BASIC MATHS, ERROR IN MEASUREMENT AND U & D

BASIC MATHEMATICS
Syllabus
1. Graphs.
2. Trigonometric functions.
 Concepts of differentiation and integration.

1. TRIGONOMETRY
1.1 Angle
Consider a revolving line OP. Suppose that it revolves in anticlockwise direction starting
from its initial position OX.
The angle is defined as the amount of revolution that the revolving line makes with its initial
position.
From fig. the angle covered by the revolving line OP is given by POX
P


O X
The angle is positive, if it is traced by the revolving line in anticlockwise direction and is
negative, if it is covered in clockwise direction.
1 right angle = 90º (degrees)
1º = 60' (minutes)
1' = 60" (seconds)
In circular system

1 right angle = rad (radian)
2
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the circle, whose length
is equal to the radius of the circle.
1 rad = 180º/  57º 17' 45"  57.3º
1. 2 Trigonometrical Ratios (or T-ratios)
Consider the two fixed lines XOX' and YOY' intersecting at right angles to each other at point
O as shown in Fig. Then.
(i) Point O is called origin.
(ii) XOX' and YOY' are known as X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
(iii) Portions XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX are called I, II, III, and IV quadrant
respectively.
Consider that the revolving line OP has traced out angle  (in I quadrant) in anticlockwise
direction.
From P, drop PM perpendicular to OX. Then, side OP (in front of right angle) is called
hypotenuse, side MP (in front of angle ) is called opposite side or perpendicular and side
OM (making angle  with hypotenuse) is called adjacent side or base.
Y
P

90º

X' X
O M

Y'

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The three sides of a right angled triangle are connected to each other through six different
ratios, called trigonometric rations or simply T-ratios. These are defined as below:
perpendicu lar MP
1. sin   
hypotenuse OP
(read as sine of angle )
base OM
2. cos   
hypotenuse OP
(read as cosine of angle )
perpendicu lar MP
3. tan = 
base OM
(read as tangent of angle )
base OM
4. cot   
perpendicu lar MP
(read as cotangent of angle )
hypotenuse OP
5. sec = 
base OM
(read as secant of angle )
hypotenuse OP
6. cosec = 
perpendicu lar MP
(read as cosecant of angle )

It can be easily proved that:

1
1. (a) cosec  =
sin 
1
(b) sec  =
cos 
1
(c) cot  =
tan 
2. (a) sin2 + cos2 = 1
(b) 1 + tan2 = sec2
 (c) 1+ cot2 = cosec2

 SOLVED EXAMPLE

Example 1:
3
Given sin  = . Find all the other T-ratios, if  lies in the first quadrant.
5
Solution :
3
In  OMP, sin  =  MP = 3 and OP = 5
5
P

5 3

 M
O

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Hence, OM = (5) 2  (3) 2  25  9  16  4

OM 4 MP 3
Now, cos  , tan=  ,
OP 5 OM 4
OM 4 OP 5 OP 5
cot  =  , sec  =  , cosec = 
MP 3 OM 4 MP 3

QUESTION FOR PRACTICE

Question :
5
If sec  = , find all the other T-ratios.
3
Ansswer :
4 3 4 3 5
sin = , cos  = , tan  = , cot= , cosec=
5 5 3 4 4

1.3 T-ratios of a few standard angles:

The T-ratios of a few standard angles ranging from 0º to 180º are given in the following table

Angle() 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º 120º 135º 150º 180º

1 1 3 1 1
sin 
3
0 1 2
0
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 
1 3
cos 
3
1 0   –1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan  0 1 3   3 –1  0
3 3

1.4 T-ratios of angles associated with multiples of 90º:

The angles such as (90º – ), (90º + ), (180 – ), (180º + ), (270º – ), (270º + ), etc. are
called angles allied to angle .
The T-ratios of the following allied angle as are commonly used:
1. (a) sin (–) = – sin 
(b) cos (–) = cos
 (c) tan (–) = – tan

 2. (a) sin (90º – ) = cos 
(b) cos (90º – ) = sin
  (c) tan (90º – ) = cot

3. (a) sin (90º + ) = cos

  (b) cos (90º + ) = – sin 
  (c) tan (90º + ) = – cot

4. (a) sin (180º – ) = sin

(b) cos (180º – ) = – cos
  (c) tan (180º – ) = – tan

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
 5. (a) sin (180º + ) = – sin 
(b) cos (180º + ) = – cos
(c) tan (180º + ) = tan

 6. (a) sin (270º – ) = – cos 
  (b) cos (270º – ) = – sin 
  (c) tan (270º – ) = cot 

7. (a) tan (270º + ) = – cos 
  (b) cos (270º + ) = sin 
  (c) tan (270º + ) = – cot 



 SOLVED EXAMPLE

Example 1:
Find the value of
(i) cos (–60º) (ii) tan 210º
(iii) sin 300º (iv) cos 120º
Solution :
1
(i) cos (–60º) = cos 60º =
2
1
(ii) tan 210º = tan (180º + 30º) = tan 30º =
3
3
(iii) sin 300º = sin (270º + 30º) = – cos 30º = –
2
1
(iv) cos 120º = cos (180º – 60º) = – cos 60º = –
2

QUESTION FOR PRACTICE :

Question :
Find the values of the following:
1. tan(–30º) 2. sin 120º
3. sin 330º 4. cos 150º
5. sin 270º 6. cos 270º
Answer :
1 3
1.  2.
3 2
1 3
3.  4. 
2 2
5. –1 6. 0

1.5 A few important trigonometric formulae

1. Addition Formulae:
(a) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(b) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

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tan A  tan B
(c) tan (A + B) =
1  tan A tan B
2. Subtraction Formulae:
(a) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(b) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
(c) tan (A – B) =
1  tan A tan B
3. Multiplication Formulae:
(a) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
(b) cos 2 A = cos2 A – sin2A = 2 cos2A – 1
= 1 – 2 sin2A
2 tan A
(c) tan 2A =
1  tan 2 A

2. DIFFERENTIATION

2.1 Function:
Constant: A quantity, whose value remains unchanged during mathematical operations, is
called a constant quantity. The integers, fractions like , e, etc are all constants.
Variable: A quantity, which can take different values, is called a variable quantity. A variable is
usually represented as x, y, z, etc.
Function: A quantity y is called a function of a variable, if corresponding to any given value of
x, there exists a single definite value of y. The phrase 'y is function of x' is represented as
y = f(x)
For example, consider that y is a function of the variable x which is given by
y = 3x2 + 7x + 2
If x = 1, then y = 3 (1)2 + 7(1) + 2 = 12
and when x = 2, y = 3 (2)2 + 7(2) + 2 = 28
Therefore, when the value of variable x is changed, the value of the function y also changes but
corresponding to each value of x, we get a single definite value of y. Hence, y = 3x2 + 7x + 2
represents a function of x.
dy
2.2 Physical meaning of
dx
(1) The ratio of small change in the function y and the variable x is called the average
rate of change of y w.r.t.x. For example, if a body covers a small distance S in small
S
time t, then average velocity of the body, vav =
t
Also, if the velocity of a body changes by a small amount v in small time t, then
y
average acceleration of the body, aav = ,
t
y y dy
(2) The limiting value of , when x  0 i.e. Lt  is called the
x x 0 x dx
instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t.x.
Thus the differentiation of a function w.r.t. a variable implies the instantaneous rate
of change of the function w.r.t. that variable. Like wise, instantaneous velocity of the
S dS
body, (v) = Lt  and instantaneous acceleration of the body (a) =
x 0 t dt
v dv
Lt 
t 0 t dt

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2. 3 Theorems of differentiation
1. If c is constant, then
d
( c)  0
dx
2. If y = cu, where c is a constant and u is a function of x, then
dy d du
 (cu )  c
dx dx dx
3. If y = u ± v ± w, where, u, v and w are functions of x, then
dy d du dv dw
 (u  v  w )   
dx dx dx dx dx
4. If y = u v where u and v are function of x, then
dy d dv du
 (uv)  u v
dx dx dx dx
u
5. If y  , where u and v are functions of x, then
v
du dv
v u
dy d  u  dx dx
  
dx dx  v  v2
6. If y = xn where n is a real number, then
dy d n
 ( x )  nx n 1
dx dx

 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1:
dy
Find , when
dx
(i) y  x
(ii) y = x5 + x4 + 7
(iii) y = x2 + 4x–1/2 – 3x–2
Solution :
(i) Here, y = x
dy d d 1/ 2 1 1
= ( x) = ( x ) = x 1/ 2 =
dx dx dx 2 2 x
(ii) Here, y = x 5 + x4 + 7
dy d
= (x5 + x4 + 7)
dx dx
d 5 d d
= ( x )  ( x 4 )  (7)
dx dx dx
= 5x4 + 4x3 + 0 = 5x4 + 4x3
(iii) Here, y = x2 + 4x–1/2 – 3x–2
dy d
 (x2 + 4x–1/2 – 3x–2)
dx dx
d 2 d d
= ( x )  (4x 1/ 2 )  (3x 2 )
dx dx dx
d 2 d 1/ 2 d
= ( x )  (4x )  (3x 2 )
dx dx dx

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d 2 d d
= ( x )  4 (x 1/ 2 )  3 ( x 2 )
dx dx dx
 1
= 2x + 4    x–3/2 – 3(–2)x–3
 2
= 2x – 2x–3/2 + 6x–3

Example 2 :
Find the derivatives of the following:
(i) (x3 – 3x2 + 4) (4x5 + x2 – 1)
9x 5
(ii)
x 3
Solution :
(i) Let y = (x3 – 3x2 + 4) (4x5 + x2 – 1)
dy d d
= (x3 – 3x2 + 4) (4x5 + x2 – 1) + (4x5 + x2 – 1) (x3 – 3x2 + 4)
dx dx dx
d d d  d d d 
= (x3 – 3x2 + 4)  (4x 5 )  ( x 2 )  (1) + (4x5 + x2 – 1)  ( x 3 )  (3x 2 )  (4)
 dx dx dx   dx dx dx 
 d d d  d d d 
= (x3 – 3x2 + 4) 4 ( x 5 )  ( x 2 )  (1) + (4x5 + x2 – 1)  ( x 3 )  3 ( x 2 )  (4)
 dx dx dx   dx dx dx 
= (x3 – 3x2 + 4)[4 × 5x4 + 2x – 0] + (4x5 + x2 – 1) [3x2 – 3 × 2x + 0]
= (x3 – 3x2 + 4) (20x4 + 2x ) + (4x5 + x2 – 1) (3x2 – 6x)
= 2x(10x3 + 1) (x3 – 3x2 + 4) + 3x(x – 2) (4x5 + x2 – 1)
9x 5
(ii) Let y =
x 3
d d
( x  3) (9x 5 )  9x 5 ( x  3)
dy dx dx

dx ( x  3) 2
d 5 d d 
( x  3)  9 ( x )  9x 5  ( x )  (3)
=
dx  dx dx 
( x  3)
( x  3)  9  5x 4  9x 5 (1  0)
=
( x  3) 2
45x 5  135x 4  9x 5 36x 5  135x 4 9x 4 (4x  15)
=  
( x  3) 2 ( x  3) 2 ( x  3) 2

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Questions :
dy
Find for the following:
dx
1. y = x7/2
2. y = x–3
3. y=x
4. y = x5 + x3 + 4x1/2 + 7
5. y = 5x4 + 6x3/2 + 9x
6. y = ax2 + bx + c
1
7. y = 3x5 – 3x –
x

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dS
8. Given S = t2 + 5t + 3, find
dt
1 dS
9. Given S = ut + at2, where u and a are constants. Obtain the value of .
2 dt
10. The area of a blot of in k is growing such that after t seconds, its area is given by A = (3t2 + 7)
cm2. Calculate the rate of increase of area at t = 5 seconds.
11. The area of a circle is given by A = r2, where r is the radius. Calculate the rate of increase of
area w.r.t. radius.
Obtain the differential coefficient (differentiation) of the following:
12. (x – 1) (2x + 5) 13. (9x3 – 8x + 7) (3x5 + 5)
1
14.
2x  1
3x  4
15.
4x  5
x2
16.
x3  1
Answers :
7 5/ 2
1. x 2. –3x–4 3. 1
2
4. 5x4 + 3x2 + 2x–1/2
5. 20x3 + 9x1/2 + 9 6. 2ax + b
1
7. 15x – 3 + 2
4
8. 2t + 5
x
9. u + at 10. 30 cm2 s–1 11. 2r
12. 4x + 3
13. 216 x7 – 144 x5 + 105 x4 + 135x2 – 40
2 1 2x  x 4
14.  15.  16.
(2x  1) 2 (4x  5) 2 ( x 3  1) 2

2.4 Formulae for differential coefficients of trigonometric, logarithmic and

exponential functions
d d
1. (sin x )  cos x 2. (cos x )   sin x
dx dx
d d
3. (tan x )  sec 2 x 4. (cot x )   cos ec 2 x
dx dx
d d
5. (sec x) = sec x tan x 6. (cosec x) = – cosec x cot x
dx dx
d 1 d x
7. (log e x )  8. (e )  e x
dx x dx

3. INTEGRATION

3.1 Integration as the inverse process of differentiation Integration is the process of

finding the function, whose derivative is given. For this reason, the process of
integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
Consider a function f(x), whose derivative w.r.t. x is another function f '(x)
d
i.e. (f ( x ))  f ' ( x )
dx

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If differentiation of f(x) w.r.t.x is equal to f '(x), then f(x) + c is called the integration
of f '(x), where c is called the constant of integration.
Symbolically, it is written as
 f ' (x)dx  f (x)  c
Here, f '(x) dx is called element of integration and  is called indefinite integral. Let
n
us proceed to obtain intergral of x w.r.t. x.
d n 1
( x )  (n  1) x n
dx
Since the process of integration is the inverse process of differentiation,
 (n  1)x dx  x 
n 1
n
or (n  1) x n dx  x n 1
n 1

 x dx  n  1
n x
or
The above formula holds for all values of n, except n = – 1. It is because, for n = – 1,

 x dx   x  x dx
1 1
n
dx 
1
Since is differential coefficient of loge x
x
d 1
i.e. (log e x ) 
dx x


1
 dx  loge x
x
Similarly, the formulae for integration of some other functions can be obtained if we
know the differential coefficients of various functions.
3.2 Few basic formulae of integration
Following are a few basic formulae of integration:
x x 1
1.  x n dx 
n 1
 c , Provided n  – 1


d
2. sin xdx   cos x  c ( (cos x) = – sin x)
dx


d
3. cos xdx  sin x  c ( (sin x) = cos x)
dx


1 d 1
4. dx  loge x  c ( (loge x) = )
x dx x


d
5. e dx  e  c
x x
( x x
(e ) = e )
dx

 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1:
Integrate w.r.t. x. :
(i) x11/2 (ii) x–7 (iii) xp/q
Solution :
x11/ 21
x
2
(i) 11/ 2
dx   c  x13/ 2  c
11 13
1
2

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x 71

1
(ii) x 7 dx   c   x 6  c
 7 1 6
p
p 1
q

x
x q
(iii) q
dx  c  x ( pq ) / q  c
p pq
1
q
Example 2 :
 1

Evaluate  x 2  cos x  dx
x
Solution :

 x dx   cos xdx   x dx
2 1
=

x 21
 – sin x + loge x + c
2 1
x3
= – sin x + loge x + c
3

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Question :
Evaluate the following integrals :
x x 
3 / 2
1. 15
dx 2. dx 3. (3x 7  x 1 )dx
2
 1   1  a b

4.  x   dx
x 
5.  x   dx
x
6.  x 2
  dx (Where a and b are constant)
x
Answer :
x16
1. c 2. –2x–1/2 + c
16
x 6 x2
3.   loge x  c 4. + 2x + loge x + c
2 2
x2 a
5.  loge x  c 6.   b loge x  c
2 x

3.3 Definite integrals

When a function is integrated between a lower limit and an upper limit, it is called a


d
definite integral. If (f ( x )  f ' ( x )) , then f ' ( x )dx is called indefinite integral and
dx
b
 a
f ' ( x )dx is called definite integral

Here, a and b are called lower and upper limits of the variable x.
After carrying out integration, the result is evaluated between upper and lower limits
as explained below:
b
 a
f ' ( x )dx = | f ( x ) |ab = f(b) – f(a)

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Example 1:
5
Evaluate the integral :  1
x 2dx

Solution :
5
5 x3

1 1
2
x dx =  | x 3 |15  ((5)3  (1)3 )
1 3 3 3
1
1 124
 (125  1) 
3 3

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Question :
Evaluate the following integrals
 GMm r2 v 
   
q1q 2
1. 2
dr 2. k dr 3. Mυdυ  x 1/ 2dx
R r r1 r2 u 0
π/2 π/2 π/2
5.  0
sin x dx 6.  0
cos x dx 7.  π / 2
cos x dx

Answer :
GMm  1 1 1
1. 2. kq1q 2    3. M( v 2  u 2 )
R  r2 r1  2
4.  5. 1 6. 1 7. 2

SOME STANDARD GRAPHS AND THEIR EQUATIONS

y y C y E
A y = mx+c y = mx+c (c = –ve)
O x
y = mx B  
D
 x x
O O
Straight Line Straight Line Straight Line
y
x = ky2 y
F y = mx + c x = – ky2
O x
(m = – ve) x
O

O x
G
Straight Line Parabola Parabola

y y = kx2 y y
x 1 x2 + y2 = a2
y
x or O a x
O
xy = constant
y = – kx2
x
Parabola Hyperbola Circle

y x 2 y2 y
 1
a 2 b2
b y = e–Kx
x
O a Here
a = semi major axis
b = semi minor axis x
O
b<a
Ellipse Exponential Decay

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4. ALGEBRA
Quadratic equation and its solution:
An algebraic equation of second order (highest power of the variable is equal to 2) is called a
quadratic equation. The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the general quadratic equation. The constants
a, b and c are respectively called coefficient of x2, coefficient of x and the constant term.
The general solution of the above quadratic equation (value of variable x) is given by
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

Example :
2x2 + 5x – 12 = 0
Solution :
The given quadratic equation is
2x2 + 5x – 12 = 0
Comparing this equation with the quadratic equation in the standard form (ax 2 + bx + c = 0),
we have
a = 2, b = 5 and c = – 12
 b  b 2  4ac
Now x=
2a
 5  (5) 2  4  2  (12)
x=
2 2
 5  25  96 5  11 6 16
= = = ,
4 4 4 4
3
or x  ,4
2
Question :
Solve for x :
1. 10x2 – 27x + 5 = 0
2. pqx2 – (p2 + q2)x + pq = 0
Answer :
5 1
1. ,
2 5
p q
2. ,
q p

5. GEOMETRY
Formulae for determination of area :
1. Area of a square = (side)2
2. Area of rectangle = length × breadth
1
3. Area of a triangle = base × height
2
1
4. Area of trapezoid = (distance between parallel side) × (sum of parallel side)
2
5. Area enclosed by a circle = r2 (r = radius)
6. Surface area of a sphere = 4r2( r = radius)
7. Area of a parallelogram = base × height

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8. Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2r (r = radius and  = length)

9. Area of ellipse = ab (a and b are semi major and semi minor axes respectively)
10. Surface area of a cube = 6(side)2
11. Total surface area of cone = r2 + r where r = πr r 2  h 2 = lateral area

Formulae for determination of volume :

1. Volume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height = abt

t

b
2. Volume of a cube = (side)3
4 3
3. Volume of a sphere = πr (r = radius)
3
4. Volume of a cylinder = r2
a. (r = radius and  is length)
1 2
5. Volume of a cone = πr h
3
(r = radius and h is height)
22
Note: π  = 3.14; 2 = 9.8776  10
7
1
and = 0.3182
π

Example :
Calculate the shaded area.
Solution :
Shaded are = Area of ellipse = ab
Here a = 6 – 4 = 2 and b = 4 – 3 = 1
 Area =  × 2 × 1 = 2 units

4
3
2
1

2 4 6

Example :
Calculate the volume of given disk.
Solution : R = 1m
t = 1mm
Volume = R2t = (3.04) (1)2 (10–3) = 3.14 × 10–3 m3

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UNIT & DIMENSIONS

Syllabus
1. Need for measurement of physical quantities.
2. Unit for measurement.
 Systems of units-SI : fundamental and derived units. 
4. Dimensions of physical quantities.
5. Dimensional analysis and its applications.
6. Orders of magnitude.

1. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
The quantities by means of which we describe the laws of physics are called physical
quantities. A physical quantity is completely specified if it has
(1) Magnitude only
Ratio
Refractive index, dielectric constant
(2) Magnitude and unit
Scalar
Mass, charge, current
(3) Magnitude, unit and direction
Vector
Displacement, torque.
Physical quantity = Magnitude × unit

1.1 Quantities : These are of two types –

(1) Fundamental quantities
(2) Derived quantities

(1) Fundamental quantities :

The quantities which do not depend upon other physical quantities are called
fundamental quantities and all other quantities may be expressed in terms of the
fundamental quantity.
There are of seven fundamental quantities in SI system-
(i) Mass
(ii) Length
(iii) Time
(iv) Temperature
(v) Electric current
(vi) Luminous intensity
(vii) Amount of substance
These quantities are also called base quantities.
(2) Derived quantities :
The quantities which are derived with the help of fundamental quantities is called
derived quantities as
Distance Length
Speed = 
Time Time
Here we know that length and time are the fundamental quantities.

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 Example based on Quantities

Example 1:
1
The Bernoulli's equation is given by P + dv2 + dgh = constant. The quantity dv2/2 has the
2
same units as that of –
(a) Force (b) Impulse (c) Strain (d) Pressure
Solution :
(d)
Pressure (only quantities with identical dimensions can be added or subtracted)

Example 2:
Which of the following sets can not enter into the list of fundamental quantities in any system
of units ?
(a) Length, mass and velocity (b) Length, time and velocity
(c) Mass, time and velocity (d) Length, time and mass
Solution :
(b)
The group of fundamental quantities are those quantities which do not depend upon other
physical quantities in the group. But in set (2) we can predict the relation between given
quantities as length = velocity × time
Hence set (2) can not enter in to the list of fundamental quantities.
Hence correct answer is (2).

2. UNITS

2.1 That fixed and definite quantity which we take as our standard of reference and by
which we measure other quantities of same kind, is defined unit. There are of two
types.
(1) Fundamental Units
(2) Derived Units

(1) Fundamental Units : The units which are independent and which are not be derived
from other units, are defined as fundamental units. e.g. The unit of mass, length, and
time.
There are seven fundamental units.
(i) Unit of mass
(ii) Unit of length
(iii) Unit of time
(iv) Unit of temperature
(v) Unit of electric current
(vi) Unit of luminous intensity
(vii) Unit of amount of substance
(2) Standard Units : The fixed and definite real value of any physical quantity is defined
as standard unit.

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2.2 Properties of Units :

1
The unit of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to its numerical value i.e., u 
n
where u and n are the units of physical quantity and its numerical value respectively. Relation
between unit and its numerical value n1 u1 = n2 u2

2.3 Selection Criteria Of Units :

(i) Selected unit must be universal, of proper size and magnitude
(ii) Unit must be not affected by temperature, pressure and time.
(iii) Easily definable and reproducible.

2.4 System Of Units Used :

These are of Four types –
(i) C.G.S – (Centimeter – Gram – Second) system.
(ii) M.K.S. – (Metre – Kilogram – Second) system
(iii) F.P.S. – (Foot – Pound – Second) system
(iv) S.I. – (System – international) system
Following table will show the difference between all the systems.

