JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Salai – 600 119

COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES

QUESTION BANK

I SEMESTER

PH25CO1 – APPLIED PHYSICS - I

Regulation – 2025 (Batch: 2025 -2029)

Academic Year 2025 – 2026

 UNIT 1– PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Properties of Matter: Elasticity, Cantilever, Young’s modulus (non-uniform bending),

Girders: Bridges and buildings, Viscosity: Stokes method, Surface tension: drop weight
method, Thermal expansion, Thermal stress, Bimetallic strips, Expansion joints

PART A (3 MARKS)

1. What is the definition of elasticity? (CO1)

Elasticity is the property of a body that allows it to return to its original

shape and size after the removal of a deforming force.
2. What is strain, and what are its units? (CO1)

Strain is the ratio of the change in a body's dimension to its original

dimension. It is a dimensionless quantity and therefore has no units.
3. What is Young's modulus? (CO1)

Young's modulus (or elastic modulus) is the ratio of longitudinal stress to

longitudinal strain and is a measure of a material's stiffness.
4. When does non-uniform bending occur in a beam? (CO1)

Non-uniform bending occurs when a beam is loaded at only one point,

causing the bending to vary along its length, unlike uniform bending where the load
is distributed.
5. What is a cantilever beam? (CO1)

A cantilever is a beam that is fixed at one end and free at the other, allowing
it to extend over a gap or space.

6. What is the function of girders in buildings and bridges? (CO1)

Girders are the primary structural members that support the load of bridges
and buildings, transferring it to vertical supports like columns or walls.
7. What is stress? (CO1)

Stress is the force applied per unit area on a material.

8. What is strain? (CO1)

Strain is the measure of deformation caused by stress, often expressed as a

ratio of change in length, volume, or shape to the original value.

9. What is elasticity? (CO1)

Elasticity is the internal property of a body that allows it to regain its original
shape and size after the removal of an external deforming force.

10. What is the elastic limit? (CO1)

 The elastic limit is the maximum stress a material can withstand without
undergoing a permanent deformation; beyond this limit, the material does not return
to its original form.
11. State Hooke's Law (CO1)

Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

12. Explain why elasticity is an internal property (CO1)

Elasticity arises from the interatomic or intermolecular forces within the material,
which resist displacement when deformed and restore the material to its original state.
13. Name the three types of stress (CO1)

Longitudinal stress, volume (bulk) stress, and tangential (shear) stress.

14. What are the three types of elastic moduli? (CO1)

Young's modulus, bulk modulus, and rigidity (shear) modulus.

15. What is elasticity?(CO1)

Elasticity is the property of a body to regain its original size and shape after
the external deforming forces are removed.
16. What are stress and strain? (CO1)

Stress: The restoring force developed per unit area within a body to oppose a
deforming force is called stress. Its SI unit is the pascal (Pa) or newtons per square
meter
Strain: The fractional change in the dimensions (length, volume, or shape) of a body
as a result of an external deforming force is called strain. It is a dimensionless quantity.
17. State Hooke's Law. (CO1)

Hooke's Law states that within the elastic limit, the stress produced in a body
is directly proportional to the corresponding strain.
18. What is the elastic limit? (CO1)

The elastic limit is the maximum stress that a material can withstand and still
return to its original shape after the deforming force is removed. If stress exceeds this
limit, the material will undergo permanent (plastic) deformation.
19. Define a cantilever beam. (CO1)

A beam that is supported at one end and overhangs freely at the other, with no support
at the free end.

20. Give an example of a cantilever beam. (CO1)

A porch roof extending from a building or a diving board are examples of cantilever
structures.
21. Why is the beam considered to be under non-uniform bending when loaded at its
midpoint? (CO1)

When a load is applied at the center, the bending moment is greatest at the center,
resulting in a non-uniform curvature along the beam, hence "non-uniform bending".

22. Give the significance of the neutral axis. (CO1)

The neutral axis is the layer within the beam that experiences no stress or strain,
serving as a reference line for calculating the bending.

23. Define non-uniform bending and provide the formula for calculating Young'smodulus
using this method.(CO1)

Non-uniform bending occurs when a beam is loaded at a single point (typically the
center), causing a variable radius of curvature along its length. E = (Mgl³) / (4bd³y).
24. What is mean by Girders?(CO1)

A Girders is a large, horizontal structural member in construction, designed to support

loads and transfer them to vertical supports like columns or piers.

25. What are the types of girders used in bridges?(CO1)

There are three types of girders are used in bridges

• Box girder
• T-Girgder
• I-Girder

26. Define I-Girder?(CO1)

An I-girder is a type of structural beam that has a cross-sectional shape

resembling the letter I. This shape consists of a horizontal flange at the top and bottom,
with a vertical web connecting them.

27. Define viscosity.(CO1)

Co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid is defined as the tangential viscous force

acting per unit area between two liquid layers moving with unit velocity gradient.

28. Derive the unit for viscosity.(CO1)

In SI unit, the force F is measured in Newtons, area A in metre2 and velocity gradient
dv/dx in 1/second

S.I. unit of ƞ = Newton/metre2 1/second

= Newton second/metre2
 = Nsm-2

28. Define stokes’ law.(CO1)

Stokes’ law state that the viscous drag force (F) on a spherical object moving
through a liquid is given by

F = 6πƞrv

Where,

Ƞ - is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid

r – is the radius of the sphere

v – is the viscosity of the sphere

29. Define terminal velocity.(CO1)

Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity an object attains while falling through a
liquid when the force of gravity is balanced by the liquids resistance.

