PHOTORECEPTORS
It converts the light signal into electrical stimulus.

STRUCTURE:Possuiconesoubastonetes.

Theconesneed more light to be activated that's why it has

but in the fovea where there is greater visual acuity. Already thebacilli
are more sensitive to light, thus in a dim environment the
stick insects will be more active.

Nacentral retinawhich has a continuous line, with 1 cell

ganglion cell connecting with 1 bipolar cell that connects to 1 cone
what increases the resolution of details.

Naperipheral retinaOne ganglion cell connects to several cells.

bipolar cells that connect to several rod and cone cells
decreasing the richness of details.
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PHOTOTRANSDUCTION

Photoreceptors have a resting membrane potential.

in the absence of light at -40mV.

In the dark, there is a constant influx of sodium in the

photoreceptors due to cGMP.

When the light arrives, it is perceived by a molecule present

in the cones and rods, more precisely in the discs - RHODOPSIN.

This rhodopsin molecule has retinal molecules that

when the light arrives it changes to TRANS, which alters the
molecule of RHODOPSIN or that activates the G protein (transducin)
that activates GMPc. Phosphodiesterase that INACTIVATES GMPc. Closing the
Na+ channels hyperpolarizing the photoreceptor cell.

The retinal leaves the photoreceptor and goes to the retinal epithelium to
return to normal, transforming into RETINOL-vitA.
[Link]