Quantity C.G.S. M.K.S. F.P.S. S.I.(Symb.)

Mass gm kg pound kg
Length cm m foot metre
Time second sec sec second
Temperature kelvin kelvin kelvin (K)
Electric ampere ampere(A)
Current
Luminous candela (cd)
Intensity
Amount of mole(mol)
substance

2.5 Some definitions of fundamental units in S.I. system :

(1) Metre : One metre is that distance which accommodates 1, 650, 763.73 waves in
vacuum of orange red light emitted by Kr86.
(2) Kilogram :
(i) Kilogram is the mass of platinum iridium cylinder of diameter equal to its
height which is preserved in a vault at international Bureau of weights and
measures at Severs near Paris.
(ii) 1 kilogram is the mass of 1 lit. of water at 4ºC
(iii) 1 kilogram is the mass of 5 × 1025 atoms of C12
(3) Second : One second is that amount of time in which a cesium-33 atom makes 9, 192,
631, 770 vibration in a cesium watch.
(4) Ampere : One amp is that electric current which when passed through two parallel
conductors of infinite length and of negligible cross section placed at unit distance
apart produce a force of 2 × 10–7 N/m.
(5) Kelvin :
th
 1 
(i) 1 Kelvin is equal to the   part of the difference of melting point of ice
 100 
and boiling point of water.

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1
(ii) 1 Kelvin is equal to th part of the thermodynamic temperature of
273.16
triple point of water (273.16 K)
(6) Candela : It is the luminous intensity in a direction at right angles to surface of a
black body at a temperature equal to melting point of platinum under pressure of 101,
325 N/m2.

(7) Mole :
(i) Mole is that amount of substance contains as many elementary entities as
there are oxygen atoms (8O16) in 0.016 kg of oxygen (old def.).
(ii) It is that amount of substance which contains as many elementary entities as
there are carbon atoms 6C12 in 0.012 kg of carbon.

2.6 Supplementary Unit :

(1) Radian :  1 radian is the angle subtended by arc of length equal to the radius, at the
centre of the circle.
(2) Steradian : It is defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of the sphere by an
arc of its surface equal to the square of radius of the sphere.
A
Solid angle  =
R2
when A = R2
   = 1 steradian

 Example based on Units

Example 1:
The acceleration due to gravity is 9.80 m/s2. What is its value in ft/s2 ?
Solution :
Because 1 m = 3.28 ft, therefore
9.80 m/s2 = 9.80 × 3.28 ft/s2
= 32.14 ft/s2

Example 2:
A cheep wrist watch loses time at the rate of 8.5 second a day. How much time will the watch
be off at the end of a month ?
Solution :
Time delay = 8.5 s/day
= 8.5 × 30 s/ (30 day)
= 255 s/month
= 4.25 min/month.

Example 3:
If the units of force, energy and velocity in new system be 10N, 5J and 0.5 ms –1 respectively,
find the units of mass, length and time in that system.
Solution :
Let M1, L1 and T1 be the units of mass, length and time in SI and M2, L2 and T2 the
corresponding units in new system.
The dimensional formula for force is (M1L1T–2)
Hence the conversion formula for force becomes

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1 1 2
M  L  T 
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
Here n1 = 10 N, n2 = 1, Substituting we get
2 2
M   L1   T1 
1 = 10  1      ......(1)
 M2   L 2   T2 
The dimensional formula for work is (M1 L2 T–2)
1 2 2
M  L  T 
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
n1 = 5 J, n2 = 1
Substituting values we get
1 2 2
M  L  T 
1 = 5  1   1   1  .......(2)
 M 2   L 2   T2 
Similarly dimensional formula for velocity is (M0 L1 T–1).
Hence, conversion formula for velocity is
0 1 1
M  L  T 
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
Here n1 = 0.5 ms–1 , n2 = 1,
Substituting values we get
1 1
L  T 
1 = 0.5  1   1  ........(3)
 L 2   T2 
1  L1 
Dividing (2) by (1), 1 =   ,
2  L2 
L1 1
L2 =  m = 0.5 m
2 2
L 
Substituting value of  1  in (3), we get
 L2 
1
T 
1 = 0.5 × 2  1  ,
 T2 
T1
= 1, T2 = 1s
T2
L  T 
Substituting value of  1  and  1  in (1)
 L2   T2 
M 
1 = 10  1  × 2 × 1,
 M2 
M 
1 = 20  1  ,
 M2 
M2 = 20 M1 as M1 = 1kg, M2 = 20 kg.
Hence units of mass, length and time are 20 kg, 0.5 m and 1 sec respectively

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3. DIMENSIONS
3.1. Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units of
mass, length, time etc. must be raised in order to represent that physical quantity.
Dimensional formula = [Ma Lb Tc Qd] where a, b, c, d are the dimensions of M, L, T,
Q respectively.
Some Points About Dimensions :
(1) The dimensions of a physical quantity do not depend upon system of units to
represent that physical quantity.
(2) Pure numbers and pure ratio do not have any dimensions. i.e. these are dimension
less, e.g. refractive index, relative density, relative permeability, cos , , strain etc.
(3) Similar dimension can be added or subtracted but it does not change the dimensions.
(4) For a physical equation to be correct dimensionally the dimension of all terms on two
sides of the equation must be same. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions.
(5) Logarithmic functions as log x, ex is the dimension less quantity.
(6) Powers are dimension less.
(7) If we put the value of any physical quantity in any formula it seems unbalanced but
reality is that it is balanced formula. Only appearance is unbalanced as :
a
Sn = u + (2n – 1)
2
(8) The dimensions of two physical quantities may be same but the quantities need not be
similar.
(9) Remember the following dimensional formula-
Force = [M1L1T–2]
Energy = [M1L2T–2]

3.2. Uses of Dimension : The uses of dimension are as given below.

(a) Homogeneity of dimensions in equation.
(b) Conversion of units
(c) Deducing relation among the physical quantities.

(a) Homogeneity of Dimensions in Equation :

The dimensions of all the terms in an equation must be identical. This simple principle is
called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. This is the very useful method whether an
equation may be correct or not. If the dimensions of all the terms are not same the equation
must be wrong. Let us check the equation.
1 2
x = ut + at
2
[x] = L
[ut] = velocity × time
length
= × time = L
time
1 2 2
 2 at  = [at ]
 
= acceleration × (time)2
velocity
= × (time)2
time

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length / time
= × time2 = L
time
Thus the equation is correct as far as the dimensions are concerned. The equation x = ut + at2
is also dimensionally correct although this is an incorrect equation. So a dimensionally correct
equation need not be physically correct but a dimensionally wrong equation must be wrong.

(b) Conversion of Units :

When we choose to work with a different set of units for the base quantities, the units of all
the derived quantities must be changed. Dimensions can be useful in finding the conversion
factor for the unit of a derived physical quantity from one system to other.

Example 1:
Convert the 1 pascal in to C.G.S. system
Solution :
F
P=
A
[F] MLT 2
Thus, [P] =  = ML–1T–2
[A] L2
So, 1 pascal = (1kg) (1m)–1 (1s)–2 and
1 C.G.S. pressure = (1g) (1 cm)–1 (1s)–2
Thus
1pascal
1 CGS pressure
1 2
 1kg   1m   1s 
=      
 1gm   1cm   1s 
= (103) (102)–1 = 10
or 1 pascal = 10 CGS pressure
One can work out the conversion factor for any derived quantity if the dimensional formula of
the derived quantity is known.

(c) Deducing Relation among the physical quantities :

Some times dimensions can be used to deduce a relation between the physical quantities. If
one knows the quantities on which a particular physical quantity depends and if one is given
that this dependence is of product type. Method of dimension may be helpful to derive the
relation.
Example 2:
Derive the expression for the time period of a simple pendulum which depends on the length,
mass, and gravitational acceleration.
Solution :
t  la mb gc t = kla mb gc
where k is a dimensionless constant and a, b and c are exponents which we want to evaluate.
Taking the dimensions of both sides,
T = La Mb (LT–2)c = La + c Mb T–2c
Since the dimensions on both side must be identical we have
a+c=0
b=0
and –2c = 1

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1
Giving a = , b = 0
2
1
and c=–
2

Putting this values in the equation t=k
g
3.3. Limitations of the dimensional method :
(1) First of all we have to know the quantities on which a particular physical quantity
depends.
(2) Method works only if the dependence is of the product type (Not applicable for
1 2
x = ut + at )
2
(3) Numerical constants having no dimensions can not be deduce by the method of
dimensions.
(4) Method works only if there are as many equations available as there are unknowns.

 Example based on Dimensions

Example 1:
A gas bubble from an explosion under water, oscillates with a period T proportional to p a db
Ec where p is the static pressure, d is the density of water and E is the total energy of
explosion. Find the values of a, b and c.
Solution :
As T  pa db Ec = k pa db Ec
k is dimensions on both sides
M0L0T1 = (M1L–1T–2)a (M1L–3)b (M1 L2 T–2)c
= Ma + b + c L–a – 3b + 2c T – 2a – 2c
Applying principle of homogeneity of dimensions
5 1 1
 a= ,b= ,c=
6 2 3

Example 2:
The velocity v of water waves depends upon their wavelength , density of water  and
acceleration due to gravity, 'g'. Deduce by the method of dimensions the relation between
these quantities.
Solution :
Let the velocity v of water waves be given by
v  a b gc
v = ka b gc ...... (1),
where k is dimensionless constant of proportionality and a, b, c are powers to be determined
using principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
Taking dimensions on both sides of equation (1), we have
M0 L1 T–1 = [M0 L1 T0]a [M1 L–3 T0]b
[M0 L1 T–2]c = Mb La – 3b + c T–2c
Comparing dimensions of mass, length and time, we get
1 1
b = 0, c = , a =
2 2
 v = k1/2 0 g1/2, , Thus v  g

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Example 3:
If force F, length , current I and time T are taken as fundamental base dimensions, then the
dimension of permittivity 0 are –
(a) F L2 T2 I–2 (b) F–1 L2 T2 I2 (c) F–1 L–2 T2 I2 (d) F2 L2 T2 I2
Solution :
(c)
1 q1q 2
Since F =
40 r 2
[q  q ] (IT) (IT)
we have [0] = 1 22 
[F][r ] FL2
= F–1 L–2 T2 I2
The correct answer is (3)
SOLVED EXAMPLE

Example 1:
If velocity, force and time are taken to be fundamental quantities, find dimensions formula for
(1) mass.
(a) K–1 V–1 FT (b) K V–1 FT (c) K V F–1 T–1 (d) K V–1 F–1 T
Solution :
Let the mass is represented by M then M = f (V, F, T)
Assuming that a function is product of power functions of V, F and T
M = KVx Fy Tz
Where K is a dimension less constant of proportionality. The above equation dimensionally
becomes.
[M] = [LT–1]x [MLT–2]y [T]2
i.e. [M] = [My] [Lx + y T – x – 2y + z ]
So equation becomes
[M] = [My Lx + y T– x – 2y + z]
For dimensionally correct expression,
y = 1, x + y = 0 and – x – 2y + z = 0 
  x = –1, y = 1 and z = 1.
therefore M = KV–1 FT.
Hence correct answer is (b).

Example 2:
 2
A certain physical quantity is calculated from the formula (a – b2) h where h, a and b are
3
all length. The quantity being calculated is-
(a) Velocity (b) Length (c) Area (d) Volume
Solution :
 2
Given quantity is = (a – b2) h
3
dimension of h = [L]
dimension of a2 – b2 = [L2 – L2] = L2
Therefore the dimension of the given quantity are [L3]. Thus the quantity being measured is
volume.
Ans. (d)

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Example 3:
When a current of 2.3 ± 0.5 ampere flows through a wire, it develops a potential difference of
20 ± 1 volt. Find the resistance of the wire.
(a) 6 ± 3 (b) 7 ± 2 (c) 8 ± 2 (d) 9 ± 3
Solution :
V 20  1
R= = = 8 ± R
I 2.5  0.5
the error in the measurement is
V I 1 0.5
=    = 0.05 + 0.2
V I 20 2.5
= 0.25
R = 0.25 R = 0.25 × 8 = 2
Thus the resistance of the wire with the error is = 8 ± 2 ohm.
Hence correct answer is (c).

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EXERCISE – I
Conversion of units
1. The density of mercury in cgs system is 13.6 g cm-3. Its value in SI is
(a) 136 kg/m3 (b) 1360 kg/m3 (c) 13600 kg/m3 (d) 1.36 kg/m3
2. A force of 40N acts on a body. If the units of mass and length are doubled and the unit of time
is tripled, then the force in the new system becomes
160 160
(a) 90 N (b) 90 new units (c) new units (d) N
9 9
3. If the unit of force were 10N, that of power were 1MW and that of time were 1 millisecond then
the unit of length would be
(a) 1 m (b) 100 m (c) 103 m (d) 10–2 m
4. If the unit of power is million erg/minute, the unit of force is 1000 dyne and the unit of length is
5/3 cm then the unit of time is(in second)
(a) 10 (b) 1 (c) 1/10 (d) 1/100
5. If the unit of length is doubled, unit of time is halved and unit of force is quadrupled, the unit of
power would change by the factor
(a) 1 / 4 (b) 16 (c) 1 / 16 (d) 8

Principle of Homogenity
a
6. The distance travelled by a particle in nth second is Sn=u+ (2n–1) where u is the velocity and a
2
is the acceleration. The equation is
(a) dimensionally true (b) dimensionally false
(c) numerically may be true or false (d) 1 and 3 are correct
V0
7. The position of a particle at time 't' is given by the equation : x(t) = (1 – eAt)
A
V0 = constant and A > 0
Dimensions of V0 and A respectively are ;
(a) M0LT0 and T–1 (b) M0LT–1 and LT–2 (c) M0LT–1 and T (d) M0LT–1 and T–1
J2
8. If J is the angular momentum and E is the kinetic energy, then has the dimensions of
E
(a) Moment of Inertia (b) Power (c) Angular velocity (d) Impulse
n
9. If L is the inductance, C is the capacitance and R is the resistance, then n has the dimension
n
(a) ML T-2 I-2 (b) M L2 T2I (c) ML–1 T–2 I–1 (d) M°L°T°I°
h
10. If h is planck’s constant and  is the wavelength, has the dimensions of

(a) Energy (b) Momentum (c) Moment of Inertia (d) Frequency
11. If  and  are the permeability and permittivity, then the dimensional formula of ( ) 1 / 2 is
(a) ML2T–2 (b) MLT–1I–1 (c) ML2TI2 (d) LT–1

Deriving the equations :

12. The volume V of a liquid crossing through a tube is related to the area of cross-section A,
velocity v and times t as V  Aa v bt c which of the following is correct
(a) a  b  c (b) a  b  c (c) a  b  c (d) a  b  c

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13. The critical velocity v of a body depends on the coefficient of viscosity  the density d and
radius of the drop r. If K is a dimensionless constant then v is equal to
K d Kd K Kr
(a) (b) (c) (d)
r r dr d
14. If density (D), acceleration (a) and force (F) are taken as basic quantities, then Time period has
dimensions
1 1 2
(a) in F (b) in D (c) in a (d) All the above are true
6 6 3
15. The critical angular velocity w of a cylinder inside another cylinder containing a liquid at which its
turbulance occurs depends on viscosity h,density d and the distance x between the walls of the
cylinders. Then w is proportional to
  2 xd
(a) (b) (c) (d)
x 2d d 2x xd 
16. The liquid drop of density  , radius r and surface tension  oscillates with time period T.
Which of the following expression for T 2 is correct.
(a)  r 3 /  (b)  / r 3 (c) r 3 /  (d) None
17. The volume of a liquid (v) flowing per second through a cylindrical tube depends upon the pressure
gradient (p/l) radius of the tube (r) coefficient of viscosity (  ) of the liquid by dimensional
method the correct formula is

Pr 4 Pr Pl 4
(a) V  (b) V  4 (c) V  (d) none
l l r
18. The dimensions of resistivity in terms of M, L, T and Q, where Q stands for the dimensions of
charge is
(a) ML3T–1Q–2 (b) ML3T–2Q–1 (c) ML2T–1Q–1 (d) MLT–1Q–1

EXERCISE - II

Conversion of units :
1. The power of a motor is 200W. If the unit of length is halved, that of mass is doubled and that of
time is also doubled, then the power of the motor in the new system is
(a) 3200 W (b) 3200 new units (c) 12.5 new units (d) 12.5 W
2. The density of a meterial in CGS system is 8 gm/c.c. In a system of units in which unit of length
is 5cm, unit of mass is 20gm, the density of the material is (in new units)
(a) 0.08 (b) 50 (c) 40 (d) 0.04
-1
3. If the unit of force is 2N, that of length is 4m and that of velocity is 6ms , the unit of mass is
2 4 9 2
(a) kg (b) kg (c) kg (d) kg
9 3 2 5
4. If the mass of the electron (9×10-31 kg) is taken as unit of mass, the radius of the first Bohr orbit
(0.5×10-10m) as unit of length and 500 newton as the unit of force, then the unit of time in the new
system would be
(a) 3 × 10–22s (b) 15×10–12s (c) 15×10–20s (d) 45×10–20s

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5. If the unit of mass is  kg, the unit of length is  metre and the unit of time is ‘  ’ second, The
magnitude of calorie in the new system is (1 Cal = 4.2 J)
(a) 4.2  22  2 new units (b) 4.2  1  2  2 new units
1
(c)  1  2  2 new units (d)  1  2  2 new units
4.2
6. Conversion of 1 MW power in a new system of units having basic units of mass length and times as
10 kg, 0.1m and 1 minute respectively is
(a) 2.16  1010 unit (b) 2  10 4 unit (c) 2.16  1012 unit (d) 1.26  1012 unit

Principle of Homogenity
c
7. If the expression S=at + bt2 + ct3 is dimensionally true, the dimensions of is (here S is the
b
displacement at any instant t)
(a) T (b) T2 (c) LT-1 (d) T-1
8. The number of particles crossing unit area perpendicular to x-axis in unit time is given by
 D ( n 2  n1 )
n where n1 and n2 are number of particles per unit volume for the value of x
x 2  x1
meant to x1 and x2. The dimensions of D are
(a) M°L T3 (b) M°L2 T–4 (c) M°L T–2 (d) M°L2 T–1
Mgl3
9. If the depression d at the end of a loaded bar is given by d= where M is the mass,  is the
3yi
length and y is the young’s modulus, then i has the dimensional formula
(a) L2 (b) L3 T (c) ML3 (d) L4
10. If n is the rigidity modulus, r is the radius,  is the length and C is the moment of the couple, then
2 lc
has the dimensions of
n r 4
(a) Angle (b) Mass (c) Length (d) Frequency
11. Dimensional formula of the product of the two physical quantities P and Q is ML2T–2 , the
dimensional formula of P/Q is MT–2. P and Q respectively are
(a) Force, velocity (b) Momentum, displacement
(c) Force, displacement (d) Work, velocity
A
12. If   log(Bx+C) is dimensionally true, then (here h is the coefficient of viscosity and x is
B
the distance)
(a) C is dimensionless constant (b) B has dimensions of -1 in length
(c) the dimensional formula of A is ML-2T-1 (d) all the above are true.
13. If the displacement y of a particle is y=A sin(pt+qx), then
(a) the dimensions of p are M°L°T (b) the dimensions of q are M°LT°
p
(c) the dimensions of q are M°LT T–1 (d) the dimensions of pq are M°LT–1
14. The thrust developed by a rocket-motor is given by F  mv  A  P1  P2  where m is the
mass of the gas ejected per unit time, v is velocity of the gas, A is area of cross-section of the
nozzle, P1 and P2 are the pressures of the exhaust gas and surrounding atmosphere. The formula
is dimensional
(a) Correct (b) Wrong
(c) Some time wrong, sometimes correct (d) Data is not adequate

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 a 
15. The Vander waal's equation for a gas is  P  2  (V – b) = nRT where P, V, R, T and n
V
represent the pressure, volume, univrsal gas constant, absolute temperature and number of moles
of a gas respectively. a and b are constants. the ratio b/a will have the following dimensional
formula
(a) M–1L–2T 2 (b) M–1L–1T–1 (c) ML2T2 (d) MLT–2
16. If h is the planck’s constant, m=mass of the electron, e=charge of the electron and 0 =permittivity
h2 0
of vacuum, then has the unit
me2
(a) newton (b) joule (c) watt (d) metre
17. A circular railway track of radius r is banked at angle  so that a train moving with speed  can
safely go round the track. A student writes : tan   rg /  2 . Why this relation is not correct ?
(i) Equality of dimensions does not guarantee correctness of the relation.
(ii) Dimensionally correct relation may not be numerically correct.
(iii) The relation is dimensionally incorrect.
(a) (i) & (ii) (b) (ii) & (iii) (c) (iii) & (i) (d) (i), (ii) & (iii)
mQ4
18. The parameter 2 2 has the dimensions of (m=mass, Q=charge, 0 =Permittivity and h=planck’s
0 h
constant)
(a) Wavelength (b) Power (c) Angular momentum (d) Energy
19. If M is the magnetic moment,  is the magnetic permeability and H is the intensity of magnetising
field, then the dimensional formula for  MH is
(a) ML2 T–2 (b) ML2 T–2 I2 (c) ML2 T–3 (d) ML T–2 I
20. If M is the magnetic moment, B is the magnetic induction and T is the time, then MBT2 has the
dimensions of
(a) Intensity of magnetisation (b) Intensity of magnetic field
(c) Moment of Inertia (d) Magnetic permeability
ΔV
21. A quantity X is given by 0 L where 0 is the permittivity of free space, L is a length Δ V
Δt

is a potential difference and Δ t is a time interval. The dimensional formula for X is the same as
that of
(a) resistance (b) charge (c) voltage (d) current
  z 
22. Pressure depends on distance as, P= exp   , where  ,  are constants, z is distance, 'k'
  k 
is Boltzman's constant and '  ' is temperature. The dimension of  are
(a) M0L0T0 (b) M–1L–1T–1 (c) M0L2T0 (d) M–1L1T2
me 4
23. The expression has the dimensions
8 20 h 3 c
(m=mass, e=electric charge, 0 =permittivity, h=planck’s constant and c=velocity of light)
(a) L–1 (b) T–1 (c) M (d) L

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Deriving the equations :

24. If pressure P, velocity of light C and accelaration due to gravity g are chosen as fundamental
units, then dimensional formula of mass is
(a) pc 3 g 4 (b) pc 4 g 3 (c) pc 4 g 3 (d) pc 4 g 3
25. If young’s modulus y, surface tension s and time t are the fundamental quantities then the
dimensional formula of density is
(a) s 2 y 3 t 2 (b) s 3 y 3T 2 (c) s 2 y3T 2 (d) s 2 y 2 T 3
26. Dimensional analysis of the relation (Energy)n=(Pressure difference)3/2(Volume)3/2 gives the value of n
as
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 3/2 (d) 1/2
a b c
27. For the equation F  A V D , where F is the force, A is the area, V is the velocity D is the
density, the dimensional formula gives the following values
(a) a = 1, b = 2, c = 1 (b) a = 2, b = 1, c = 1 (c) a = 1, b = 1, c = 2 (d) a = 0, b = 1, c = 1
28. The speed (v) of ripples on surface of water depends upon the surface tension (  ) density 
and wave length (  ) the speed v is proportional to
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
        
(a)   (b)   (c)   (d) (  g )1/2
        
29. A highly rigid cubical block A of small mass M and side L is fixed rigidly on to another cubical
block of same dimensions and of flow modulus of rigidity  such that the lower face of A
completely covers the upper face of B. The lower face of B is rigidly held on a horizontal
surface. A small force F is applied perpendicular to one of the side face of A. After the force is
withdrawn, block A executes small oscillations, the time period of which is given by [Take
proportionality constant 2p]
M ML M
(a) 2 M L (b) (c) 2 (d) 2
L  L
30. If velocity of light C, universal gravitational constant G and planck’s constant h are the fundamental
quantities in a system of measurement, then the dimensional formula for mass is
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1
(a) C 2 G 2 h2 (b) C 2 G 2 h 2 (c) C 2 G 2 h2 (d) C 2 G 2 h 2

ANSWER KEY

EXERCISE - I
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a)

EXERCISE - II

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (a)

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EXERCISE - III

(PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENITY)
Single correct answers :
1. Given that T stands for time period and l stands for the length of simple pendulum. If g is the
2 l
acceleration due to gravity, then which of the following statements about the relation T  is
g

correct ?
(I) It is correct both dimensionally as well numerically
(II) It is neither dimensionally correct nor numerically
(III) It is dimensionally correct but not numerically
(IV) It is numerically correct but not dimensionally
(a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct (c) Only III is correct (d) Only IV is correct
2. Choose the correct statement(s) from the given statements
(I) The proportionality constant in an equation can be obtained by dimensional analysis.
(II) The equation V = u + at can be derived by dimensional method
(III) The equation y = A sin  t cannot be derived by dimensional method
A  Bt
(IV) The equation   e can be derived with dimensional method
B
(a) III is correct (b) II and III are correct
(c) II,III and IV are correct (d) III and IV are correct
3. The correct order in which the dimensions of “time” decreases in the following physical quantities
is
(I) Stefan’s constant (II) Coeffecient of volume expansion
(III) Work done (IV) Velocity gradient
(a) IV , II , III , I (b) II , IV, III, I (c) I, II, III, IV (d) II, III, IV, I
4. The correct oder in which the dimensions of “length” decreases in the following physical quantities
is
(I) Coefficient of viscosity (II) Thermal capacity
(III) Escape velocity (IV) Density
(a) II, III, I, IV (b) I, II, III, IV (c) III, IV, II, I (d) I, IV, III, II
b  x2
5. Find the dimensions of a and b in the relation P  where P is power, x is distance and t is
at
time.
(a) L3 , M-1L1T2 (b) M-1L0T2 , L2 (c) ML0T-2, L2 (d) M-1LT2 , L-2
6. The Van-der-Waal’s interaction between two molecules separated by a distance r is given by the
A B
energy E   6  12 . Find the dimensions of A and B.
r r
(a) ML8T-2 , ML14T-2 (b) ML7T-2 , ML14T-1 (c) M-1L8T2 , ML14T2 (d) ML8T-1 , ML12T-2

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Linked comprehension type questions :

Passage :
 a
The Van-darwalls equation is  P  2  (V  b)  RT where P is pressure, V is molar volume,
V
& T is the temperature of the given sample of gas. R is called molar gas constant, a & b
are called Van-darwall constants.
7. Dimensional formula for ‘a’ is same as that for
RT
(a) PV (b) PV2 (c) (d) P
V
a
8. Dimensional formula for is
RTb
(a) M0L2T0 (b) M2L3T0 (c) M0L0T 0 (d) M0L6T0
9. Which of the following doesn’t possess the same dimesional formula as that for RT
a ab b
(a) PV (b) (c) (d)
b V2 a

ANSWER KEY

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a)

7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (d)

EXERCISE - IV

(PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENITY)
Single correct answers :
 a 
1. The equation of state for real gas is given by  P  2  (V  b)  RT . The dimensions of the
V
constant 'a/b' is ________.
(a) MLT-1 (b) ML2T-2 (c) ML3T-2 (d) ML2T-1

  z
2. Pressure depends on distance as , P  exp    , where  ,  are constants, z is distance,
 k 

k is boltzman’s constant and  is temperature. The dimension of  are
0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 3 -2
(a) M L T (b) M L T (c) ML T (d) M-1L1T2
3. For a body in a uniformly accelerated motion, the distance of the body from a reference point at
time ‘t’ is given by x = at + bt2 + c where a , b , c are constants. The dimensions of ‘c’ are the same
as those of
a2
(a) x (b) at (c) bt2 (d)
b

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4. Variation of force with displacement 'x' and time 't' is given by F = A cos Bx + C sin Dt. Then the
dimensions of A/C and D/B are
(a) M0LT01, M0L0T0 (b) M0L0T0 , ML0T1 (c) M0L-1T-1 , M0L0T0 (d) M0L0T0 , M0LT-1

ANSWER KEY

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a), (b), (c), (d) 4. (d)

EXERCISE - V

(DERIVING THE EQUATIONS)

Single correct answers :

1. If P represents radiation pressure, c represents speed of light and Q represents radiation energy
striking a unit area per second, then non-zero integers x , y and z , such that PxQyCz is dimensionless,
may be
(a) x = 1 , y = 1 , z = 1 (b) x = 1 , y = -1 , z = 1
(c) x = -1 , y = 1 , z = 1 (d) x = 1 , y = 1 , z = 1
2. Which of the following is a possible dimensionless quantity ?
(a) Velocity gradient (b) Pressure gradient
(c) Displacement gradient (d) Temperature gradient
1 2 1 2 2
3. The equation for energy E of a simple harmonic oscillator, E  mv  m x . Is to be made
2 2
“dimensionless” by multiplying by a suitable factor, which may involve the constants, m mass ,
 angular frequency and h Planck’s constant. What will be the unit of momentum ? Length ?
h h m 2 h2
(a) m h , (b) , m  h (c) , m  h (d) m h ,
m m h m
4. A gas bubble from an explosion under water, oscillates with a period T proportional to padbEc ,
where p is the static pressure, d is the density of water and E is the total energy of the explosion.
Find the values of a , b and c.
(a) a = 5/6 , b = 1/2 , c = 3 (b) a = -5/6 , b = -1/2 , c = 2/3
(c) a = -5/6 , b = 1/2 , c = 1/3 (d) a = 2/3 , b = 1/3, c = 1/2
MI
5. Suppose , the torque acting on a body , is given by   KL . Where L = angular momentum,

I = moment of inertia &  = angular speed. What is the dimensional formula for KM ?
(a) M0L0T-2 (b) M0L0T-3 (c) M0L0T-4 (d) M0L0
Match the following type questions
6. Column -I Column -II
(A) (coulomb)2 (farad)-1sec (p) Coefficient of kinematic viscosity
(B) M0L2T-1 (q) Planck’s constant
(C) joule. sec. kg-1 (r) Angular momentum
(D) ML2T-1 (s) Areal velocity

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7. Column -I Column -II

(A) A physical quantity has unit without (p) Mechanial equivalent of Heat
dimension
(B) A physical quantity has no. Units (q)Universal Gravitational constant
& no dimension
(C) A physical constant has both unit & (r) Angular displacement
dimensions
(D) A vector physical quantity has unit (s) Bulk strain
without dimensions.

8. Column -I Column -II

(A) Same positive dimensions of mass (p) Surface Tension
(B) Same negative dimension of length (q) Pressure
(C) Same negative dimension of time (r) Energy density
(D) Sum of dimension of length is 3 (s) Gravitational constant

9. Column -I Column -II

(A) Same negative dimension of length (p) Modulus of elasticity
(B) Same positive dimension of length (q) Planck’s constant
(C) Dimension of time = -1 (r) Torque
(D) Dimension of time = -2 (s) Coefficient of viscosity

Integer answer type questions :

b
10. The pressure P exerted by a liquid is given by P  ax  where x is distance, t is times, a ,
c  t2
c
b , c are constant. Dimension of is MpLqT r then value of ‘q’ is
ab
 a
11. Given that  P  2  (V  b) = C KT when P is pressure, V is volume, K - Boltzman constant,
V
T absolute tamperature and dimension of a/C2 is MxLyTz then value of ‘y’ is
a  t3
12. Dimension of ‘ab’ is MxLyTz in the equation P  where P is pressure, x is distance and t
bx 2
is time, then value of ‘z’ is

ANSWER KEY

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. [A Q, R; B P, S; C P, S; D Q, R]

7. [A  P, R; B  S ; C Q ; D  R] 8. [A P,Q,R; BR,Q;CP,Q,R,S;D P,S]
9. [A  P, S ; BQ,R; CQ, S ; DP,R] 10. (3) 11. (5) 12. (8)

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EXERCISE - VI

(PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENITY)
Single correct answers :
1. An athlete’s coach told his team that muscle times speed equals power. What dimensions does
he view for “muscle”?
(a) MLT2 (b) ML2T2 (c) MLT-2 (d) L
2. If the velocity (V) , acceleration (A) and force (F) are taken as fundamental quantities instead of
mass (M) , length (L) and time (T) , the dimension of Young’s modulus would be
(a) FA2V-2 (b) FA2V-3 (c) FA2V-4 (d) FA2V-2
3. A gas bubble, from an explosion under water, oscillates with a frequency n proportional of
padbEc. Where ‘P’ is the static pressure, ‘d’ is the density of water and ‘E’ is the total energy of
the explosion. Find the values of a/bc is
(a) - 5 (b) - 4 (c) 5/3 (d) 5
x y z
4. It dimensions of length are expressed as G C h where G , C & h are the univarsal gravitational
canstant , speed of light & Plancks constant respectively then
(a) x = 1/2 y = 1/2 (b) y = -3/2 , z = 1/2 (c) x = 1/2 , z = 1/2 (d) y = 1/2 , z = 3/2
5. It planck’s constant, h ; the velocity of light c and newton’s gravitational constant G are taken as
fundamental quantities, then express mass, length and time in terms of these quantities using
dimensional notation.
(a) hc)1/2 G-1/2 (b) hG)1/2 c-3/2 (c) hG)1/2 c-5/2 (d) hc)-1/2 G1/2
6. Choose the pair of physical quantities which have identical dimensions
(a) Impulse & linear momentum (b) Planks constant & angular momentum
(c) M. I & moment of force (d) Youngs modulus & pressure

A
7. The velocity of a body in a viscous medium is given by V  (1  e  Bt ) where A and B are
B

constants and t is the time. Then dimensional formula of A will be same as that

(a) Velocity (b) Acceleration (c) Force (d) Dimensionless

ml 3
8. The time period of a bar of mass m, length l and Young's modulus Y is given by T  2 ,
3Yx

then dimensions of x are

(a) M0L0T0 (b) ML2T-1 (c) M0L4T 0 (d) M0L3T-1
9. The period of vibration (T) of the prongs of a tuning fork depends upon density of the material d,
Young's modulus Y and length of the prongs L. Then

dY d 1 d Ld
(a) T  (b) T  L (c) T  (d) T 
L Y L Y Y

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10. Energy of an electron 'E' depends upon Rydberg constant R, Planck's constant h and speed of
light C. Then the exact relation for E will be
RC Rh hC
(a) E (b) E RCh (c) E (d) E
h C R
Linked comprehension type questions :
Passage:
In energy ‘E’ momentum ‘P’ and force ‘F’ are choosen as fundamental units.
11. Dimension of mass in new system is
(a) E-1PF 0 (b) EP2F-1 (c) E-1P 2F 0 (d) E-1P0F 2
12. Dimension of angular momentum in new system is
(a) PEF2 (b) PEF-1 (c) PE2F-1 (d) PEF-2
13. Dimension of accelerations in new system is
(a) FEP-2 (b) FEP2 (c) F2 EP-1 (d) F-1EP-2

Match the following type questions :

Some physical quantities are given in Column I and some possible SI units and dimension formula
in which these quantities may be expressed are given in Column II. Match the physical quantities
in Column I with the units in Column II and indicate your answer by darkening appropriate
bubbles in the 4 x 4 matrix given in the ORS.

14. Column -I Column -II

(A) GMeMs (p) (volt) (coulomb) (metre)
G - Universal gravitational constant
Me-mass of the earth, Ms-mass of the sun
3RT
(B) (q) ML3T-2
M
R - Universal gas constant,
T - absolute temperature, M-molar mass
F2
(C) 2 2 (r) M0L2T-2
q B
F - Force, q - charge, B- magnetic field
GM e
(D) Re (s) (farad) (volt)2 (kg)-1
G - universal gravitational constant
Me - mass of the earth, Re - radius of the earth

15. Column -I Column -II

(A) Sum of dimension of length & time is - 2 (p) Universal gravitation constant
(B) Sum of dimension of mass , length & time is - 1 (q) Coeifficient of viscosity
(C) Sum of dimension of mass & time is 0 (r) Angular momentum
(D) Sum of dimension of length & time is 1 (s) Force constant

16. Column -I Column -II

(A) Sum of dimension of mass, time & current is -3 (p) Resistance
(B) Sum of dimension of mass, length & time is 0 (q) Capacitance
(C) Sum of dimension of mass, lentght & current is 1 (r) Inductance
(D) Sum of dimension of mass, length & time is 1 (s) Electric potential

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Integer answer type questions
17. It surface tension S velocity V , acceleration A are taken as the fundamental units, the
representation of young’s modulus Y will be Sx Vy Az then - 4x - 5y + z is
   z   x
18. In the relation P    p is pressure z , x are distance , K is boltzman constant, t is
 e k t 

time and  is the temperature. The dimensional formula of is Ma Lb Tc then . The value of


2ab + 2c/3 is

ANSWER KEY

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b), (c) 5. (a), (b), (c) 6. (a), (b), (d) 7. (b)
8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a)
14. [A  P,Q; B  R,S;C  R, S;D  R,S] 15. [A  Q,S; B  Q,S; C  Q,R; D  P,R]
,R]
16. [A  R, S; B  P,S ; C  P , R ; D  Q,R 17. (7) 18. (6)

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VECTOR
Syllabus

1. Vectors and scalars quantities.

2. Vectors in two and three dimensions.
 Vector addition and multiplication by a real number.
4. Null-vector and its properties.
5. Resolution of a vector in a plane.
6. Rectangular components.
7. Scalar and vectors products

1. VECTOR

(1) The physical quantities which have magnitude and direction and which can be added
according to the triangle rule, are called vector quantities. Examples : force, linear
momentum, electric field, magnetic field etc.
(2) If a physical quantity has magnitude as well as direction but does not add up
according to the triangle rule, it will not be called a vector quantity. Example Electric
current in a wire has both magnitude and direction but there is no any meaning of
triangle rule. Thus, electric current is not a vector quantity.

1.1 Various types of vectors.

(1) Polar Vectors :
Vectors having starting point (as in case of displacement) or point of application (as
in case of force) are polar vectors.

Starting point Final point 

A B point of application

(2) Axial vectors

Vectors representing rotational effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
accordance with right hand screw rule are axial vectors.
Ex. Angular displacement (); Angular velocity (); Angular acceleration () ; Torque
() etc.

1.2 Some other types of vectors :

(1) Zero vector :
A vector with zero magnitude is called zero vector.
(2) Proper vector :
A vector with non-zero magnitude is called proper vector.
(3) Like vectors:
Two (or more) vector are called like vectors if their supports are same or parallel and
are in the same sense.
(4) Unlike vectors :
Two vectors are called unlike vectors if their supports are same or parallel and are in
the opposite sense.

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(5) Equal vectors :

Two vectors are called equal (or equivalent) vectors if they have equal magnitude,
same or parallel supports and same sense.
(6) Collinear vectors :
Two (or more) vectors are called collinear vectors if they have same or parallel
supports.
(7) Coplanar vectors :
Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vectors if they lie in the same plane or are
parallel to the same plane. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
(8) Negative vector :
A vector having the same magnitude as that of the given vector but directed in the
opposite sense is called the negative of the given vector.
(9) Unit vector :
A vector with magnitude of unity is called unit vector. Unit vector in the direction of
a is â = a/|a|.

 Example based on Types of Vectors

Example 1:
Give an example of physical quantity which-
(1) has neither unit nor direction
(2) has direction but not a vector
(3) can be either a scalar or a vector
(4) is neither a scalar nor a vector
Solution :
(1) refractive index; strain
(2) current
(3) angular displacement
(4) moment of inertia\

Example 2:
Can the resultant be zero in case of –
(1) two unequal vector
(2) three coplanar vectors
(3) three non-coplanar vectors
Solution :
(1) No (2) Yes (3) No

Example 3:
Discuss whether angular displacement is a vector or not –
Solution :
Angular displacement represents rotational effect, so appears to be an axial vector. Also, if obeys
the law of parallelogram of addition but it has been found that for large angular displacement it
does not obey law of commutation.

Example 4:
Does it make sense to call a quantity vector when its magnitude is zero. What such vectors are
called and why needed ?
Solution :
Consider a vector A whose length is reduced to zero by coinciding the initial and terminal
points. Hence modulus of the vector is zero and its direction indeterminate is it may posses

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any direction such vectors are called zero or null vectors. It is needed because, the sum of
two equal and opposite vectors is a null vector or area of sphere in vector form is a null
vector.

Example 5:
We can order events in time and there is a sense of time, distinguishing past, present and
future is therefore, time a vector-
Solution :
Time always flow from past to present and then the future, so a direction can be assigned to
time. However as the direction is unique, it is not to be stated i.e. specified. Hence it is not a
vector quantity.

Example 6:
Explain why current is not a vector although it appears to posses a direction –
Solution :
Current is not a vector as :
(i) The direction associated with current is not a true direction but it merely indicates the
sense of charge flow.
(ii) Current also does not obey the law of parallelogram of addition.
(iii) Current is also defined as scalar product of current density (J) with area ds is- 
  =  J . ds

2. REPRESENTATION OF VECTOR
There are two methods for representation of vectors.
(1) Graphical method.
(2) Mathematical method.
A AB B
Tail Head

Magnitude

(1) Graphical method :

The length of the arrow shows the magnitude and head of the arrow shows the
direction.
(2) Mathematical Representation :
(i) In the form of components : If ax is a component of any vector in x-
direction, ay is a component in y-direction and az is component in z-direction then

a  a x î  a y ĵ  a z k̂
Where ax, ay, az may be the co-ordinates of point a.

| a |  a 2x  a 2y  a 2z
(ii) Unit vector method : If we want to represent any vector in mathematical
form then we will multiply the magnitude of that vector with unit vector of the
direction.
if a = magnitude of vector
and â = unit vector

then a = a â

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 Example based on Representation :

Example 7:
If a particle moves 5m in + x-direction. Show the displacement of the particle-
(1) 5 ˆj (2) 5 î (3) – 5 ˆj (4) 5 k̂
Solution :
Magnitude of vector = 5
Unit vector in + x direction is î
displacement = 5 î
y

5
0 x

Hence correct answer is (2).

Note : Remember the unit vector in x, y plane of a vector which makes angle  with x-axis.
â = î cos + ˆj sin

(iii) Co-ordinate Method : If point A is (x1, y1, z1) and point B is (x2, y2, z2) then find
out AB

â 

 
B – A  (x 2î  y 2 ĵ  z 2k̂) – (x1î  y1 ĵ  z1k̂)
So AB = (x2– x1) î + (y2 – y1) ˆj + (z2 – z1) k̂

Important Points :
(i) If we multiply a vector with negative sign, then the magnitude will not change only
direction will change
AB
A B

BA
A B
BA  AB

(ii) Two vectors are called equal if their magnitudes and direction are same. So we can
transfer any vector (to any where) parallel to itself.

a
a
a

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(iii) If two vectors has same direction then the unit vector of both of them will be similar.
Because magnitude of unit vector is unity.

3. VECTOR ADDITION
There are two methods for addition of vectors :
(a) Graphical method
(b) Mathematical method
(a) Graphical Method :
(i) Triangle

rule (Used to add two vectors only) : 

If a and b are the two vectors to be added, a diagram is drawn in which the tail of b
  
coincides with the head of a . The vector joining the tail of a with the head of b is
 
the vector sum of a and b . Figure shows the construction.
   
b = abR 
b
 
a a
(ii) Polygon method : (used to add more than two vectors)
  
We use this method for more than two vector. Suppose a, b, c are three vectors to be
 
added. A diagram is drawn in which the tail of b coincides with the head of a and
   
tail of c coincides with head of b . The vector joining the tail of a and head of c is
  
called the resultant vector and this is the vector sum of three given vectors (a  b  c)

 c
c    
R abc
 
 b b
a 
a

Result : 1
If three or more vectors themselves complete a triangle or a polygon then their sum-vector
cannot be drawn. It means that the sum of these vectors is zero.

Result : 2
If there are two vectors a1 and a2 with equal magnitude, then the resultant of their addition
will bisect the angle between them.

a2
/2 R
/2
a1

Result : 3
If we add two different vectors a1 and a2 with equal magnitude and angle between them is
120º, then the resultant would bisect the angle and magnitude would be equal to each of the
magnitude of vector.

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(b) Mathematical method :

(i) For two vectors : 

If two vectors a and b makes angle  to each other then the magnitude of their vector
addition
 
R  | a  b | (a 2  b 2  2ab cos )


R

b



a

and if the resultant vector makes the angle  with the vector a then it is given by
 b sin  
tan  =  
 a  b cos  

R
 
b  b b sin 



a
b cos 

and if the resultant vector makes the angle  with the vector b then it is given by
 a sin  
tan  =  
 b  a cos  
and R2 = (a + b cos )2 + (b sin )2
Where  is the angle between a and b

Important Results : 

(1) If  = 0  a|| b
  
then R = | a | + | b | = R max .
 
(2) If  =   a anti | | b
  
then R = | a | – | b | = R min
  
(3) If =  a  b , R = a 2  b2
2


 R 
b b


a
b
Here tan  =  
a
 
(4) |a | = |b | = a
 
| R | = 2a cos
2

and tan  = tan
2

 =
2

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  
(5) If | a | = | b | and = 120º then | R | = a
(6) If three vectors of equal magnitudes makes an angle of 120º with each other then the
resultant vector will be zero.
R =0
120º

120º 120º

(7) If n vectors of equal magnitude makes the angle of equal measure with each other
then the resultant vector will be zero.
(8) Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors
when they are placed tail to tail by displacing either of the vector parallel to itself (i.e.
0 ).

B B
 
A A

B

A

(ii) For more then two vectors (Component method) :

+ay
cy

 b x
–cx  ax

–by

a = ax î + ay ˆj + az k̂

b = bx î + by ˆj + bz k̂

c = cx î + cy ˆj + cz k̂
  
and R = abc
= (ax + bx + cx) î + (ay + by + cy) ˆj + (az + bz + cz) k̂
Suppose az = bz = cz = 0

and a = ax î + ay ˆj

b = bx î – by ˆj

c = – cx î + cy ˆj

So the resultant R = Rx î + Ry ˆj

R = (ax + bx – cx) î + (ay – by + cy) ˆj

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4. SUBTRACTION

OF VECTORS 
   
Let a and b be two vectors. We define a  b as the sum of the vector a and the vector (b) .
   
To subtract b from a , invert the direction of b and add to a . Figure shows the process.

b 
a
   
b a–b b

 Example based on Addition & Subtraction of Vectors

Example 8:
Under what condition the sum and difference of two vectors will be equal in magnitude.
Solution :
When the two vectors are equal in magnitude and perpendicular to each other
|A + B| = |A – B|
Squaring both the side
A2 + B2 + 2A. B = A2 + B2 – 2A . B
4A . B = 0
A.B =0
AB

Example 9:
There are two displacement vectors, one of magnitude 3m and other of 4m. How should the
two vectors be added so that the resultant vector be : (1) 7m (2) 1m (3) 5m.
Solution :
(1) For 7m both the vector should be parallel i.e. angle between them should be zero
(2) For 1m both the vectors should be anti parallel i.e. angle between them should be
180º
(3) For 5m both the vectors should be perpendicular to each other i.e. angle between
them should be 90º

Example 10:
A car travels 6 km towards north at an angle of 45º to the east and then travels distance of 4
km towards north at an angle of 135° to the east. How far is its final position due east and due
north? How far is the point from the starting point? What angle does the straight line joining
its initial and final position makes with the east? What is the total distance travelled by the
car?
Solution :
N
Net movement along X – direction 4 sin 45º ( ĵ)
= (6 – 4) cos 45° î (6 sin 45º ) ĵ
1 4km 6km
=2× = 2 km
2
45º
Net movement along Y – direction W E (X)
= (6 + 4) sin 45º ˆj 4 cos 45º (î ) (6 cos 45º )î
1
= 10 × = 5 2 km (Y)
2 S

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Net movement form starting point

= 6 + 4 = 10 km
Angle which makes with the east direction
Y  component
tan  =
X  component
5 2
=
2
 = tan–1 (5)
 = 79º
Total distance travelled = 10 km

Example 11:
Given that A + B + C = 0, but of three vectors two are equal in magnitude and the magnitude
of third vector is 2 times that of either of the two having equal magnitude. Then the angles
between vectors are given by -
(a) 30º, 60º, 90º (b) 45º, 45º, 90º (c) 45º, 60º, 90º (d) 90º, 135º, 135º
Solution :
(d)
From polygon law, three vectors having summation zero should form a closed polygon
(triangle). Since the two vectors are having same magnitude and the third vector is 2 times
that of either of two having equal magnitude. i.e. the triangle should be right angled triangle.

C
B

Angle between A and B is 90º,

Angle between B and C is 135º
Angle between A and C is 135º

Example 12:
If A = 4 î –3 ˆj and B = 6 î + 8 ˆj obtain the scalar magnitude and directions of A, B,
A + B; A – B and B – A,
Solution :
Magnitude of A = (4) 2  (3) 2  5
3 3
tan  = –  = tan–1  
4 4
Magnitude of B = 62  82 = 10
8 4 4
tan  = = = tan–1   = 53º
6 3 3
ˆ ˆ
A + B = 4 î – 3 j + 6 î + 8 j
= 10 î + 5 ˆj

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(A + B) = (10) 2  (5) 2 = 11.2

5 1
tan  = 
10 2
 = tan–1 (0.51 = 26.5º approx)
A – B = 4 î – 3 ˆj + (6 î + 8 ˆj )
= 4 î – 6 î – 3 ˆj – 8 ˆj
= – 2 î – 11 ˆj
B – A = 6î  8 ĵ  4î  3 ĵ  2î  11ĵ
|B –A| = 4  121 = 125 = 5 5
11  11 
tan  =   = tan–1  
2 2

Example 13:
Prove that the vectors
A = 2 î + ˆj – 2 k̂ ;
B = – î + 3 ˆj + 4 k̂ and C = 4 î – 2 ˆj – 6 k̂ can form a triangle.
Solution :
Let us add the vector B and C
B + C = (– î + 3 ˆj + 4 k̂ ) + (4 î – 2 ˆj – 6 k̂ )
= 3 î + ˆj – 2 k̂ = A

Example 14:
A body is moving with uniform speed v on a horizontal circle in anticlockwise direction from
A as shown in figure. What is the change in velocity in (1) half revolution (2) first quarter
revolution
N

v2 B
v1

C (x)
W E
A

v3

(y)
(S)
Solution :
Change in velocity in half revolution
v = vC – vA
= v(– ˆj ) – v ( ĵ)
v = –2v ˆj
|v| = 2v directed towards negative y-axis change in velocity in first quarter revolution

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v = vB – vA
= v (– î ) – v ( ˆj )
= –v ( î + ˆj )
|v| = 2 v and directed towards south-west.

5. RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

(a) Resolution of vectors into rectangular components

When a vector is splitted into components which are at right angle to each other then the components
are called rectangular or orthogonal components of that vector.
OB
In OAB, = cos  or OB = OA cos 
OA
or a x  a cos 
AB
and = sin  or AB = OA sin  = OC
OA
or a y  a sin 
Now according to rule of vector addition
Y( ĵ)

C A

asin


X(î )
O acos B

OA  OB  OC or a  a x î  a y ĵ

From Pythagorous theorem a  a 2x  a 2y

 ay
Angle of a from x-axis is given by tan  
ax

(b) Rectangular components of a vector in three imensions

Y

a



X

Z
 
In terms of x, y and z-components a is given as a  a x î  a y ĵ  a z k̂ …(1)

Magnitude of a is given as a  a 2 x  a 2 y  a 2 z …(2)

As shown in the figure, if a make angles  and  from x, y and z-axes respectively, then
a
ax = a cos   cos  = x
a

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ay
ay = a cos   cos  = and az = a cos 
a
az
 cos  =
a
Here cos , cos  and cos  are called directional cosines of the vector.
Putting the value of ax, ay and az in eq. (2) we get a2 = a2 cos2 + a2 cos2 + a2 cos2 
or cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
or (1 – sin2 ) + (1 – sin2 ) + (1 – sin2 ) = 1
or 3 – (sin2  + sin2  + sin2 ) = 1
or sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   2
Note: "It means that the sum of the squares of the direction cosines of a vector is always one
and the sum of the squares of the direction sines of a vector is always two."

 Example based on Resolution :

Example 15:
A force of (10.5 N) acts on a particle along a direction making an angle of 37º will the
vertical, find the component of the force in the vertical direction.
(a) 7.3 N (b) 8 N (c) 8.4 N (d) 6 N
Solution :
The component of the force in the vertical direction will be
F1 = F cos  = (10.5) N cos 37º
= (10.5 N) = 8.40 N
Hence correct answer is (c).

6. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO VECTORS

Two types of multiplication
(a) Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors.
(b) Vector (or cross) product of two vectors.
(a) Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors :
The scalar or dot product of two vectors a and b denoted by a. b (read as a dot b) its defined
as a . b = |a| |b| cos  = ab cos 
where a = |a| ; b = |b| and  is the angle between a and b
(i) Remarks :
(1) If a = 0 or b = 0 we define a . b = 0 (as  is meaningless)
(2) The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity
(3) If  = 0 (i.e. a and b are like vectors) a . b = ab (as cos 0 = 1)
(4) If  =  (i.e. a and b are unlike vectors) a . b = – ab (as cos  = –1)
(5) Condition for two vectors to be perpendicular;
If a and b are perpendicular , the angle between them is /2 and we obtain
a. b = ab cos /2 = 0
Conversely, if a. b = 0 i.e. if ab cos  = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0 or cos  = 0 it follows that
either (or both) of the vectors is a zero or else they are perpendicular.
(6) Note that a.b > 0 if 0  < /2 i.e. if angle between vectors in acute.
a.b = 0 if  = /2 i.e. if a and b are perpendicular.
a.b < 0 if /2 <    if angle between vectors is obtuse

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(ii) Geometrical interpretation of scalar product

Let OA and OB represent vectors a and b respectively. Then
B
M
b

O a N A
a = |a| = |OA| = OA
b = |b| = |OB| = OB
Let M, N be the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B on OB, OA respectively
Then magnitude of projection of a on b
= OM = OA cos  ( cos  = OM/OA in OMA)
= a cos 
 a.b = ab cos  = b(a cos ) = b. (projection of a on b)
similarly magnitude of projection of b on a.
= ON = OB cos ( cos  = ON/OB in ONB)
= b cos 
a.b = ab cos  = a(b cos ) = a. projection of b on a. Thus a. b can be defined as the
product of the modulus of one vector and the projection of the other vector upon it.

(iii) Remarks :
(1) Given two vectors a and b, the projection of one vector on another can be found by
using the formula.
a.b
projection of a on b = a cos  =
|b|
a.b
and projection of b on a = b cos  =
|a|
(2) Angle between two vectors :
Angle between two vectors a and b can be found by using
a.b a.b
a . b = ab cos  cos  = 
ab | a | | b |
(3) Square of a vector
The scalar product of a vector a with itself is called the square of the vector a, and is
written as a. a or (1)2
(1)2 = a . a = aa cos 0 = a .a. 1 = a2 = |a|2
The magnitude of a vector can be found by using
|a| = a.a ( |a|2 = a . a)

(iv) Squares and scalar products of î ; ĵ; k̂

Since î , ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors along the co-ordinate axes i.e. along three mutually perpendicular
lines, we have :
î . î = 1.1 cos 0 = 1 similarly ĵ. ĵ = 1 ; k̂ . k̂ = 1
Also, î . ĵ = 1.1cos 90º = 1.1.0 = 0,
Similarly ĵ . î = 0; ĵ. k̂ = 0
k̂ . ĵ = 0; k̂ . î = 0, î . k̂ = 0

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(v) Properties of scalar (or dot product)

(1) The scalar product is commutative
i.e. a. b = b.a
(2) If a, b are any vectors and m is any real number (scalar) then
(ma) . b = m(a. b) = a . (m b)
Corollary 1 : a (–b) = –(a . b) = (–a) . (2)
Corollary 2 : (–a) . (–b) = a. b

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors in terms of their rectangular components.

Let a = a1 î + a2 ˆj + a3 k̂
and b = b1 î + b2 ˆj + b3 k̂
then a . b = (a1 î + a2 ˆj + a3 k̂ ).(b1 î + b2 ˆj + b3 k̂ )
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Corollary 1: a. b = 0
If a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0
Thus if a  b or if a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = 0
Corollary 2 : a || b (collinear)
if a1/b1 = a2/b2 = a3/b3

(vii) Angle between two vectors

cos  = a . b / ab
Let a = a1 î + a2 ˆj + a3 k̂
and b = b1 î + b2 ˆj + b3 k̂
Then a. b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
a = |a| = a12  a 22  a 32 : |b| = b = b12  b 22  b32
a1b1  a 2 b 2  a 3b3
cos  =
a12  a 22  a 32 b12  b 22  b32
 
a1b1  a 2 b 2  a 3b3
  = cos–1  
 a2  a2  a2 b12  b 22  b32 
 1 2 3

(viii) Examples of dot product :

(1) Work (W) is the dot product of force (F) and displacement (r)
W=F.r
(2) Power (P) is the dot product of force (F) and velocity (v).
P=F.v
(3) Electric flux () is the dot product of intensity of electric field (E) and normal
area A.
=E.A

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 Example based on Scalar Product :

Example 16:
Let a = 2 î + 3 ˆj – k̂ ; b = – î + 3 ˆj + 4 k̂ . Evaluate
(i) |a| ; |b|
(ii) a. b
(iii) the angle between the vectors a and b
(iv) the projection of a on b
(v) the projection of b on a
(vi) area of the AOB where O is origin
Solution :
Given a = 2 î + 3 ˆj – k̂ , b = – î + 3 ˆj + 4 k̂
(i) |a| = 22  33  (1) 2 = 4  9  1 = 14

|b| = (1) 2  32  42 = 1  9  16 = 26
(ii) a. b = 2 (–1) + 3 × 3 + (–1) (4) = 3
(iii) The angle  between the vectors a and b is given by
a.b 3 3
cos  =  
|a||b| 14 26 2 91
(iv) The projection of a on b = |a| cos 
3 3
= 14  
14 26 26
(v) The projection of b on a = |b| cos 
3 3
= 26  
14 26 14
1
(vi) Area of AOB = |a| |b| sin 
2
2
 3
Now sin2  = 1– cos2  = 1–  
 2 91 
9 355
= 1–
364 364
1 355
Area of AOB = 14 26 .
2 364
355
= 355 = 9.42 sq. units approx.
364

Example 17:
Prove that the three vectors 3î  ĵ  2k̂ , î  ĵ  k̂ and î  5 ĵ  4k̂ are at right angles to one
another.
Solution :
Let a = 3î  ĵ  2k̂ b = î  ĵ  k̂ we note that all the three vectors are non-zero
a . b = (3î  ĵ  2k̂) . (î  ĵ  k̂)
= 3(1) + 1(–1) + 2(–1) = 0
Thus the dot product of two non-zero vectors a and b is zero, therefore these vectors are
perpendicular to each other.
Again b . c = (î  ĵ  k̂) . (î  5 ĵ  4k̂)

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= (1) (1) + (–1) (5) + (–1) (–4) = 0

and c . a = (î  5 ĵ  4k̂) .(3î  ĵ  2k̂)
= (1) (3) + 5(1) + (–4) (2) = 0
As above, it follows that b, c are perpendicular and c, a are perpendicular. Hence all the three
given vectors are perpendicular to each other.

Example 18:
Find the value of  so that the two vectors 2î  3 ĵ  k̂ and  4î  6 ĵ  k̂ are
(i) parallel (ii) perpendicular to each other
Solution :
Let a = 2 î + 3 ˆj – k̂ and b = – 4 î – 6 ˆj +  k̂
(i) a and b are parallel to each other
a1 a 2 a 3 2 3 1
  i.e. if  
b1 b 2 b3 4 6 
 =2
(ii) a and b are perpendicular to each other if a. b = 0
i.e. if 2(–4) + 3(–6) + (–1) () = 0
 = – 8 – 18 = –26

Example 19:
Show that the vectors a = 3 î – 2 ˆj + k̂ ,
b = î – 3 ˆj + 5 k̂ , c = 2 î + ˆj – 4 k̂ form a right angled triangle
Solution :
We have b + c = ( î – 3 ˆj + 5 k̂ ) + (2 î + ˆj – 4 k̂ )
= 3 î – 2 ˆj + k̂ = a
 a, b, c are coplanar
Hence no two of these vectors are parallel, therefore, the given vectors form a
triangle.
a . c = (3 î – 2 ˆj + k̂ ) . (2 î + ˆj – 4 k̂ )
= (3) (2) + (–2) (1) + (1) (–4) = 0
Hence the given vectors form a right angled triangle.

Example 20:
A particle, under constant force î + ˆj – 2 k̂ gets displaced from point A(2,–1, 3) to B(4, 3, 2).
Find the work done by the force-
Solution :
Force = î + ˆj – 2 k̂
displacement = d = AB = (4 î + 3 ˆj + 2 k̂ ) – (2 î – ˆj + 3 k̂ ) = (2 î + 4 ˆj – k̂ )
Work done = F .d = ( î + ˆj – 2 k̂ ) . (2 î + 4 ˆj – k̂ )
(1) (2) + (1) (4) + (–2) (–1) = 2 + 4 + 2 = 8 units

(b) Cross product or vector product of two vectors

The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude
equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them and

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direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in accordance with right hand
screw rule.
   
Thus if A & B are two vectors, then their vector product written as A × B is a vector
   
C defined by C  A  B  AB sin  n̂
 
Where A and B are the magnitudes of A and B respectively and  is the smaller angle
between the two. Where n̂ is the unit vector whose direction is perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors, in accordance with right hand screw rule.

(i) Right hand screw rule :  

(1) A right hand screw

whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is

rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of
  
advancement of the screw gives the direction of A × B i.e. C

 
A B

 
(2) Place the vector A and B tail to tail (this defines a plane). Now place stretched fingers

and thumb of right hand

perpendicular to the plane of A and B such that the fingers
are along the vectors A .If the fingers are now closed through smaller angle so as to
   
go towards B . The thumb gives the direction of A  B i.e. C .

 
A B

(3) Cross product non-commutative :
   
abba
(4) Follows

distributive

law :
    
a  ( b  c)  a  b  a  c
(5) Does not follows associative

law :
   
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
(6) î  ĵ  k̂, ĵ  k̂  î, k̂  î  ĵ
and î  î  0, ĵ  ĵ  0, k̂  k̂  0

(7) a  a x î  a y ĵ  a z k̂

b  b x î  b y ĵ  b z k̂
 
a  b  (a x î  a y ĵ  a z k̂) × (b x î  b y ĵ  b z k̂ )

= (ay bz – az by) î + (az bx – ax bz) ˆj + (ax by – ay bx) k̂

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(ii) Properties of vector (or cross product)

(1) If a and b are any vectors, and m is any real number (positive or negative) then
(m a) × b = m (a × b) = a × (m b)
(2) The vector product is distributive w.r.t. addition
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
(3) Vector product of two vectors in terms of their rectangular components
a = a1 î + a2 ˆj + a3 k̂ , b = b1 î + b2 ˆj + b3 k̂
î ĵ k̂
a × b = a1 a 2 a 3
b1 b 2 b3

a × b = (a2b3 – a3b2) î  (a1b3 – a3b1) ˆj + (a1b2 – a2b1) k̂

(4) Angle between two vectors
a × b = |a| |b| sin 
 |a × b| = |a| |b| sin 
sin  = |a × b| / |a| |b|
Let
a = a1 î + a2 ˆj + a3 k̂ and b = b1 î + b2 ˆj + b3 k̂
a × b = (a2b3 – a3b2) î – (a1b3 – a3b1) ˆj + (a1b2 – a2b1) k̂
 |a × b| = (a 2 b3  a 3b 2 ) 2  (a1b3  a 3b1 ) 2  (a1b 2  a 2 b1 ) 2

|a| = a12  a 22  a 32 , |b| = b12  b 22  b32

(a 2 b3  a 3b 2 ) 2  (a 3b1  a1b3 ) 2  (a1b 2  a 2 b1 ) 2

sin  =
a12  a 22  a 32 b12  b 22  b32

(iii) Unit vector perpendicular to two given vectors

Let n̂ be a unit vector perpendicular to two (non-zero) vectors a, b and positive for
right handed rotation from a to b and  be the angle between the vectors a, b then
a × b = ab sin  n̂
|a × b| = ab sin 
Thus we get = a × b / |a × b|

 Example based on Vector Product :

Example 21:
Prove that
a × (b + c) + b ×(c + a) + c × (a + b) = 0
Solution :
a × (b + c) + b × (c + a) + c × (a + b)
=a×b+a×c+b×c+b×a+c×a+c×b
= a×b–c×a+b×c–a×b+c×a–b×c=0

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Example 22:
Find a × b and b × a if
(i) a = 3 k̂ + 4 ˆj , b = î + ˆj – k̂
(ii) a = (2, –1, 1) ; b (3, 4, –1)
Solution :
î ĵ k̂
(i) a×b= 0 4 3 = –7 î + 3 ˆj – 4 k̂
1 1 1

î ĵ k̂
b × a = 1 1  1 = 7 î – 3 ˆj + 4 k̂
0 4 3

î ĵ k̂
(ii) a × b = 2 1 1 = – 3î  5 ĵ  11k̂
3 4 1

î ĵ k̂
b×a= 3  1 = 3î  5 ĵ  11k̂
4
2 1 1

Example 23:
If a = 3 î + ˆj + 2 k̂ and b = 2î  2 ĵ  4k̂
(i) find the magnitude of a × b
(ii) find a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b.
(iii) find the cosine and sine of the angle between the vectors a and b
Solution :
î ĵ k̂
(i) a×b= 3 2 = 8î  8 ĵ  8k̂
1
2 2 4
 Magnitude of a × b = |a × b|
= (8) 2  (8) 2  (8) 2  8 3
ab 8î  8 ĵ  8k̂ 1
(ii) n̂    (î  ĵ  k̂)
| ab | 8 3 3
There are two unit vectors perpendicular to both a and b they are
1
± n̂ = ± (î  ĵ  k̂)
3
(iii) To find cos 
a.b = ab cos  = (3î  ĵ  2k̂).(2î  2 ĵ  4k̂)
= (3) (2) + (1) (–2) + 2(4) = 12
a = |a| = 32  12  22 = 14
b = |b| = (2)  (2)  (4) 2 = 24
2 2

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12 12 3
cos  = a.b/ab =  
14 24 2 7 .2 2 3 7
8 3 2
Also, sin  = |a × b|/ ab = 
14 24 7
3 4 2
Also, sin  = 1  cos 2   1   
7 7 7

Example 24:
The vectors from origin to the points A and B are a = 3î  6 ĵ  2k̂ and b = 2î  ĵ  2k̂
respectively. Find the area of :
(i) the triangle OAB
(ii) the parallelogram formed by OA and OB as adjacent sides.
Solution :
Given OA = a = 3 î – 6 ˆj + 2 k̂ and OB = b = 2 î + ˆj – 2 k̂
î ĵ k̂
 (a × b) = 3  6 2
2 1 2

= (12 – 2) î – (–6 – 4) ˆj + (3 + 12) k̂

= 10 î + 10 ˆj + 15 k̂
 |a × b| = 102  102  152 = 425 = 5 17
1 1
(i) Area of OAB = |a × b| = . 5 17 sq. units
2 2
5
= 17 sq. units
2
(ii) Area of parallelogram formed by OA and OB as adjacent sides = |a × b| = 5 17 sq.
units.

7. LAMI’S THEOREM
If three forces P, Q and R are acting at a point then, if the point is in equilibrium then, the
vector summation of P, Q and R should be zero. Then
Q P


 

R
P Q R
 
sin  sin  sin 

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SOLVED EXAMPLE

Example 1:
A vector a is turned without a changed in its length through a small angle d. What are |a|
and a.
Solution :
|a| = ad
a = 0

Example 2:
The magnitude of a vector A is 10 units and it makes an angle of 30º with the X-axis. Find the
components of the vector if it lies in the X-Y plane.
Solution :
Components of vector A lying in the X-Y plane are
Ax = A cos , Ay = A sin , Az = 0
10 3
Thus Ax = 10 cos 30º =
2
= 8.66 units
Ay = 10 sin 30º = 10 × 1/2
= 5 units
Az = 0

Example 3:
Let A=2 î + ˆj , B= 3 ˆj – k̂ and C = 6 î – 2 k̂ . Find (i) A + B + C (ii) 2A – 3B and (iii) A – B – C
Solution :
From the given data, we find that (check yourself)
(i) A + B + C = 8 î + 4 ˆj – 3 k̂
(ii) 2A – 3B = 4 î – 7 ˆj + 3 k̂
(iii) A – B – C = – 4 î – 2 ˆj + 3 k̂
Example 4:
Two forces F1 = 1N and F2 = 2N act along the lines x = 0 and y = 0 respectively. Then the
resultant force would be –
Solution :
x = 0 means y – axis
y = 0 means x – axis
 1N is acting along y-axis and 2N is acting along x -axis
F = 2 î  ĵ
Example 5:
What is the displacement of the point of the wheel initially in contact with the ground when
the wheel roles forward half a revolution ? Take the radius of the wheel R and x-axis in
forward direction.
(a) R (b) R × 2  4 (c) 2R (d) R
Solution :
In accordance with fig during the half revolution of the wheel, the point A covers R = (AC)
horizontal distance while 2R (= BC) vertical distance,

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B
R R
D
 R
A P C
So here P = R ;  = 2R and = 90º
So D = (R ) 2  (2R ) 2 = R 2  4
 2R  2
and  = tan–1   = tan–1  
 R  
2
i.e. displacement has magnitude R 2  4 and makes an angle tan–1   with x-axis.

Hence correct answer is (b).

Example 6:
A body is moving with uniform speed v on a horizontal circle in anticlockwise direction
starting from A as shown in figure. What is the change in velocity in first quarter revolution.
v2
v1

v
(a) 2 v south-west (b) v south-north (c) south-west (d) 2 v south-east
2
Solution :
As shown in fig for quarter revolution
  
v  v2  v1 and  = 90º,

So v  v 2  v 2  ( 2 )v
v
 = tan–   = 45º
v

v  2 v south west.
North
v1
West v2
East

–v1
v

South
Hence correct answer is (a).

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Example 7:
The sum of the magnitudes of two forces acting at a point is 18 and the magnitude of their
resultant is 12. If the resultant is at 90º with the force of smaller magnitude, what are the
magnitudes of forces ?
(a) 12, 5 (b) 14, 4 (c) 5, 13 (d) 10, 8
Solution :
Let P be the smaller force then it is given that
P + Q = 18 ..... (1)
R= P  Q  2PQ cos  = 12
2 2
..... (2)
Q sin  / P + Q cos = tan = tan 90º = 
P + Q cos = 0 ..... (3)
Substituting the value of P
Q (1 – cos ) = 18 .....(4)
and subtracting square of equation (2) from (1)
2PQ [1 – cos ] = 182 – 122 = 180 .... (5)
Dividing equation (5) by (4)
2P = 10 i.e. P = 5, So Q = 13
So the magnitude of forces are (5 and 13)
Hence correct answer is (c).

Example 8:
What vector must be added to the vector î  3 ĵ  2k̂ and 3î  6 ĵ  7k̂ so that the resultant vector
is a unit vector along the y-axis ?
Solution :
Let the vector added to the summation of
(î  3 ĵ  2k̂)  (3î  6 ĵ  7k̂) be xî  yĵ  zk̂
 (4î  3 ĵ  5k̂) + (xî  yĵ  zk̂)  ĵ
(4 + x) î + (3 + y) ˆj + (–5 + z) k̂ = ˆj
Comparing both the sides
4 + x = 0; 3 + y = 1; –5 + z = 0
x = – 4; y = 1 – 3 = –2; z = 5
 vector is : – 4 î – 2 ˆj + 5 k̂

Example 9:
Let AB be a vector in two dimensional plane with magnitude 4 units, and making an angle of
60º with x-axis and lying in first quadrant. Find the components of AB along x-axis and y-
axis. Hence represent AB in terms of unit vectors î and ˆj . Also verify that calculation of
components is correct .
Solution :
Taken A is origin from the figure, we see that component on x- axis is AC

D B
4 sin 60º
60º
A 4 cos 60º C

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1
= 4 cos 60º = 4 = 2 and
2
Component along y-axis is AD
3
= 4 sin 60º = 4 = 2 3
2
Hence AB = 2î  2 3 ĵ
verification : (2) 2  (2 3 ) 2 = 4

Example 10:
If A = 3 î + 4 ˆj and B = 7 î + 24 ˆj , the vector having the same magnitude as B and parallel to A is –
Solution :
Let the required vector be
C = Cx î + Cy ˆj
Given that C is parallel to A, then
Cy 4
 ...... (i)
Cx 3
and |C| is equal to |B|, thus
C2x  C2y = 7 2  (24) 2 = 49  576

or C2x  C2y = 625

Cx2 + Cy2 = 625 ......(ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get
Cx = 15 and Cy = 20
C = 15 î + 20 ˆj
Alter method :
|B| = 7 2  (24) 2 = 625 = 25
unit vector in the direction of A
3î  4 ĵ
 
5

3î  4 ĵ  
Required vector = 25  
= 15 î + 20 ˆj
 5 
Example 11:
Two vectors
A = 2 î + 2 ˆj + p k̂ and B = î  ĵ  k̂ are given. Find the value of p if
(i) the two vectors are perpendicular
(ii) the two vectors are parallel
Solution :
(i) A and B will be perpendicular if A.B = 0
Now A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
=2×1+2×1+p×1
=4+p
for A . B = 0, we must have
0=4+p
or p = –4

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(ii) A and B will be parallel if A × B = 0

î ĵ k̂
Now A×B= 2 2 p
1 1 1

= î (2 – p) + ˆj (p – 2) + k̂ (2 – 2)
= î (2 – p) + ˆj (p – 2)
For A × B = 0, we must have each component to be zero. That is 0 = 2 – p , and 0 = p – 2
(both conditions similar). Thus p = 2
Example 12:
Let for two vector A and B, sum (A + B) is perpendicular to the difference (A – B). Find the
ratio A/B of their amplitudes.
Solution :
It is given that (A + B) is perpendicular to (A – B). Thus
(A + B). (A – B) = 0
or A2 + B . A – A . B – B2 = 0
Because of commutative property of dot product
A.B=B.A
 A2 – B2 = 0
or A=B
Thus A/B = 1
i.e. the ratio of magnitudes is 1.
Example 13:
Find out the angle between
A = 3 î + 2 ˆj + k̂
B = 5 î – 2 ˆj – 3 k̂
Solution :
|A| = 32  22  12  14
|B| = (5) 2  (2) 2  (3) 2  38
A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
= 3 × 5 + 2(–2) + (1) (–3) = 8
A.B 8
cos  = 
| A || B | 14  38
Example 14:
Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = 2 î + ˆj and B = î + 2 ˆj
Solution :
A unit vector n̂ which is perpendicular to both A and B is obtained from the relation-
AB
n̂ =
| AB|
Now A × B = (2 î + ˆj ) × ( î + 2 ˆj ) = – k̂ + 4 k̂ = 3 k̂
and |A × B| = 3
3k̂
Therefore n̂ = = k̂
3
The unit vector k̂ is perpendicular to both 2 î + ˆj and î + 2 ˆj .

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Example 15:
If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, then magnitude of difference is –
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1/ 2 (d) 5
Solution :
(b)
Let n̂1 and n̂ 2 are the two unit vectors, then the sum is
ns = n̂1 + n̂ 2
or n s2  n12  n 22 + 2n1n2 cos  = 1 + 1 + 2 cos 
since it is given that ns is also a unit vector, therefore
1 = 1 + 1 + 2 cos 
1
or cos  = – or  = 120º
2
Now the difference vector is
nd = n1 – n2
or n d2  n12  n 22 – 2n1n2 cos 
= 1 + 1 – 2 cos (120º)
= 2 – 2 (–1/2) = 2 + 1 = 3
 nd = 3
Thus the correct answer is (2)
Example 16:
The torque of a force F = –3 î + ˆj + 5 k̂ acting at the point r = 7 î + 3 ˆj + k̂ is –
(a) 14 î – 38 ˆj + 16 k̂ (b) 4 î + 4 ˆj + 6 k̂ (c) –21 î + 4 ˆj + 4 k̂ (d) –14 î + 34 ˆj –16 k̂
Solution :
(a)
The torque is defined as  = r × F
î ĵ k̂
r×F= 7 3 1
3 1 5
3 1 1 7 7 3
= î + ˆj + k̂
1 5 5 3 3 1
= î (15 – 1) + ˆj (–3 – 35) + k̂ (7– (–9))
= 14 î – 38 ˆj + 16 k̂
Thus the answer is (a)
Example 17:
If A × B = C, then which of the following statements is wrong –
(a) C  A (b) C  B (c) C  (A + B) (d) C  (A × B)
Solution :
(d)
From the property of vector product, we notice that C must be perpendicular to the plane
formed by vector A and B. Thus C must be perpendicular to A and to B. Thus the statements
(1) and (2) are perpendicular correct. Now A + B vector also must lie in the plane formed by
vector A and B. Thus C must be perpendicular to A + B also The cross product (A × B) gives
a vector C which can not be perpendicular to itself. Thus the statement (4) is wrong.

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EXERCISE - I
Addition and subtraction of vectors
   
1. If A = 3i – 4j and B =– i – 4j, calculate A  B and A  B .
(a) 2i–8j, 8.1 (b) 2i–4j, 4.2 (c) 2i, 3 (d) 4j, 6
   
2. If A = 3i – 4j and B = –i – 4j, calculate the direction of A  B .
(a) tan–1(4) with + x– axis in clock wise (b) tan–1(4) with – x– axis in clock wise
–1
(c) tan (4) with + x– axis in anticlock wise (d) tan–1(4) with – x– axis in anticlock wise
3. A person runs along a circular path of radius 5 m. If he completes half of the circle. Find the
magnitude of the displacement vetor, How far the person ran ?
(a) 10m, 5  m (b) 5  m (c) 5  m , 19m (d) 14m, 10  m
4. A car makes a displacement of 100 m towards east and then 200 m towards north. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant.
(a) 223.7m, tan–1(2), N of E (b) 223.7m, tan–1(2), E of N
–1
(c) 300m, tan (2), N of E (d) 100m, tan–1(2), N of E
5. If the angle between two vectors of equal magnitude P is  , the magnitude of the resultant
vector is
 
(a) 2P cos (b) 2P sin (c) 2P cos  (d) 2P sin 
2 2
6. Maximum and minimum magnitudes of the resultant of two vectors of magnitudes P and Q are
found to be in the ratio 3 : 1. Which of the following relations is true ?
(a) P = Q (b) P =2Q (c) P = 4Q (d) P = Q/3
7. The resultant of two equal forces is 141.4N when they are mutually perpendicular. When they
are inclined at an angle 120º, then the resultant force will be
(a) 100 N (b) 141.4 N (c) 196 N (d) Zero
8. The magnitudes of two vectors P and Q differ by 1. The magnitude of their resultant makes an
angle of tan–1(3/4) with P. The angle between P and Q is
(a) 450 (b) 00 (c) 1800 (d) 900
      
9. If P  Q  R and P=Q=R, the ratio of angles between P &R to P & Q is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
10. The resultant of two forces 2P and 2 P is 10 P. The angle between the forces is
(a) 300 (b) 600 (c) 450 (d) 900
11. Eleven forces each equal to 5N act on a particle simultaneously. If each force makes an angle
30º with the next one, the resultant of all forces is
(a) 15N (b) 55 N (c) 5 N (d) zero
12. Which of the following sets of forces acting simultaneously on a particle keep it in equilibrium?
(a) 3N, 5N, 10N (b) 4N, 7N, 12N (c) 2N, 6N, 5N (d) 5N, 8N, 1N
13. The resultant of two forces 1 and P is perpendicular to ‘1’ and equal to 1. What is the value of ‘P’
and angle between the forces
(a) 2 N , 1350 (b) 2 N , 1500 (c) 2 N , 120 0 (d) 2 N , 150 0

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14. If the sum of two unit vectors is also a vector of unit magnitude, the magnitude of the difference
of the two unit vectors is
(a) 1 unit (b) 2 units (c) 3 units (d) Zero
     
15. If P  Q  R and P  Q  S , then R2+S2 is equal to
(a) P2+Q2 (b) 2(P2-Q2) (c) 2(P2+Q2 ) (d) 4 PQ
16. The greater and least resultant of two forces are 7N and 3N respectively. If each of the force is
increased by 3N and applied at 60°. The magnitude of the resultant is
(a) 7N (b) 3N (c) 10 N (d) 129
17. Two forces are such that the sum of their magnitudes is 18N, the resultant is 228 when they
are at 1200. Then the magnitude of the forces are
(a) 12N, 6N (b) 13N, 5N (c) 10N, 9N (d) 16N, 2N
     
18. Two vectors are given by a =-2i+j-3k and b =5i+3j-2k. If 3a  2b  c  0 then third vector c is
(a) 4 iˆ + 9 ĵ – 13 k̂ (b) –4 iˆ – 9 ĵ + 13 k̂ (c) 4 iˆ –9 ĵ –13 k̂ (d) 2 iˆ –3 ĵ + 13 k̂
19. A body starts with a velocity 2i–3j+11k m/s and moves with an accelaration of 10i+10j+10k ms–2.
What is its velocity after 0.25 s ?
(a) 4.5iˆ  0.5 ˆj  13.5kˆ (b) 4.5iˆ  0.5 ˆj  13.5kˆ

(c) 4.5iˆ  0.5 ˆj  13.5kˆ (d) 4.5iˆ  0.5 ˆj  13.5kˆ

  
20. Figure shows three vectors a, b and c , where R is the midpoint of PQ. Then which of the
P
following relations is correct? 
      a  R
(a) a  b  2c (b) a  b  c c
     
(c) a  b  2c (d) a  b  c 
   O b  Q
21. The resultant of two vectors P and Q is R . If the magnitude of Q is doubled, the new
 
resultant becomes perpendicular to P , then the magnitude of R is
P2  Q P Q P
(a) (b) ! (c) Q (d)
2 PQ P Q Q
Position vector, components of vectors, unit vectors
22. One of the rectangular components of a velocity of 20 ms–1 is 10 ms–1 . Find the other component.
(a) 10 3 ms–1 (b) 20 3 ms–1 (c) 5 3 ms–1 (d) 35 3 ms–1
23. A car weighing 100kg is on a slope that makes an angle 30° with the horizontal. The component
of car’s weight parallel to the slope is (g=10ms–2)
(a) 500N (b) 1000N (c) 15,000 N (d) 20,000N
24. 0
The force acting on a particle makes an angle of 60 with the positive x - axis. If the magnitude
of the force is 10 N what are its x and y - components ?
(a) 5N, 5 3 N (b) 2 3 N, 2N (c) 4 3 N, 5N (d) 3 3 N, 3N
25. To go from town A to town B a plane must fly about 1780 km at an angle of 300 West of north.
How far north of A is B ?
(a) 1542km (b) 1452 km (c) 1254 km (d) 11 km

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  
26. Displacement vectors A = ( 3i+3j)m, B = (i – 4j) m and C = ( –2i + 5j) m. Use the components
   
method to determine the magnitude and direction of E   A  B  C .

(a) 5 2 , 600 clockwise with + ve x – axis (b) 6 2 , 450 clockwise with + ve x – axis

(c) 5 2 , 600 clockwise with – ve x – axis (d) 6 2 , 450 clockwise with – ve x – axis
27. An ant moves on the floor of a room making two displacements. One of magnitude 3 m and another of
magnitude 4 m . If the angle between the two displacements is 1200 what will be the magnitude of the
resultant displacement ?
(a) 6.082m (b) 5.2m (c) 4.8 m (d) 3.606m
28. If A = 6.00i – 8.00j units, B = 8.00i + 3.00j units and C = 26.0i + 19.0j units, determine a and b
when a A + bB+C = 0
(a) a = 0.9, b = –3.93 (b) a = 0.9, b = 3.93 (c) a = 0.6, b = –3 (d) a = 0.4, b = 0.8
29. Two vectors a and b have equal magnitudes of 12 units. These vectors are making angles 300 and
1200 with the x axis respectively. Their sum is r . Find the x and y components of r .

(a) 6 3  6, 6  6 3  (b) 6 3  6,6  6 3 

 
(c) 6 3  6 , 6  6 3   
(d) 6 3  6 , 6  6 3 
30. The displacement of the point of a wheel initially in contact with the ground when the wheel rolls
forward half a revolution where radius of the wheel is 1m, is (Assume the forward direction as x -
axis)

(a) 2m, tan 1 1/   with x - axis (b)  

 2  4 m, tan 1  2 /   with x - axis

(c)  
2  4 m, tan 1 1/ 2  with x - axis (d)    4  m, tan
2 1
1/ 2  with x - axis

31. Angle (in rad) made by the vector 3iˆ  ˆj with the x-axis is
(a)  / 6 (b)  / 4 (c)  / 3 (d)  / 4
32. A bird moves in such a way that it has a displacement of 12 m towards east, 5 m towards north
and 9 m vertically upwards. Find the magnitude of its displacement.
(a) 5 2 m (b) 5 10 m (c) 5 5 m  (d) 5m
33. The position vector of a moving particle at ‘t’ sec is given by r  3iˆ  4t 2ˆj  t 3kˆ .Its displacement
during an interval of t = 1s to 3 sec is
(a) ˆj  kˆ (b) 3i  4j  k (c) 9iˆ  36ˆj  27kˆ (d) 32ˆj  26kˆ
 4 1 3
34. The direction cosines of a vector A are cos   , cos   and cos   , then the
5 2 2 5 2
vector A is
(a) 4 iˆ + ĵ +3 k̂ (b) 4 iˆ +5 ĵ +3 k̂ (c) 4 iˆ -5 ĵ -3 k̂ (d) iˆ + ĵ – k̂

35. If P = i+2j+6k, its direction cosines are
1 2 6 1 2 6 3 8 7
(a) , and (b) , and (c) , , (d) 1,2 and 6
41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41

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
36. If A =2i-3j+4k, its components in yz plane and zx plane are respectively

(a) 13 and 5 (b) 5 and 2 5 (c) 2 5 and 13 (d) 13 and 29

 
37. If vectors A and B are 3i – 4j + 5k and 2i + 3j – 4k respectively find the unit vector parallel to
 
AB.
5i  j  k  5i  j  k  5i  j  k  5i  j  k 
(a) (b) (c) (d)
27 27 27 27
38. A vector 3iˆ  4ˆj rotates about its tail through an angle 370 in anticlockwise direction then the
new vector is
(a) 3iˆ  4ˆj (b) 3iˆ  4ˆj (c) 5jˆ (d) 5iˆ
Lami’s Theorem
39. If ‘O’ is at equilibrium then the values of the tension T1 and T2 are x, 600

y, if 20 N is vertically down. Then x, y are T1

(a) 20 N 30 N (b) 20 3N, 20 N 1500
600
(c) 20 3N , 20 3N (d) 10 N, 30 N O
T2
20N

40. A body of mass 3 kg is suspended by a string to a rigid support. The body is pulled horizontally
by a force F until the string makes an angle of 30° with the vertical. The value of F and tension
in the string are.
(a) 9.8 N, 9.8 N (b) 9.8 N, 19.6 N (c) 19.6 N, 19.6 N (d) 19.6 N, 9.8 N
41. Two light strings of length 4cm and 3cm are tied to a bob of weight 500gm. The free ends of the
strings are tied to pegs in the same horizontal line and separated by 5cm. The ratio of tension in
the longer string to that in the shorter string is
(a) 4:3 (b) 3:4 (c) 4:5 (d) 5:4
42. A boy is hanging from a horizontal branch of a tree. The tension in the arms will be maximum when the
angle between the arms is
(a) 00 (b) 300 (c) 600 (d) 1200

Dot Product
43. If P = 2i +3j – 4k and Q = 5i +2j + 4k find the angle between the two vectors.
(a) 300 (b) 450 (c) 600 (d) 900
  
44. A force F = 5i – 3j + 2k moves a particle from r1 = 2i +7j+4k to r2 = 5i+2j+8k. Calculate the
workdone.
(a) 38 units (b) 20 units (c) 30 units (d) 15 units
45. A vector perpendicular to the vector (i + 2j) and having magnitude 3 5 units is
(a) 3 iˆ + 6 ĵ  (b) 6 iˆ –3 ĵ  (c) 4 iˆ –2 ĵ (d) iˆ –2 ĵ
46. If the vectors P  aiˆ  ajˆ  3kˆ and Q  aiˆ  2jˆ  kˆ are perpendicular to each other then the
positive value of 'a' is
(a) Zero (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
47. A force of 2i + 3j + 2k N acts a body for 4 s and produces a displacement of 3i + 4j + 5k m
calculate the power ?
(a) 5 W (b) 6 W (c) 7 W (d) 9 W

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
48. If A  2i  3j and B  2 j  3k the component of B along A is
1 6 6
(a) 6 (b) (c) (d)
6 13 13
   
49. The component of A along B is 3 times that of the component of B along A . Then A:B is
(a) 1: 3 (b) 3 :1 (c) 2 : 3 (d) 3:2
50. When a force (8i + 4j) newton displaces a particle through (3i - 3j) metre, the power is 0.6W.
The time of action of the force is
(a) 20s (b) 7.2s (c) 72s (d) 2s
 
 
1  A.B 
  is equal to
51. If  is the angle between unit vectors A and B , then
2 2
21  A.B
(a) tan (  / 2) (b) sin (  / 2) (c) cot (  / 2) (d) cos2 (  / 2)

Cross Product
52. The cross product of the vectors (2i -3j+ 4k) and (i + 4j - 5k) is
(a) - iˆ - 14 ĵ + 111 k̂ (b) iˆ + 14 ĵ + 111 k̂ (c) - iˆ + 14 ĵ + 111 k̂ (d) - iˆ + 14 ĵ + 5 k̂
53. A particle of mass 0.2kg is moving with linear velocity (i-j+2k). If the radius vector r = 4i+j-k,
the angular momentum of the particle is
(a) 2.14 units (b) 4.28 units (c) 107 units (d) 5 units
54. The magnitude of scalar and vector products of two vectors are 48 3 and 144 respectively. What
is the angle between the two vectors ?
(a) 300 (b) 450 (c) 600  (d)
0
 90 
55. The torque of force F  2 i  3 j  4 k newton acting at the point r  3 i  2 j  3 k metre
about the origin is
     
(a) 6 i  6 j  12 k (b) 17 i  6 j  13 k

(c)  6 i  6 j  12 k (d)  17 i  6 j  13 k
 
56. The adjacent sides of a parallelogram are P = 2i – 3j + k and Q = – 2i +4j – k. What is the area
of the parallelogram ?
(a) 4 units (b) 7 units (c) 5 units (d) 8 units
57. What is the condition for the vectors 2i+3j – 4k and 3i – aj + bk to be parallel ?
(a) a = –9/2, b = – 6 (b) a = –6, b = –9/2 (c) a = 4, b = 5 (d) a = 8, b = 2
    
58. a, b are the magnitudes of vectors a & b . If a x b = 0 the value of a . b is
(a) 0 (b) ab (c) ab (d) a/b
     
59. If A  4N,B  3N the value of | A xB |2  | A.B |2 then
(a) 5 N (b)
 25 N (c) 144 N (d) 169 N 
60. ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
If A = 2i + 3j+ 6k and B = 3i - 6j+ 2k then vector perpendicular to both A and B has
magnitude K times that of 6iˆ + 2j-
ˆ 3kˆ . Then K =
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 9
61.         
Vertices of a triangle are given by i  3j  2k , 2i  j  k and i  2j  3k , then area of triangle
is (in units)
107
(a) 107 / 2 (b) 107 / 6 (c) (d) 207 / 3
2
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EXERCISE - II

Addition and subtraction of vectors

1. Two vectors of equal magnitude P are inclined at some angle such that the difference in magnitude
of resultant and magnitude of either of the vectors is 0.732 times either of the magnitude of vectors.
If the angle between them is increased by half of its initial value then find the magnitude of
difference of the vectors
(a) 2 P (b) 2P (c) 3 P (d) 3P

2. Resultant of two vectors of magnitudes P and Q is of magnitude ‘Q’. If the magnitude of Q is

doubled now the angle made by new resultant with P is
(a) 300 (b) 900 (c) 600 (d) 1200
3. The two forces 2 2N and xN are acting at a point their resultant is perpendicular to xN  and having
magnitude of 6 N. The angle between the two forces and magnitude of x are
(a)   120 0 , x  2N (b)   30 0 , x  2N
0
(c)   150 , x  3N (d)   150 0 , x  2N
4. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting at a point, having resultant as F. If F2 is doubled F is also
doubled. If F2 is reversed then also F is doubled. Then F1 : F2 : F is
(a) 2 : 2 : 3 (b) 3 : 3 : 2 (c) 3 : 2 : 3 (d) 2 : 3 : 2
5. When forces F1, F2, F3 are acting on a particle of mass m such that F2 and F3 are mutually
perpendicular, then the particle remains stationary, If the force F1 is now removed then acceleration
of the particle is
(a) F1 / m (b) F1 F3 / mF1 (c)  F2  F3  / m (d) F2 / m
6. The square of the resultant of two forces 4N and 3N exceeds the square of the resultant of the
two forces by 12 when they are mutually perpendicular. The angle between the vectors is
(a) 30° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 120°
7. The resultant of three vectors 1,2 and 3 units whose directions are those of the sides of an
equilateral triangle is at an angle of
(a) 300 with the first vector (b) 150 with the first vector
(c) 1000 with the first vector (d) 1500 with the first vector
8. A person moving on a motor cycle in a ground takes a turn through 600 on his left after every 50 m.
Then find the magnitude of displacement suffered by him after 9th turn
D 600
C
600
(a) 100 m (b) 50 m 600
E
B
60 0

(c) 50 3 m (d) 20 m O
600
600 A

9. At what angle two vectors of magnitudes A + B and A – B act, so that their resultant is 3A2  B 2 ?
(a) 300 (b) 450 (c) 600 (d) 900

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Position vector, components of vectors, unit vectors & Lami’s theorem

 
10. A vector Q which has a magnitude of 8 is added to the vector P which lies along the X-axis.

The resultant of these two vectors is a third vector R which lies along the Y-axis and has a
 
magnitude twice that of P . The magnitude of P is
6 8 12 16
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 5 5 5
11. A vector makes angles with X, Y and Z axes that are in the ratio 1:2:3 respectively. The angle
made by the vector with Y–axis is
(a)  / 3 (b)  / 4 (c)  / 6 (d)  / 2
12. The rectangular components of a vector lying in xy plane are (n+1) and 1. If [Link] system
is turned by 600. They are n & 3 respectively the value of ‘n’
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.5
     
13. Two particles having position vectors r1  (3 i  5j )m and r2  (5 i  3 j )m are moving with
     
velocities V1  ( 4i - 4 j)ms 1 and V2  (ai  3 j)ms  1 . If they collide after 2 seconds, the value
of 'a' is (2003 E)
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
14. If three vectors act at a point ‘O’ as shown in the figure 10N

then the value of '  ' & ‘P’ are P


(a) 150, 10 2N (b) 450, 10 N 450 10 N

(c) 750, 10 2 N (d) 900 , 20 N

10 2 N

15. A uniform rod of 3 kg and length 1m is suspended from a fixed point by means of two strings of
length 0.6m and 0.8m which are attached to the free ends of rod, such that rod is horizatal Find
the tensions in the string in kgwt are
(a) 1.8, 2.4 (b) 1.2, 1.6 (c) 3, 1.8 (d) 2.4, 3.6


Dot Product 
16.
 
   
   
If A  2i  3j and B  i  j then component of A perpendicular to vector B and in the
same plane is
5   5   5   5  
(a) i j   (b) i j   (c) i j   (d)  
ik
2     2  2 2
17. If A  B  R and 2A  B is perpendicular to B then
(a) A = R (b) B = 2R (c) B = R (d) B = A
18. Velocity and acceleration vectors of charged particle moving perpendicular to the direction of

magnetic field at a given instant of time are   2i  cj and a  3i  4j respectively. Then the
value of ‘c’ is
(a) 3 (b) 1.5 (c) – 1.5 (d) –3

Cross Product 
19. A force of F = ˆi + ˆj + kˆ is acting at a point (–2,3,4) The moment of force about (1, 2, 3) is
(a) -4jˆ + 4kˆ (b) - ˆj + kˆ (c) 4jˆ - 4kˆ (d) -4kˆ

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20. A body of mass 2 kg is projected with a speed V at an angle 45° to the horizontal, When the
body is at the highest point in it's path, angular momentum of the body about the point of projection
is, ( i, ˆj are unit vectors in vertical plane)
V3 V3 ˆ V3 ˆ V3
(a)
4g
k̂ (b)
4g
-k   (c)
4g
j  (d)
4g
î 
 1 1 
21. If A  cos  ˆi  sin  ˆj , what will be the unit vector perpendicular to A
2 2
cos i  sin j
(a) cos i  sin j (b)  cos i  sin j (c) (d) sinθi - cosθj
2
22. A particle of mass 80 units is moving with a uniform speed V  4 2 units In XY plane, along
a line y = x + 5. The magnitude of the angular momentum of the particle about the origin is
(a) 1600 units (b) 160 2 units (c) 152 2 units (d) 16 2 units
  
23.
   
Find the value of a  b  a  b 
    

(a) a  b  (b) 2 a  b   (c) 2 a.b  (d) 2 a  b  
ANSWER KEY

EXERCISE - I

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (b) 50. (a)
51. (a) 52. (c) 53. (b) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (c) 57. (a) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (c)
61. (a)

EXERCISE - II

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (d)

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EXERCISE - III
1
(REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR)
Single correct answers
1. Of the following the vector quantity is
(a) time (b) Electric Current (c) Velocity of light (d) gravitational force
2. Of the following the scalar quantity is
(a) Temparature (b) Moment of force (c) Moment of couple (d) Magnetic moment
3. Choose the correct statement
(a) Temperature is a scalar but temperature gradient is a vector
(b) Velocity of a body is a vector but velocity of light is a scalar
(c) Electric intensity and Electric current density are vectors
(d) all the above
4. Choose the false statement :
(a) Electric current is a vector because it has both magnitude and direction
(b) Time is a vector which has direction always in the forward direction
(c) All quantities having magnitude and direction are vector quantities
(d) all the above
5. The pair containing a scalar quantity and vector quantity is
(a) Impulse and Angular momentum (b) work and Frequency
(c) Electromotive force and force (d) Electric power and Energy
6. The set containing only scalar quantities is
(a) Temperature gradient, specific heat and latent heat
(b) Electric intensity, Electric potential and Electric capacity
(c) Polestrength, permeability and permittivity
(d) Torque, Angular acceleration and linear momentum
7. If component of one vector in the direction of another vector is zero, then those two vectors
(a) are parallel to each other (b) are perpendicular to each other.
(c) are opposite to each other (d) are coplanar vectors.
8. The component of a vector is
(a) always less than its magnitude (b) always greater than its magnitude
(c) always equal to its magnitude (d) Less than or equal to its magnitude
9. The horizontal component of the weight of a body of mass m is
mg
(a) mg (b) (c) Zero (d) Infinity
2
10. A body of mass m is pulled with a horizontal force so that it moves with acceleration a. Then the
vertical component of the pulling force is
(a) ma (b) mg (c) Infinity (d) Zero

11. A particle moves in the X – Y plane under the action of a force F such that the value of its linear

momentum (P) at  any time ‘t’, and its components are PX  2cos t, PY  2sin t . The angle '  '

between F and P at a given time ‘t’ will be
(a)   00 (b)   30 0 (c)   900 (d)   1800
12. What are the maximum number of rectangular components of a vector can be split in space and
in plane respectively.
(a) 3,2 (b) 3,3 (c) 2,2 (d)  , 

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13. A car weighing 100kg is on a slope that makes an angle 30° with the horizontal. The component
of car’s weight parallel to the slope is (g=10ms–2)
(a) 500 N (b) 1000 N (c) 15,000 N (d) 20,000 N

4 1 3
14. The direction cosines of a vector A are cos   , cos   and co   , then the
5 2 2 5 2

vector A is

(a) 4i+j+3k (b) 4i+5j+3k (c) 4i-5j-3k (d) i+j–k

15. If the vertical component of a vector is 60units and the vector is making an angle 60º with the
horizontal, then the horizontal component of the vector is
20
(a) units (b) 20 3 units (c) 30 3 units (d) 60 units
3
16. The displacement of the point of a wheel initially in contact with the ground when the wheel rolls
forward half a revolution where radius of the wheel is 1m, is (Assume the forward direction as
x - axis)

(a) 2m, tan 1 (1/ ) with x - axis (b) (  2  4)m, tan 1  2 /  with x - axis

(c) (  2  4)m, tan 1 (1/ 2) with x - axis (d) (  2  4)m, tan 1 1/ 2 with x - axis
17. Angle (in rad) made by the vector 3iˆ  ˆj with the x-axis is (in rad)
(a)  / 6 (b)  / 4 (c)  / 3 (d)  / 4

18. The position vector of a moving particle at ‘t’ sec is given by r  3i  4t j  t 3 k .Its displacement
2

during an interval of t = 1s to 3 sec is

(a) ˆj  kˆ (b) 3i  4j  k (c) 9iˆ  36ˆj  27kˆ (d) 32ˆj  26kˆ
19. If P = i+2j+6k, its direction cosines are
1 2 6 1 2 6 3 8 7
(a) . and (b) . and (c) . and (d) 1,2 and 6
41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41
20. If A =2i-3j+4k, its components in yz plane and zx plane are respectively
(a) 13 and 5 (b) 5 and 2 5 (c) 2 5 and 13 (d) 13 and 29
  ^ ^ ^
21. The unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors A  4 ^i  3 ^j 6 k^ and B   i  3 j 8 k is

1 ^ ^ ^ 1 ^ ^ ^ 1  ^ ^ ^ 1  ^ ^ ^
(a) 7  3 i  6 j 2 k  (b) 7  3 i  6 j 2 k  (c) 49  3 i  6 j 2 k  (d) 49  3 i  6 j 2 k 
       

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Match the following type questions

22.
COLUMN -I COLUMN -II
 
(A) Work (e) r x F
 
(B) Power (f) F .S
 
(C) Linear velocity (g) F .V

(D) Torque (h)  x r
(a) A - g, B - h, C - f, D - e (b) A - f, B - g, C - e, D - h
(c) A - f, B - g, C - h, D - e (d) A - g, B - f, C - e, D - h

ANSWER KEY

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (c)

EXERCISE - IV

(REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR)
Single correct answers
1. Which of the following units could be associated with a scalar quantity ?
(a) N (b) kg ms-1 (c) kg m2s-2 (d) rad s-2
2. Choose the correct statement.
vector
(a) Scalar + vector = scalar/vector (b) = scalar
vector
(c) scalar/vector = scalar (or) vector (d) vector - vector = vector.
3. Which one of the following is a null vector ?
(a) Net displacement of a particle moving once around, a circle
(b) velocity of a body projected vertically up, when the body is at the highest point
(c) acceleration of a particle executing S.H.M. at the mean position
(d) all the above.
4. Pseudo vector is
(a) linear momentum (b) Angular momentum (c) Force (d) all the above
5. Polar vector is
(a) Accelaration (b) Moment of inertia (c)Angular displacement (d) Velocity of light

6. If a vector A makes angles 450 and 600 with x and y axis respectively then the angle made by
it with z - axis is
(a) 300 (b) 600 (c) 900 (d) 1200
7. The rectangular components of a vector lying in xy plane are 1 and p+1. If [Link] system
is turned by 300 , They are p & 4 respectively the value of ‘p’ is
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 3.5 (d) 7

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  
8. If P  ˆi  ˆj and Q  2iˆ  kˆ are two vectors which when added to R gives a unit vector along

Z-axis [Link] R is
       
(a) 3 i  j 2 k (b) 3 i  j 2 k (c)  k (d) k
9. For the three vectors the magnitude of D  A  B  C and its direction are
(a) 25, 45°, below + ve, x axis B=4
(b) 13, 570 above + ve, x axis C = 2
(c) 5, 530, below + ve, x axis
(d) 36, 45 above + ve, x axis A=1
10. A body of mass 1kg is suspended by two strings of lengths 3m and 4m from two nails which are
on a wall at a horizontal separation of 5m. Find the tensions T1and T2 in longer and shorter
strings (in kgwt)
(a) 4/5; 3/5 (b) 1; 1 (c) 3, 4 (d) 3/5; 4/5
11. If ,  and  are the angles made by a vector with X, Y and Z - axes then
sin 2   sin 2   sin 2  is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
12. The rectangular components of a vector lying in xy plane are (n+1) and 1. If [Link] system
is turned by 600 . They are n & 3 respectively the value of ‘n’
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.5
   
   

13. A is a vector which when added to the resultant of vectors  2 i  3 j 4 k  and  i  5 j 2 k 

yields a unit vector along the y-axis. Then vector A is

           
(a) 3 i  j 6 k (b) 3 i  j 6 k (c) 3 i  j  6k (d) 3 i  j 6 k
14. If three vectors act at a point ‘O’ as shown in the figure then the value of '  ' & ‘P’ are
P 10 N
(a) 150, 10 2N

(b) 450, 10 N
0 10 N
45
(c) 750, 10 2 N
(d) 900 , 20 N 10 2 N
15. In the arrangement as shown below the strings P, Q are being pulled downward with a speed ‘V’
each. If the pulleys are fixed, the mass M moves upward with a velocity of
V P Q
(a) V cos  (b)
cos 
 V
V
2V
(c) 2V cos  (d) M
cos 

ANSWER KEY

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a)

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EXERCISE - V

(ADDITION & SUBSTRACTION LAVMI’S THEOREM)

Single correct answers
01. Arrange the vectors subtractions so that their magnitudes are in decreasing order. If the two
 
vectors A and B are acting at an angle | A || B | .
(I) 600 (II) 900 (III) 1800 (IV) 1200
(a) IV, III, II, I (b) I, II, IV, III (c) III, IV, II, I (d) III, IV, I, II
02. If the angle between two vectors of equal magnitude P is  , the magnitude of the difference of
the vectors is
  
(a) 2P cos (b) 2P sin (c) P cos  (d) P sin
2 2 2 2
03. The maximum and minimum resultants of two forces are in the ratio 4:3. The forces are in the
ratio
(a) 7:1 (b) 1:5 (c) 4:7 (d) 3:7
04. The resultant of two equal forces is 141.4N when they are mutually perpendicular. When they
are inclined at an angle 120º, then the resultant force will be
(a) 100 N (b) 141.4 N (c) 196 N (d) Zero
05. If three vectors and R are related as P  Q  R and P-Q=R, the angle between the vectors
P and Q is
(a) 0 (b) 300 (c) 600 (d) 1800
06. Eleven forces each equal to 5N act on a particle simultaneously. If each force makes an angle
30º with the next one, the resultant of all forces is
(a) 15N (b) 55 N (c) 5 N (d) zero
07. Which of the following sets of forces acting simultaneously on a particle keep it in equilibrium?
(a) 3N, 5N, 10N (b) 4N, 7N, 12N (c) 2N, 6N, 5N (d) 5N, 8N, 1N
08. The resultant of two forces, one double the other in magnitude is perpendicular to the smaller of
the two forces. The angle between the two forces is
(a) 150° (b) 90° (c) 60° (d) 120°
09. The resultant of two forces at right angle is 17N. If the maximum resultant is 23N, the greater
force is
(a) 15N (b) 8N (c) 7N (d) 23N
10. The greater and least resultant of two forces are 7N and 3N respectively. If each of the force is
increased by 3N and applied at 60°. The magnitude of the resultant is
(a) 7N (b) 3N (c) 10 N (d) 129
11. Two forces are such that the sum of their magnitudes in 18N, the resultant is 228 when they
are at 1200. Then the magnitude of the forces are
(a) 12N, 6N (b) 13N, 5N (c) 10N, 9N (d) 16N, 2N
12. Two vectors are given by a = -2 î + j-3k and b = 5 î +3j-2k. Third vector c is if 3a+2b–c=0
(a) 4i + 9j – 13 k (b) –4i – 9j + 13 k (c) 4i–9j–13k (d) none
13. A force F1 when added to a force F2 = 3i-5j gives a resultant force F = -4i. Then F1 is given by
(a) 7i+5j (b) -7i+5j (c) 7i-5j (d) none
14. The minimum number of forces of equal magnitude in a plane that can keep a particle in equilibrium is
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 5

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15. The minimum number of unequal forces in a plane that can keep a particle in equilibrium is
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6
16. The minimum number of non coplanar forces that can keep a particle in equilibrium is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
17. If ‘O’ is in equilibrium then the values of the Tension T1 and T2 are x, y, if 20 N is vertically
down. Then x, y are
600
(a) 20 N 30 N
T1
(b) 20 3N, 20 N
1500
0 600
(c) 20 3N , 20 3N
T2
(d) 10 N, 30 N
20N
18. A man of 80 kg is supported by two cables as shown the tension ratio of T1 : T2 is
(a) 1: 3 600 300
(b) 3 :1 T1 T2
(c) 1 : 1
(d) 2 : 1
80 kg
19. A body of mass 3 kg is suspended by a string to a rigid support. The body is pulled horizontally
by a force F until the string makes an angle of 30° with the vertical. The value of F and tension
in the string are.
(a) 9.8 N, 9.8 N (b) 9.8 N, 19.6 N (c) 19.6 N, 19.6 N (d) 19.6 N, 9.8 N
20. Two light strings of length 4cm and 3cm are tied to a bob of weight 500gm. The free ends of the
strings are tied to pegs in the same horizontal line and separated by 5cm. The ratio of tension in
the longer string to that in the shorter string is
(a) 4:3 (b) 3:4 (c) 4:5 (d) 5:4
21. A boy is hanging from a horizontal branch of a tree. The tension in the arms will be maximum
when the angle between the arms is
(a) 00 (b) 300 (c) 600 (d) 1200
22. Weight W has been suspended from mid point of rope connected between two ends at same
level. The rope is no longer horizantal. The tension required to completely make the rope
horizantal is
W W
(a) (b) (c) Zero (d) Infinity
2 4
23. Two forces P and 2P are acting at an angle  . If the square of the resultant of them is equal to
half of the sum of the squares of their magnitudes then  is
15 1  5  1  8 
(a) sin   (b) cos   (c) cos   (d) 0°
8 8 5
24. If A  B  C and A  B  C then the angle between A and B is
(a) 45° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 0°
25. If the difference of two unit vectors is also a vector of unit magnitude, the magnitude of the sum
of the two unit vectors is
(a)1 (b)1/ 3 (c) 3 (d) 2
26. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting at a point, having resultant as F. If F2 is doubled F is also
doubled. If F2 is reversed then also F is doubled. If F= 6 N then find F1 and F2 (in N)
(a) 19 , 6 (b) 3 , 3 (c) 6 ,3 (d) 3 , 6

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27. The resultant of the three vectors and 0 C has magnitude (R=Radius of thecircle)
C
(a) 2 R
450 B
(b) (1+ 2 ) R
(c) ( 2 -1) R
0 R A
(d) 2R

    

28. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, then find AB  AC  AD  AE  AF . (O is the centre of
regular
hexagon)   
(a) 6OA (b) 6OB (c) 6OC (d) 6OD
    
29. In a regular hexagon ABCDEF, AB  P and BC  Q then find FA
(a) P  Q E D

(b) P  Q
F C
(c) P

Q
(d) Q 
A P B
30. The resultant of two vectors of magnitudes (P+Q) and (P–Q) is P 2  Q 2 . Then the angle between
the vectors is
2 2
 (P2  Q2 )  1  (P  Q ) 
(a) cos1  2 2  (b) cos  2 2 
 2(P  Q )   2(P  Q ) 
2 2 2 2
(c) cos 
1  P  Q  1  P  Q 
2 2 
(d) cos  2 2 
 PQ  P Q 
31. The resultant of u and v is perpendicular to u and has a magnitude equal to half of the
magnitude of v . The angle between u & v is
(a) 120° (b) 150° (c) 90° (d) 60°
32. If P  Q  R and P = Q = R, the Ratio of angles between P & R to P & Q is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
33.  and
The two forces 2 2N and xN are acting at a point their resultant is perpendicular to xN
having magnitude of 6 N. The angle between the two forces and magnitude of x are
0
(a)   120 , x  2N (b)   30 0 , x  2N
(c)   150 0 , x  3N (d)   150 0 , x  2N
34. Two forces F1 and F2 are acting at a point, having resultant as F. If F2 is doubled F is also
doubled. If F2 is reversed then also F is doubled. Then F1 : F2 : F is
(a) 2 : 2 : 3 (b) 3 : 3 : 2 (c) 3 : 2 : 3 (d) 2: 3: 2
35. The resultant of the three displacement vectors 0 P.P Q and Q R is
(a) 15 cm R
Y
(b) 17 cm P 6 cm 4 cm
(c) 149 cm cm Q
5 370
(d) 107 cm O X

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36. Four forces of magnitude p, 2p, 3p, 4p act along the four sides D 6 00 C
60 0
of a square ABCD in cyclic order. The magnitude of resultant
60 0
is E
B
(a) 2P (b) 8P 60 0

600
(c) 4P (d) 3P O 60 0 A

37. A person moving on a motor cycle in a ground takes a turn through 600 on his left after every 50
m. Then find the magnitude of displacement suffered by him after 9th turn
(a) 100 m (b) 50 m (c) 50 3 m (d) 20 m
   
38. P, Q, R,S are vector of equal magnitude. If P  Q  R  O angle between P and Q is 1 . If
P  Q  S  O angle between P and S is  2 . The ratio of 1 to  2 is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1 : 1 (d) 1: 3
39. A uniform rod of 3 kg and length 1m is suspended from a fixed point by means of two strings of
length 0.6m and 0.8m which are attached to the free ends of rod, such that rod is horizatal Find
the tensions in the string in kgwt are ( Use Lami’s theorem )
(a) 1.8, 2.4 (b) 1.2, 1.6 (c) 3, 1.8 (d) 2.4, 3.6
40. A 10 kg wt is suspended as shown below then Tension T1 & T2 are
20 20
(a) 20kg wt, 20kg wt (b) kgwt, kgwt
3 3

20 10 20
(c) kgwt kgwt (d) kgwt 10 3 kgwt
3 3 3
 0 3
41. If ‘O’ is in equilibrium then tensions T1 and T2 are  Tan 37  
 4
(a) 30 N, 50 N
(b) 60 N, 80 N
(c) 80 N, 60 N
(d) 20 N, 40 N
42. A 10 kg body suspended by a rope is pulled by means of a horizontal force to make 600 by rope
to vertical. The horizantal force is
(a) 10 kgwt (b) 30 kgwt (c) 10 3 kgwt (d) 30 3 kgwt
43. ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two pegs seperated by 13 cm. A body of 169 Kgwt is suspeend by thread of
17 cm connecting to A & B, such that the two segments of strings are perpendicular. Then
tensions in shorter and longer parts of string are
(a) 100 kgwt, 69 kgwt (b) 65 kgwt, 156 kgwt (c) 156 kgwt, 65 kgwt (d) 69 kgwt, 100 kgwt
44. If ‘P’ is in equilibrium then T1/T2is
T1 T2
(a) 3
30 0 600
(b) 2
(c) 1/ 3
900 N
(d) 1/ 2
45. A body of weight W is suspended by a string .It is pulled aside with a horizontal force of 2W and
held at [Link] tension in it is
(a) 2W (b) 3W (c)W 3 (d) W 5

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46. Three forces P1= i+j-k, P2= -2i+aj and P3= i-3j+k act simultaneously on a particle. If the particle
is in equilibrium, the value of a is
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 2

ANSWER KEY

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (d) 46. (a)

EXERCISE - VI

(DOT AND CROSS PRODUCTS)

Single correct answers
1. Dot product is a
(a) Vector product (b) Scalar product
(c) Vector Scalar product (d) Scalar vector product.
 
2. A Vector P points vertically downwards and another vector Q points towards north then. The
 
vector P  Q points towards
(a) East (b) West (c) South (d) Vertically up
3. Dot product of two vectors obeys
(a) commutative law (b) Distributive law (c) both (d) none
4. The false relation is
(a) P  FxV (b) P  FxV (c)   B  A (d) all the above
5. ( Ax B )  ( Bx A) is equal to
(a) 2 AB (b) A 2 B2 (c) zero (d) null vector
6. The direction of the cross product of two vectors can be known by applying
(a) Triangle law of vector addition (b) Ampere’s swimming rule
(c) cork screw rule (d) All the above
7. If A and B are two vectors, then which of the following is wrong ?
(a) A. B  B. A (b) A  B  B  A (c) Ax B  BxA (d) Ax B   BxA
8. The angle between ( Ax B ) and ( BxA) is (in radian)
(a)  / 2 (b)  (c)  / 4 (d) zero
   
9. If A B  C, then magnitude of B is
         
(a) C A (b) C – A (c) C. B  A. B (d) C. A  B. A
10. Choose the false statement
(a) A vector having zero magnitude can have a direction

(b) If Ax B  0 , then either A or B or both must have zero magnitude
(c) The component of a vector is a vector
(d) all the above

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11. If A, B and c are coplanar vectors, then

 
(a) A .B  C  0  
(b) A  B .C  0 
(c) A .B .C  0  (d) all the above are true
12. Area of the triangle whose base is given by A  i  j  k and one of the two sides by B  4 j  3k is
26 5
(a) 26 (b) (c) (d) 5
2 2
13. The angle between the vectors (i + j + k) and (i - j - k) is
8 1 2 8 1 8
(b) co s  (d) sin 
1 1
(a) sin  (c) cos 
3 3 3 9
14. If A x B = B x C then
(a) C  A (b) C   A (c) C = A (d) A  B
15. A particle of mass 0.2kg is moving with linear velocity (i-j+2k). If the radius vector
r = 4i+j-k, the angular momentum of the particle is
(a) 2.14 units (b) 4.28 units (c) 107 units (d) None

16. A force of F = ˆi + ˆj + kˆ is acting at a point (–2,3,4) The moment of force about (1, 2, 3) is
(a) -4jˆ + 4kˆ (b) - ˆj + kˆ (c) 4jˆ - 4kˆ (d) -4kˆ
17. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are represented by the vectors P  5i  4j  3k and
Q  3i  2j  k , then the area of parallelogram in square units is
5
(a) 12 (b) (c) 6 (d) 14
2
18. A particle of mass 80 units is moving with a uniform speed V  4 2 units In XY plane, along
a lineY = x + 5. The magnitude of the angular momentum of the particle about the origin is
(a) 1600 units (b) 160 2 units (c) 152 2 units (d) 16 2 units
   
19. ˆ 6kˆ and B = 3iˆ - 6j+
If A = 2iˆ + 3j+ ˆ 2kˆ then vector perpendicular to both A and B has
magnitude K times that of 6iˆ + 2j-
ˆ 3kˆ . Then K =
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 9
  
20. For any two vectors A and B. If A.B  A  B , the magnitude of C  A  B is

(a) A 2  B2 (b) A  B (c) A 2  B2  AB (d) A2  B2  2AB

2
21. Vertices of a triangle are given by i  3j  2k , 2i  j  k and i  2j  3k , then area of
triangle is(in units)
107
(a) 107 / 2 (b) 107 / 6 (c) (d) 207 / 3
2

ANSWER KEY

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (d)

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Syllabus

1. Accuracy and errors in measurement – random and instrumental errors.

2. Significant figures and rounding off the numbers.

1. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
1.1. Introduction
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the
error of measurement.

1.2. Classification of errors

(1) Systematic of Controllable Errors:- Systematic errors are the errors whose causes
are known. They can be either positive or negative. Due to the known causes these
errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can further be classified into three
categories:
(i) Instrumental errors:- These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous
manufacture or misuse of the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using
more accurate instruments.
(ii) Environmental errors:- These errors are due to the changes in external
environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or
magnetic and electrostatic fields.
(iii) Observational errors:- These errors arise due to improper setting of the
apparatus or carelessness in taking observations.
(2) Random Errors:- These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur
irregularly and are variable in magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are
not known precisely they can not be eliminated completely. For example, when the
same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may get
different readings different times.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times
and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. This mean value would be
very closed to the most accurate reading.
1
Note:- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to  
n
times.
Ex. 1:- If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random
x
error in the arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be
5

(3) Gross Errors:- Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading
the instruments or calculating and recording the measurement results.
For example:-
(i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(iii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations. These errors can
be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.

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2. REPRESENTATION OF ERRORS
Errors can be expressed in the following ways:-
2.1 Absolute Error (a):- The difference between the true value and the individual
measured value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement. Suppose a
physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a1, a2, a3……….an. The
arithmetic mean (am) of these values is
n
a1  a 2  a 3  .............a n 1
am 
n

n a
i 1
i …(1)

If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (a n) can be taken as the true
value. Then the absolute errors in the in individual measured values are-
a1 = am – a1
a2 = am – a2
…………...
…………...
an = am – an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error
(a)m or a of the value of the physical quantity a
n
| a1 |  | a 2 | ......... | a n | 1
(a ) m 
n

n | a |
i 1
i …(2)

So if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be a, then the true
value (at) can be written as
at = a ± a … (3)

2.2 Relative or Fractional Error:- It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute
error (( a ) m or a ) to the true value of the mean value (a m or a ) of the quantity measured.
Relative or fractional error
Mean absolute error (a ) m a
=  or ….(4)
Mean value am a
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,
Percentage error = relative error × 100
or percentage error
mean absolute error a
= 100% = 100% …(5)
true value a

2. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS IN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Rule I: The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal to
the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A + B or X = A – B an if ± A and ± B represent the absolute errors in A and B
respectively, then the maximum absolute error in X = X = A + B and
X
Maximum percentage error = 100 …(6)
X
The result will be written as X ± X (in terms of absolute error)
X
or X± 100 %(in terms of percentage error)
X
Rule II: The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or division of quantities is
equal to the sum of the fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.

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If X=A×B or X = A/B
X  A B 
Then     …(7)
X  A B 
Rule III:- The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the
fractional error in the quantity itself, i.e.
X  A 
If X = An then  n  …(8)
X  A 
If X = ApBqCr then
X   A   B   C 
 p   q   r 
X   A   B   C 
A p Bq
If X then
Cr
X   A   B   C 
 p   q   r 
X   A   B   C 

Golden key Points

 Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are
produced due to improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas
random errors are accidental and their magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from the
knowledge of the measuring system and conditions of measurement.
Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques,
selecting better instruments and improving personal skills whereas random errors can be
minimised by repeating the observation several times.
 Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional or
relative error is unitless and dimensionless.
 Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other case.

Example 2:
Following observations were taken with a vernier callipers while measuring the length of a
cylinder.
3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm,
3.28 cm, 3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm
Then find
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder.
(b) Absolute error in each observation
(c) Mean absolute error
(d) Relative error
(e) Percentage error
Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.
Solution :
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be
the mean length ()
3.29  3.28  3.29  3.31  3.28  3.27  3.29  3.30

8
= 3.28875 cm or   3.29 cm

(b) Absolute error in the first reading

= 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm

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Absolute error in the second reading

= 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the third reading
= 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the forth reading
= 3.29 – 3.31 = – 0.02 cm
Absolute error in the fifth reading
= 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the sixth reading
= 3.29 – 3.27 = 0.02 cm
Absolute error in the seventh reading
= 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the last reading
= 3.29 – 3.30 = –0.01 cm
(c) Mean absolute error =
 = 0.00  0.01  0.00  0.02  0.01  0.02  0.00  0.01
8
Or  = 0.01 cm

(d) Relative error in length

 0.01 
=  = 0.0030395 or = 0.003
 3.29 

(e) Percentage error = × 100= 0.003 × 100 = 0.3%

So Length  = 3.29 cm ± 0.01 cm (in terms of absolute error)
Or  = 3.29 cm ± 0.30% (in terms percentage error)

Example 3:
The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 ± 0.2)ºC and
(78.3 ± 0.3)ºC. Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
Solution :
Given 1 = (40.6 ± 0.2)ºC and 2 = (78.3 ± 0.3)ºC
Rise in termp.  = 2 – 1 = 78.3 – 40.6 = 37.7ºC.
 = ± (1 + 2) = ± (0.2 + 0.3) = ± 0.5ºC
Hence the rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5) °C

Example 4:
The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm. Calculate area of
the rectangle with error limits.
Solution :
Given c = (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and b = (3.4 ± 0. 2) cm
Area A =  × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 cm2
A   b   0.1 0.2 
    = ±  
A   b   5.7 3.4 
 0.34  1.14  1.48
=±   =±
 5.7  3.4  19.38

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1.48 1.48
Or A = ± A =±  19.38 = ± 1.48
19.38 19.38
Area = (19.38 ± 1.48) sq. cm

Example 5:
A body travels uniformly a distance (13.8 ± 0.2) m in a time (4.0 ± 0.3) s. Calculate its
velocity with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity ?
Solution :
Given distance s = (13.8 ± 0.2) m and time
t = (4.0 ± 0.3)s
s 13.8
velocity v =  = 3.45 ms–1 = 3.5 ms–1
t 4.0
v  s t   0.2 0.3 
       
v  s t   13.8 4.0 
4.49
=± = ± 0.0895
13.8  4.0
 v = ± 0.0895 × v = ± 0.0895 × 3.45
= ± 0.3087 = ± 0.31
Hence v = (3.5 ± 0.31) ms–1
Percentage error in velocity
v
= × 100 = ± 0.0895 × 100 = ± 8.95% = ± 9%
v

Ex.6 A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a
copper cube having side 10 L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) volume of the cube.
Sol. (i) Area A = 10L × 10 L = 100L2.
Percentage change in area
 L
= × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4%
A L
 A 100 L L L 
  2  02 2 
 A 100 L L L 
Note : -Constants do not have any error in them.
(ii) Volume V = 10 L × 10 L × 10 L = 1000 L3
Percentage change in volume
V L
= 100 = 3 = 3 × 2% = 6%
V L
Conclusion: - The maximum percentage change will be observed in volume, lesser in area and the
least (minimum) change will be observed in length or radius.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Q.1 Two rods have lengths measured as (1.8 ± 0.2)m and (2.3 ± 0.1)m. Calculate their combined
length with error limits.
Q.2 The original length of wire is (153.7 ± 0.6) cm. It is stretched to (155.3 ± 0.2) cm. Calculate
the elongation in the wire with error limits.

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Q.3 In an experiment, values of two resistances are measured to be r 1 = (5.0 ± 0.2) ohm and
r2 = (10.0 ± 0.1) ohm. Find the values of total resistance in (i) series and (ii) parallel with
limits of percentage error.
Q.4 The radius of a sphere is measured to be (2.0 ± 0.5) cm. Calculate its surface area with
percentage error limits.
Q.5 A physical quantity x is calculated from the relation x = a3b2/ cd . Calculate percentage error in x,
if a, b, c and d are measured respectively with an error of 1% , 3%, 4% and 2%.
Answers :
1. (4.1 ± 0.3) m
2. (1.6 ± 0.8) cm
3. Rs = 15 ohm ± 2%; Rp = 3.3 ohm ± 7%
4. 50.26 cm2 ± 50%
5. ± 12%

4. LEAST COUNT
The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an
instrument is called the least count (L. C.) of the measuring instrument.
4.1 Least Count of vernier callipers:-
Suppose the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) is M units and that of one vernier scale
division (V. S.D.) is V units. Also let the length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal to the
length of 'b' vernier scale divisions

.
Therefore aM = bV
a
or V= M
b
a
Therefore M – V = M – M
b
 ba 
or MV  M
 b 
The quantity (M – V) is called vernier constant (V. C.) or least count (L.C.) of the vernier
callipers.
 ba 
L.C.   M …(1)
 b 

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4.2 Least Count of Screw Gauge or Spherometer:-

Pitch
Least Count =
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is
given one complete rotation. i.e.
Pitch = Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale
No. of full rotations given
Note: With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the
measurement increases and the error in the measurement decreases.
Example 7:
One centimeter on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20
divisions of vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the
least count of callipers ?
Solution :
 ba   20  8   1 
L.C. =   M=     cm
 b   20   10 
3
= cm = 0.06 cm
50
Example 8:
A spherometer has 100 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full
rotation of the disc advances on the main scale by 0.01 cm. Find the least count of the system.
Solution :
Given Pitch = 0.01 cm
 Least count

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Pitch
=
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
0.01
 cm  104 cm
100

Example 9:
The nth division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)th division of vernier scale. Given one
main scale division is equal to 'a' units. Find the least count of the vernier.
Solution :
 (n  1)  n  a
L.C.    a
 n 1  n 1
Example 10:
The least count of a stop watch is 1/5 second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is
measured to be 25 seconds. How much will be the percentage error in the measurement of
time ?
Solution :
1
Error in measuring 25 sec. = sec. = 0.2 sec.
5
0.2
 percentage error = 100 = 0.8%
25
 Note:- The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least count
of the measuring instrument.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Q.1 One centimeter on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20
divisions of vernier scale coincide with 19 small divisions of the main scale then what will be
the least count of the callipers.
Q.2 If the number of division on the circular scale is 100 and number of full rotations given to
screw is 8 and distance moved by the screw is 4 mm, then what will be least count of the
screw gauge.
Q.3 A spherometer has 250 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full
rotation of the disc advances on the main scale by 0.0625 [Link] is the least count of the
spherometer.

Ans. 1. 0.005 cm 2. 0.005 mm 3. 25 × 10–4 cm

 APPENDIX – I

Some important conversion factors:

Length:
(i) 1m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 3.28 ft.
= 39.37 in = 1.0936 yd (yard)
(ii) 1 km = 0.6215 mi (mile)
(iii) 1 mi = 1609 m
(iv) 1 n mi (nautical mile) = 1852 m
(v) 1 in = 2.54 cm
(vi) 1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm.
(vii) 1 yd = 3 ft = 91.44 cm.

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(viii) 1 m (micron) = 10–6 m

(xi) 1 Å = 10–10 m = 0.1 nm
1 fermi = 10–15 m
(xi) 1 bohr radius = 0.529 Å
(xii) 1 AU (Astronomical unit) = 1.49 × 1011 m (Avg. distance between sun and earth)
(xiii) 1 ly(light year) = 9.461 × 1015 m (Distance traveled by light in vacuum in one year)
(xiv) 1 Pc (parsec or parallactic second) = 3.08 × 1016m = 3.26 ly (Distance at which an arc of length
1 AU subtends an angle of one second at a point)
Mass :
(i) 1 kg. = 1000 g = 2.2 lb (pound)
(ii) 1 quintal = 100 kg
(iii) 1 ton = 907.2 kg
(iv) 1 metric tonne = 1000 kg = 106 g
(v) 1 lb = 454 g
(vi) 1 slug = 14.59 kg
(vii) 1ounce = 28.35 g
(viii) 1 amu = 1.6606 × 10–27 kg
= 931.5 MeV/c2
(ix) 1 CSL (Chandra Shekhar Limit)
= 1.4 Msum (largest unit of mass)
Time:
(i) 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
(ii) 1d = 24h = 1440 min
= 86.4 × 103 s
(iii) 1 y = 365.24 d = 31.56 × 106 s
(iv) 1 shake = 10–8 s

Area:
(i) 1 m2 = 104 cm2
(ii) 1 km2 = 0.386 mi2 = 247 acres
(iii) 1 acres = 43,560 ft2 = 4047 m2
= 0.4047 hectare
(iv) 1 hectare = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres
(v) 1 barn = 10–28m2 (for measuring cross-sectional area in sub-atomic particle collisions)

Volume:
(i) 1m3 = 106 cm3 = 100cc = 103 L = 35.31 ft3
(ii) 1 gal(gallon) = 3.786 L (in U.S.A.)
or 4.54 L (in U.K.)

Density:
(i) 1 kg m–3 = 10–3 g cm–3 = 10–3 kg L–1

Speed:
(i) 1 km h–1 = 5/18 or 0.2778 ms–1 = 0.6215 mi h–1
(ii) 1 mi h–1 = 0.4470 m s–1
= 1.609 km h–1 = 1.467 ft s–1
(iii) 1 ms = 18/5 or 3.6 km h–1 = 2.24 mi h–1
–1

Angle and angular speed:

(i)  rad = 180º

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(ii) 1 rad = 180º/ or 57.30º

(iii) 1º = 1.745 × 10–2 rad = 60'
= 1/360 revolution
(iv) 1 rev = 360º = 2 rad
(v) 1'(min) = 60" (second)
(vi) 1 rev min–1 = 0.1047 rad s–1  0.1 rad s–1
(vii) 1 rad s–1 = 9.549 rev min–1

Accelaration:
(i) g = 9.8 m s–2 (MKS unit)
= 980 cm s–2(CGS unit) = 32 ft s–2 (FPS unit)
Force:
(i) 1 N = 105 dyn = 7.23 poundal
(ii) 1 kg-wt = 1kg-f = 9.8 N
(iii) 1 g – wt = 1g – f = 980 dyne
(iv) 1lb – wt = 1 lb – f = 32 poundal

Pressure:
(i) 1 Pa = 1 N m–2 = 10 dyne cm–2
(ii) 1 bar = 105 Pa = 106 dyne cm–2
(iii) 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01 × 105 Pa
= 1.01 × 106 dyne cm–2
= 760 mm of Mercury
(iv) 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg column = 153.32 Pa

Work energy:
(i) 1 J = 107 erg = 0.239 Cal
(ii) 1 Cal = 4.186 J
(iii) 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
(iv) 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ = 860 kCal
(v) 1 L-atm = 101.3 J = 24.217 Cal
(vi) 1 amu = 931 MeV = 1.492 × 10–10 J
(vii) 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055 J

Power:
(i) 1 hp (horse power) = 745.7 W  746 kW
(ii) 1 W (watt) = 1 J/s
(iii) 1 kW = 1000 W = 1.34 hp
(iv) 1 Cal s–1 = 4.186 W

Temperature:
(i) K (kelvin) = [ºC + 273º]
= [ºF + 459.67]/1.8 = ºR/1.8
9
(ii) ºF = ºC × + 32
5
(iii) ºR(rankine) = ºF + 459.67

Electric charge:
(i) 1C (coulomb) = 3 × 109 stat coulomb
= 0.1 ab coulomb
(ii) 1 esu = 1 stat coulomb

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= 3.33 × 10–10 coulomb

(iii) 1 emu = 1 ab coulomb = 10 coulomb
(iv) 1 A-h = 3600 C (coulomb)

Electric Current:
(i) 1 A (ampere) = 3 × 109 stat ampere (esu of current)
= 0.1 ab ampere (emu of current)

Radioactivity:
(i) 1 Bq (bacquerel) = 1 dps (disintegration per second)
(ii) 1 Ci(curie) = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
= 3.7 × 104 Rd
(iii) 1 Rd (rutherford) = 106 dps = 106 Bq

Others:
(i) 1 weber = 108 maxwell (for Magnetic flux)
(ii) 1 T (tesla) = 1 weber/m2 = 104G(gauss)
(for Magnetic flux density)
(iii) 1 orested = 79.554 A/m (for Intensity
of Magnetic field )
2
(iv) 1poiseuille (N-s/m or Pa-s)
= 10 poise (Dyne-s/cm2) (for Viscosity)

 APPENDIX-II

Table-1 Sets of quantities having same dimensions (Asked in previous previous)

[Link]. Quantities Dimensions

Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, phase, distance [M0L0T0]
gradient, relative permeability, relative permittivity, angle of contact,
1.
Reynolds number, coefficient of friction, mechanical equivalent of heat,
electric susceptibility, etc.
2. Mass and inertia [M1L0T0]
3. Momentum and impulse. [M1L1T–1]
4. Thrust, force weight, tension, energy gradient. [M1L1T–2]
Pressure, stress, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, modulus [M1 L–1 T–2]
5.
of rigidity, energy density.
6. Angular momentum and Planck's constant (h). [M1L2T–1]
7. Acceleration, g and gravitational field intensity. [M0L1T–2]
Surface tension, free surface energy (energy per unit area), force gradient, [M1L0T–2]
8.
spring constant.
9. Latent heat and gravitational potential. [M0L2T–2]
10. Thermal capacity, Boltzman constant, entropy. [ML2T–2K–1]
Work, torque, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, moment of [M1L2T–2]
11.  2 
V 
force, (q2/C), (LI2), (qV), (V2C), (I2Rt),  t , (VIt), (PV), (RT), (mL), (mcT)
 R 

12. Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient, radioactivity, [M0L0T–1]

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R  1   1 
 ,  ,   .
 L   RC   LC 
1
1/ 2 1/ 2
m R
1/ 2
L
[M0L0T1]
13.   ,  ,   ,   , (RC), ( LC ) , time
g k g R
14. (VI), (I2R), (V2/R), Power [ML2T–3]

 APPENDIX-III

Table-2 Dimensions of important physical quantities

(Asked in previous exams)

[Link]. Physical quantity Dimensions Exams

1. Momentum M1L1T–1 (CPMT 75)
(CPMT 78, MP PMT 79, IIT
2. Capacitance M–1L–2T4A2
1983)
3. Calorie M1L2T–2 (CPMT 85)
4. Modulus of rigidity M1L–1T–2 (IIT 82, MNR 84, 86)
(CPMT 78, 86 IIT 83, 89 MNR
5. Latent heat M0L2T–2
88)
6. Magnetic permeability M1L1T–2A–2 (CBSE 91)
(IIT 83, CBSE 89, 92,
7. Self inductance M1L2T–2A–2 Karnatake
CET-04, CPMT 92)
8. Pressure M1L–1T–2 (CPMT 94, MP PMT94)
9. Coefficient of thermal conductivity M1L1T–3K–1 (MP PMT 93, CBSE 94)
(IIT 85, D PMT 87, MP PET 95,
10. Planck's constant M1L2T–1
MP PMT 96)
11. Power M1L2T–3 (EAMCET 81, MP PMT 96)
12. Solar constant M1L0T–3 (Pb. CET 98)
(EAMCET 81, CBSE 91, AFMC
13. Impulse M1L1T–1
98)
(IIT 82, [Link] 93, MP PMT 94,
14. Magnetic flux ML2T–2A–1
CBSE 89, 99)
15. Hole mobility in a semi conductor M–1L0T2A1 (AIIMS 2000)
16. Current density M0L–2T–1Q (AIIMS 2001)
17. Bulk modulus of elasticity ML–1T–2 (MP PMT 2002)
18. Young modulus M1L–1T–2 (BHU 2002)
19. Potential energy ML2T–2 (MP PET 2003)
20. Magnetic field intensity M0L–1T0A1 (RPMT 97, MP PMT 2001, 2003)
(CPMT 89, 90, CBSE 88, 92,
DPMT 97, MP PET 84, 96, 99 MP
21. Gravitational constant M–1L3T–2
PMT 84, 87, 97, 2000,, JIPMER
2004, CBSE PM/PD 2004)
22. Light year M0L1T0 (Haryana PMT 2004)
23. Thermal resistance M–1L–2T–3 (Haryan PMT 2004)
24. Permittivity M–1L–3T4A2 (AIIMS 2004)
25. Coefficient of viscosity M1L–1T–1 (D PMT – 2004)

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1
 0 E 2 (0 = permittivity of free space and
26. 2 M1L–1T–2 (IMS-BHU 2004)
E = electric field)
27. Resistance ML2T–3A–2 (AIIMS 2005)

 APPENDIX-IV
Table-3 Units of important physical quantities
(Asked in previous exams)

[Link]. Physical quantity Units Exams

1. Angular acceleration rad s–2 (SCRA 80, EAMCET 81)
2. Frequency hertz (MNR 83, SCRA 83)
3. Moment of inertia kg × m2 (MP PET 84)
4. Resistance Kg m2 A–2 s–3 (IIT 93)
(SCRA 86, CPMT 84, 85, 87, MP PMT 83,
5. Self inductance Henry
92, CBSE 93)
(MP PMT 84, AFMC 86, CPMT 85, 87
6. Surface tension Newton/m
CBSE 93)
7. Magnetic flux Weber (SCRA 84, AFMC 86, CPMT 85, 87, CBSE 93)
(CPMT 84, 87, MNR 88, JIPMER 93, MP
8. Universal gas constant Joule k–1 mol–1
PMT 87, 94 AFMC 96)
9. Pole strength A-m (AMU 1998)
10. Dipole moment Coulomb-meter (RPMT 2001)
11. Viscosity Poise J &K 2002
12. Stefan constant Watt m–2 k–4 (AFMC 86, MP PET 92 MP PMT 92, CBSE 2002)
13. Reactance Ohm (MP PET 2003)
Coulomb2/
14. Permitivity of free space (CBSE PM/PD 2004, Karnataka 2004)
Newton m2
15. Specific heat J/kg ºC–2 (MHCET 2004)
16. Strength of magnetic field Newton A–1 m–1 (MHCET 2004)
17. Planck's constant Joule-sec (Punjab PMT 2004)
18. Distance Parsec (AMU 2004, AIIMS 2005)

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES OR DIGITS

The significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are known with
certainity plus one that is uncertain.
Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we
have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is
its accuracy and vice versa.

1. Rules to find out the number of significant figures :

I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF.
III Rule: All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF.
IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the
first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF.
V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a
decimal point are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.
VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant e.g. 010100
has 3 SF. But if the number comes from some actual measurement then the trailing
zeros become significant. e.g. m = 100 kg has 3 SF.
VII Rule :When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not
affect the number of S.F. For example in x = 12.3 = 1.23 × 101 = .123 × 102
= 0.0123 × 103 = 123 × 10 – 1 each term has 3 SF only.
2. Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures :
I Rule : In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to
the number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser num-
ber of decimal places. e.g. 12.587 – 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (second term contain lesser
i.e. one decimal place)
II Rule : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the
smallest number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 5.0 × 0.125 = 0.625 = 0.62

GOLDEN KEY POINTS

 To avoid the confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal point the
best way is to report every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10). In this
notation every number is expressed in the form a × 10b , where a is the base number between 1
and 10 and b is any positive or negative exponent of 10. The base number (a) is written in
decimal form with the decimal after the first digit. While counting the number of SF only base
number is considered (Rule VII).
 The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not affect the number of SF. For
example in 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m = 23080 m each term has 4 SF.

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Example :
Write down the number of significant figures in the following.
(a) 165 3SF (following rule I)
(b) 2.05 3 SF (following rules I & II)
(c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rules I & V)
(d) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV)
(e) 0.02340 N m–1 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V)
(f) 26900 3 SF (see rule VI)
(g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)

Example :
The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 cm respec-
tively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct number of significant figures.
Solution :
length () = 4.234 m; breadth (b) = 1.005 m
thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 × 10–2 m
Therefore area of the sheet = 2 ( × b + b × t + t × )
= 2 ( 4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 × 0.0201 + 0.0201 × 4.234) m2
= 2 ( 4.3604739) m2 = 8.720978 m2
Since area can contain a maxm of 3 SF (Rule II of article 4.2) therefore, rounding off, we get
Area = 8.72 m2
Like wise volume = × b × t = 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201 m3 = 0.0855289 m3
Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get
Volume = 0.0855 m3
Additional Example :
1. Write the following in scientific notation :
(a) 3256 g (b) .0010 g (c) 50000 g (5 SF) (d) 0.3204
2. Give the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.165 (b) 4.0026 (c) 0.0256 (d) 165
4 23
(e) 0.050 (f) 2.653 × 10 (g) 6.02 × 10 (h) 0.0006032
3. Calculate area enclosed by a circle of diameter 1.06 m to correct number of significant figures.
4. Subtract 2.5 × 104 from 3.9 × 105 and give the answer to correct number of significant figures.
5. The mass of a box measured by a grocer's balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15
g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) total mass of the box (b) the difference in masses
of gold pieces to correct significant figures.
Answer Key.
3
1. (a) 3.256 × 10 g (b) 1.0 × 10–3 g (c) 5.0 × 104 g (d) 3.204 × 10-1
2. (a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 3 (e) 2 (f) 4 (g) 3 (h) 4
2
3. 0.882 m (3 SF)
4. 3.6 × 105
5. (a) Total mass = 2.3 kg (b) Difference in masses = 0.02g

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ROUNDING OFF
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded
off to appropriate number of significant figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers :
I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by
one. e.g. 6.87 6.9
II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, than the preceding digit is unaffected and
is left unchanged. e.g. 3.94  3.9
III Rule: If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd
and is left unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35  14.4 and 14.45 14.4
Example :
The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows :
(a) 36.879 36.88 (9 > 5 7 is increased by one i.e.I Rule)
(b) 1.0084 1.008 (4 < 5 8 is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)
(c) 11.115 11.12 (last 1 is odd it is increased by one [Link] Rule)
(d) 11.1250 11.12 (2 is even it is left unchanged i.e. III Rule)
(e) 11.1251 11.13 (51 > 50  2 is incresed by one i.e. I Rule)
Q. Round off the following numbers as indicated:
(a) 25.653 to 3 digits (b) 4.996 × 105 to 3 digits
(c) 0.6995 to 1digit (d) 3.350 to 2 digits
(e) 0.03927 kg to 3 digits (f) 4.085 × 108 s to 3 digits
Ans. (a) 25.7 (b) 5.00 × 105 (c) 0.7 (d) 3.4
8
(e) 0.0393 kg (f) 4.08 × 10 s

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This
power is determined after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the
last digit is simply ignored if it is less than 5 and, is increased by one if it is 5 or more than 5.

GOLDEN KEY POINTS

 When a number is divided by 10x (where x is the order of the number) the result will always lie
between 0.5 and 5 i.e. 0.5 < N/10x < 5

Example :
Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows :
(a) 49 = 4.9 × 101  101
 Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 = 5.1 × 101  102
 Order of magnitude = 2
(c) 0.049 = 4.9 × 10–2 10–2
 Order of magnitude = –2

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(d) 0.050 = 5.0 × 10–2  10–1

 Order of magnitude = –1
(e) 0.051 = 5.1 × 10–2  10–1
 Order of magnitude = –1
1. Give the order of the following :
(a) 1
(b) 1000
(c) 499
(d) 500
(e) 501
(f) 1 AU (1.496 × 1011 m)
(g) 1 Å (10–10 m)
(h) Speed of light ( 3.00 × 108 m/s)
(i) Gravitational constant ( 6.67 × 10–11 N – m2/kg2)
(j) Avogadro constant (6.02 × 1023 mol –1 )
(k) Planck's constant (6.63 × 10–34 J-s)
(l) Charge on electron (1.60 × 10 –19 C)
(m) Radius of H– atom (5.29 × 10 –11 m)
(n) Atmospheric pressure (1.01 × 105 Pa)
(o) Mass of earth (5.98 × 1024 kg)
(p) Mean radius of earth (6.37 × 106 m)
Ans. (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 3 (e) 3 (f) 11 (g) –10 (h) 8
(i) –10 (j) 24 (k) –33 (l) –19 (m) –10 (n) 5 (o) 25 (p) 7

DEFINITION
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the
error of measurement.
CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as follows :-
Systematic or Controllable Errors : Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known.
They can be either positive or negative. Due to the known causes these errors can be minimised.
Systematic errors can further be classified into three categories :
(i) Instrumental errors :- These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufac-
ture or misuse of the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate
instruments.
(ii) Environmental errors :- These errors are due to the changes in external environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or magnetic and electro-
static fields.
(iii) Observational errors :- These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or
carelessness in taking observations.
Random Errors : These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly
and are variable in magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely
they can not be eliminated completely. For example, when the same person repeats the same
observation in the same conditions, he may get different readings different times.
Random erros can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times and taking

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BASIC MATHS, ERROR IN MEASUREMENT, U & D

the arithmetic mean of all the obervations. This mean value would be very close to the most
accurate reading.
1
Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to ( )
n
times.
Example :- If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random
x
error in the arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be
5
Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading the
instruments or calculating and recording the measurement results.
For example :-
(i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(iii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.

REPRESENTATION OF ERRORS :
Errors can be expressed in the following ways :-
Absolute Error (a) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured
value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement.
Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a1, a2, a3 ..........an.
The arithmetic mean (am) of these values is
n
a  a  a 3  ..............a n 1
am = 1 2
n
= n a
i1
i .........(1)

If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true
value. Then the absolute errors in the individual measured values are –
a1 = am – a1
a2 = am – a2


an = am – an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (a)m
or a of the value of the physical quantity a

n
| a 1 | | a 2 | ...........| a n | 1
(a)m =
n
= n | a |
i1
i .........(2)

So if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be a, then the true
value (at) can be written as
at = a  a .........(3)

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Relative or Fractional Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error
((a )m or a ) to the true value or the mean value (am or a ) of the quantity measured.

Mean absolute error (a)m a

Relative or fractional error =  or .........(4)
Mean value am a
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,
percentage error = relative error × 100
mean absolute error
or percentage error =  100% = a  100% .........(5)
true value a

PROPAGATION OF ERRORS IN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Rule I : The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal to
the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A + B or X = A – B and if  A and  B represent the absolute errors in A
and B respectively, then the maximum absolute error in X = X = A + B and
X
Maximumpercentage error =  100 .........(6)
X
The result will be written as X  X (in terms of absolute error)
X
or X   100 % (in terms of percentage error)
X
Rule II : The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or division of quantities is
equal to the sum of the fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.
If X =A× B
or X = A/B
X A B
then  (  ) .........(7)
X A B
Rule III : The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the
fractional error in the quantity itself, i.e.
X A
If X = An then  n( ) .........(8)
X A

X A B C
If X = ApBq Cr then  [p( )  q( )  r( )]
X A B C

A p Bq X A B C
If X= then  [p( )  q( )  r( )]
Cr X A B C

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GOLDEN KEY POINTS

 Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are pro-
duced due to improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas random
errors are accidental and their magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from the knowledge of
the measuring system and conditions of measurement.
Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting
better instruments and improving personal skills whereas random errors can be minimised by
repeating the observation several times.
 Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional or
relative error is unitless and dimensionless.
 Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other cases.

Example :
Following observations were taken with a vernier callipers while measuring the length of a cylinder.
3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm,
3.28 cm, 3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm
Then find
(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation.
(c) Mean absolute error (d) Relative error (e) Percentage error
Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.
Solution :

(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be the mean length  
3.29  3 .28  3.29  3.31  3 .28  3.27  3.2 9  3.30
 = 3.28875 cm
8

or  = 3.29 cm
(b) Absolute error in the first reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the third reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the forth reading = 3.39 – 3.31 = –0.02 cm
Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm
Absolute error in the sixth reading = 3.29 – 3.27 = 0.02 cm
Absolute error in the seventh reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm
Absolute error in the last reading = 3.29 – 3.30 = –0.01 cm

0.00  0.01  0.00  0.02  0.01  0.02  0 .00  0.01

(c) Mean absolute error =   = 0.01 cm
8

 0.01
(d) Relative error in length =  = 0.0030395 = 0.003
 3.29

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
(e) Percentage error = × 100 = 0.003 × 100 = 0.3%


So length = 3.29 cm  0.01 cm (in terms of absolute error )

or = 3.29 cm  0.30% (in terms percentage error )

Example :
The inital and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6  0.2)°C and
(78.3  0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
Solution :
Given 1 = (40.6  0.2)°C and 2 = (78.3  0.3)°C
Rise in temp.  = 2 – 1 = 78.3 – 40.6 = 37.7°C.
 =  (1 + 2) =  (0.2 + 0.3) =  0.5°C
 rise in temperature = (37.7  0.5)°C
Example :
The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7  0.1) cm and (3.4  0.2) cm. Calculate area of
the rectangle with error limits.
Solution :
Given  = (5.7  0.1) cm and b = (3.4  0.2) cm
Area A = × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 cm2

A  b 0.1 0.2 0 .34  1.14 1.48

 (  ) = (  ) = ( )= 
A  b 5.7 3.4 5.7  3.4 19.3 8

1 .48 1 .48
or A =  A=  19.8 = 1.48  Area = (19.38  1.48) sq. cm
19 .38 19 .38

Example :
A body travels uniformly a distance (13.8  0.2) m in a time (4.0  0.3) s. Calculate its velocity
with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity ?
Solution :
Given distance s = (13.8  0.2) m and time t = (4.0  0.3) s
s 13.8
velocity v =  = 3.45 ms–1 = 3.5 ms–1
t 4.0

v s t 0.2 0.3 0.8  4.14 4.49

 (  )  (  )  ( )=   0.0895
v s t 13.8 4.0 1 3.8  4 .0 1 3.8  4 .0

or v =  0.0895 × v =  0.0895 × 3.45 =  0.3087 =  0.31

 v = (3.5  0.31) ms–1
v
percentage error in velocity = × 100 =  0.0895 × 100 =  8.95% =  9%
v

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Example :
A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a copper
cube having side 10 L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) volume of the cube.
Solution :
(i) Area A = 10 L × 10 L = 100 L 2.
A L
Percentage change in area = × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4%
A L

A 100 L L L
(  2  0 2 2 )
A 100 L L L
Note :- Constants do not have any error in them.
(ii) Volume V = 10 L × 10 L × 10 L = 1000 L3
V L
percentage change in volume = × 100 = 3 = 3 × 2% = 6%
V L
Conclusion :- The maximum percentage change will be observed in volume, lesser in area and
the least (minimum) change will be observed in length or radius.
1. Two rods have lengths measured as (1.8  0.2)m and (2.3  0.1)m. Calculate their combined
length with error limits.
Ans. (4.1  0.3) m
2. The original length of wire is (153.7  0.6) cm . It is stretched to (155.3  0.2) cm. Calculate the
elongation in the wire with error limits.
Ans. (1.6  0.8) cm
3. In an experiment, values of two resistances are measured to be r1 = (5.0  0.2) ohm and
r2 = (10.0  0.1) ohm. Find the values of total resistance in (i) series and (ii) parallel with limits
of percentage error.
Ans. Rs = 15 ohm  2% ; Rp = 3.3 ohm  7%
4. The radius of a sphere is measured to be (2.1  0.5) cm. Calculate its surface area with absolute
error limits.
Ans. (55.4  26.4) cm2
5. A physical quantity x is calculated from the relation x = a3b2/ cd . Calculate percentage error in
x, if a, b, c and d are measured respectively with an error of 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%.
Ans.  12%

LEAST COUNT
The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument
is called the least count (L. C.) of the measuring instrument.
Least Count of vernier callipers :

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 15

Suppose the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) is M units and that of one vernier scale
division (V. S. D.) is V units. Also let the length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal to the length of
'b' vernier scale divisions.
a
aM = bV  V M
b

a ba
 M–V=M– M or M–V= ( )M
b b
The quantity (M– V) is called vernier constant (V. C.) or least count (L. C.) of the vernier
callipers.

ba
L.C.  M  V   M
 b 

Example :
One cm on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of
vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least count of
callipers ?
Solution :
8 2
20 div. of vernier scale = 8 div. of main scale  1V. S .D. = ( ) M. S. D. = ( ) M. S. D.
20 5

2 2
Least count = 1 M. S. D. – 1 V. S . D. = 1 M. S. D. – ( ) M. S. D. = (1  ) M. S. D.
5 5

3 3 1
= M .S .D. = × 0.1 cm = 0.06 cm ( 1 M. S. D. = cm = 0.1 cm)
5 5 10

ba 20  8 1 3
Note : for objective questions L. C. = M – V = ( )M = ( )( ) cm = cm = 0.06 cm
b 20 10 50

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Least Count of Screw Gauge or Spherometer :

Main scale
10 Circular
sacle
5
0
Sircular (Head) scale 5
Spindle 10

Ratchet
05
10
Linear (Pitch)
Scale Thimble
Sleeve

Screw

Pitch
Least Count =
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is given
one complete rotation. i.e.
Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale
Pitch =
[Link] full rotations given
Note : With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the
measurement increases and the error in the measurement decreases.
Example :
A spherometer has 100 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full rotation
of the disc advances on the main scale by 0.01 cm. Find the least count of the system.
Solution :
Given Pitch = 0.01 cm
Pitch 0.01
 Least count = = cm = 10–4 cm.
Total no. of divisions on the the circular scale 100
Example :
The nth division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)th division of vernier scale. Given one main
scale division is equal to 'a' units. Find the least count of the vernier.
Solution :
(n + 1) divisions of vernier scale = n divisions of main scale
n
 1 vernier division = main scale division
n 1
Least count = 1 M. S. D. – 1V. S. D.
n 1 a
= (1  ) M. S. D. = ( ) M. S. D. =
n 1 n 1 n 1

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Example :
1
The least count of a stop watch is second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is
5
measured to be 25 seconds. How much will be the percentage error in the measurement of
time ?
Solution :
1
Error in measuring 25 sec.= sec. = 0.2 sec.
5

0.2
 percentage error =  10 0 = 0.8%
25
Note : The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least
count of the measuring instrument.
Additional Example :
1. One centimetre on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divi-
sions of vernier scale coincide with 19 small divisions of the main scale then what will be the least
count of the callipers.
Ans. 0.005 cm
2. If the number of divisions on the circular scale is 100 and number of full rotations given to screw
is 8 and distance moved by the screw is 4 mm, then what will be least count of the screw gauge.
Ans. 0.005 mm
3. A spherometer has 250 equal divisions marked along the periphery of its disc, and one full rota-
tion of the disc advances on the main scale by 0.0625 cm. What is the least count of the spher-
ometer.
Ans. 2.5 × 10–4 cm

EXERCISE - I

1. The pressure on a square plate is measured by measuring the force on the plate and the length of
the sides of the plate. If the maximum error in the measurement of force and length are respec-
tively 4% and 2%, the maximum error in the measurement of pressure is –
(a) 1% (b) 2% (c) 6% (d) 8%
2. When a copper sphere is heated, maximum percentage change will be observed in–
(a) radius (b) area (c) volume (d) none of these
3. A wire has a mass (0.3  0.003) g, radius (0.5  0.005) mm and length (6  0.06) cm. The
maximum percentage error in the measurement of its density is–
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
4. If the error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is 2 % then the error in the determination
of volume of the sphere will be :-
(a) 8% (b) 2 % (c) 4 % (d) 6%

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5. A student measures the distance traversed in free fall of a body, initially at rest in a given time.
He uses this data to estimate g, the acceleration due to gravity. If the maximum percentage errors
in measurement of the distance and the time are e1 and e2 respectively, the percentage error
in the estimation of g is :-
(a) e1 + 2e2 (b) e1 + e2 (c) e1 – 2e2 (d) e2 – e1

EXERCISE - II

1. A quantity is represented by X = Ma Lb Tc. The percentage error in measurement of M, L and T

are %, % and % respectively. The percentage error in X would be
(a) (a + b + c) % (b) (a – b + c) % (c) (a – b– c) % (d) None of these
2. An experiment measures quantities a, b and c, and X is calculated from X = ab2/c3. If the percentage
error in a, b and c are  1%,  3% and  2% respectively, the percentage error in X will be –
(a)  13% (b)  7% (c)  4% (d)  1%
3. Zero error of an instrument introduces
(a) Systematic errors (b) Random errors (c) Both (d) None

4. What is the fractional error in g calculated from T  2   g ? Given that fractional errors in T

and  are  x and  y respectively..

(a) x + y (b) x – y (c) 2x + y (d) 2x – y
5. A thin copper wire of length  metre increases in length by 2% when heated through 10°C. What
is the percentage increase in area when a square copper sheet of length  metre is heated
through 10°C ?
(a) 4% (b) 8% (c) 16% (d) None of the above.
6. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum in the experiment is recorded as 2.63s, 2.56s,
2.42s, 2.71s and 2.80s respectively. The average absolute error is
(a) 0.1s (b) 0.11s (c) 0.01s (d) 1.0s
V
7. The resistance is R  where V= 100  5 Volts and I = 10  0.2 amperes. What is the total error in R?
I

5 
(a) 5 % (b) 7 % (c) 5.2 % (d)  2  %
 

8. The length, breadth and thickness of a strip are (10.0  0.1) cm, (1.00  0.01)cm and (0.100
 0.001)cm respectively. The most probable error in its volume will be
(a)  0.03 cm3 (b)  0.111 cm3 (c)  0.012 cm3 (d) None of these
9. If error in measuring diameter of a circle is 4 %, the error in circumference of the circle would be :-
(a) 2 % (b) 8 % (c) 4 % (d) 1 %
10. The external and internal radius of a hollow cylinder are measured to be (4.23  0.01) cm and
(3.89  0.01)cm. The thickness of the wall of the cylinder is :-
(a) (0.34  0.02) cm (b) (0.17  0.02) cm (c) (0.17  0.01) cm (d) (0.34  0.01) cm

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11. Percentage error in measuring the radius and mass of a solid sphere are 2% & 1% respectively.
Then error in measurement of moment of inertia with respect to its diameter is :-
(a) 3 % (b) 6 % (c) 5 % (d) 4 %
12. In a vernier calliper, N divisions of vernier scale coincide with (N – 1) divisions of main scale (in
which 1 division represents 1mm). The least count of the instrument in cm. should be

1 1
(a) N (b) N – 1 (c) (d)
10 N N 1

13. The length of a cylinder is measured with a metre rod having least count 0.1 cm. Its diameter is
measured with vernier callipers having least count 0.01 cm. Given the length is 5.0 cm. and
radius is 2.00 cm. The percentage error in the calculated value of volume will be –
(a) 2% (b) 1% (c) 3% (d) 4%
14. A vernier callipers has 20 divisions on the vernier scale which coincide with 19 divisions on the
main scale. The least count of the instrument is 0.1 mm. The main scale divisions are of
(a) 0.5 mm (b) 1 mm (c) 2 mm (d) 1/4 mm
15. The heat generated in a circuit is dependent upon the resistance, current and time for which the
current is flown. If the error in measuring the above are as 1%, 2% and 1% the maximum error
in measuring heat will be
(a) 2% (b) 3% (c) 6% (d) 1%
16. The percentage errors in the measurement of mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively.
How much will be the maximum error in the estimate of kinetic energy obtained by measuring
mass and speed ?
(a) 11 % (b) 8 % (c) 5 % (d) 1 %
17. One centimetre on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 10 divisions of
vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale, the least count of the callipers is
(a) 0.01 cm (b) 0.02 cm (c) 0.05 cm (d) 0.005 cm
18. While measuring acceleration due to gravity by a simple pendulum a student makes a positive
error of 1% in the length of the pendulum and a negative error of 3% in the value of the time
period. His percentage error in the measurement of the value of g will be -
(a) 2 % (b) 4 % (c) 7 % (d) 10 %
19. A student measured the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge with least count 0.001 cm and
listed the measurements. The correct measurement is –
(a) 5.3 cm (b) 5.32 cm (c) 5.320 cm (d) 5.3200 cm

ANSWER KEY

EXERCISE - I

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a)

EXERCISE - II

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c)

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