30. What is surface tension?(CO1)

Surface tension is a property of liquids that causes their surface to behave like a
stretched elastic membrane.

31. Define Surface tension.(CO1)

Surface tension (T) is defined as the force per unit length acting tangentially to the
liquid surface at right angles to an imaginary line drawn on the surface.

Surface tension T = F/L N/m

Where,

F is force acting along the surface (N)

L is the length along which the force acts (m)

[Link] are the factors affecting surface tension?(CO1)

Temperature- Increases in temperature generally decrease surface tension.

Impurities – Soluble impurities usually lower surface tension: insoluble may increase
it slightly.

Nature of liquid – Different liquids have different cohesive forces.

33. Give the applications of I-shape girders.(CO1)

(i) They are used in the construction of brides over the rivers.

(ii) They are very mush useful in the production of iron rails which are employed
inrailways tracks.

(iii) They are used as supporting beams for the ceilings in theconstruction of buildings.
34. Different between streamline flow and turbulent flow.(CO1)

Stremline flow Turbulent flow

1)A Streamlineflow is the flow in which each 1) A Turbulent flow is the flow in which the
particle in the liquid moves in the same the particles move in different directions and
and has same velocity as that of its preceding with different velocities.
particle

2) The process is regular 2) The process is irregular

35. What is thermal expansion? (CO1)

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and volume in
response to a change in temperature.

36. What is linear expansion? (CO1)

Linear expansion refers to the increase in length of a material when its temperature increases.

37. Define coefficient of linear expansion. (CO1)

It is the fractional change in length per degree change in temperature.

38. Give the formula for linear expansion. (CO1)

ΔL = α L₀ ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

39. What is thermal stress? (CO1)

Thermal stress is the stress produced in a material due to the restriction of thermal expansion
or contraction.

40. What is the unit of the coefficient of linear expansion? (CO1)

Per degree Celsius (°C⁻¹) or per Kelvin (K⁻¹).

41. What is a bimetallic strip? (CO1)

A bimetallic strip consists of two different metals bonded together that expand at different
rates when heated, causing the strip to bend.

42. Where are bimetallic strips commonly used? (CO1)

In thermostats and temperature sensors.

43. Why does a bimetallic strip bend on heating? (CO1)

Because the two metals have different coefficients of expansion.

44. What is the significance of expansion joints in bridges? (CO1)

They allow the bridge to expand and contract with temperature changes without causing
damage.
45. What will happen if expansion joints are not provided in structures? (CO1)
It may lead to structural damage due to thermal stress.

46. Define volumetric expansion. (CO1)

Volumetric expansion is the increase in volume of a material due to a rise in temperature.

47. State the relation between linear and volumetric expansion coefficients. (CO1)
β ≈ 3α, where β is the volumetric and α is the linear expansion coefficient.

48. Why do railway tracks have small gaps between them? (CO1)
To accommodate expansion due to temperature rise and prevent buckling.

49. What is the formula for thermal stress? (CO1)

σ = E α ΔT, where E is Young’s modulus, α is the coefficient of linear expansion, and ΔT is
the temperature change.

50. What are the factors affecting thermal expansion? (CO1)

Material type, temperature change, and original dimensions.

51. How does temperature affect thermal stress? (CO1)

As temperature increases, if expansion is restricted, thermal stress increases.

52. Why are glass containers not heated suddenly? (CO1)

Sudden heating can cause uneven expansion leading to cracks due to thermal stress.

53. What materials are chosen for bimetallic strips? (CO1)

Metals with significantly different expansion coefficients, e.g., brass and steel.

54. Explain why expansion is more in liquids than solids. (CO1)

Molecules in liquids are less tightly bound, allowing more freedom to move upon heating.
 PART B (16 Marks)
1. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a beam in terms of radius of
curvature. (CO2, PO1)
2. What is cantilever? Obtain an expression for the depression at the loaded end of a
cantilever whose other end is fixed assuming that its own weight is not effective in
bending.(CO2, PO1)
3. In an experiment a bar of length 1.5m is clamped horizontally at one end and the load
of 0.1kg attached at its free end. Calculate the depression at the loaded end if Y =
9.78 x 1010 Nm-2 and the bar is of breadth 0.024m and thickness 0.005m. (CO3, PO2)
4. Explain the stroke’s method of finding viscosity of the given liquid.(CO2, PO1)
5. Explain drop weight method of finding surface tension of the given liqiued.(CO2,
PO1)
6. Discuss the thermal expansion in solids, liquids and gases. (CO2, PO1)
7. Explain the fabrication of bimetallic strips and its applications. (CO2, PO1)
8. Write short notes on expansion joints, its types and uses. (CO2, PO1)
 UNIT 2– OSCILLATIONS, WAVES
Oscillations: Simple Harmonic motion, Torsional pendulum, Couple per unit twist,
Damped and Forced Oscillation Waves: Waves on a stretched string, Energy and
Power, standing waves, Ultrasonics, piezo, electric method, Acoustic grating,
Electromagnetic waves: Maxwell equation, Production of EM waves by dipole
antenna, Propagation of EM waves in free space, wave equation, Cell phone reception
PART B (3 MARKS)

1. Define simple harmonic motion. (CO2)

When the acceleration of particle is directly perpendicular to its displacement from its
equilibrium position and it is always directed towards equilibrium position, then the
motion of the particle is said to be simple harmonic motion.

2. What are the characteristics of progressive wave? (CO2)

1) Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean positio0n. The
disturbance progresses onward from one particle to another.

2) The particles of the medium vibrate with same amplitude about their mean
positions.

3) Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its
predecessor along the propagation of the wave, but later in time.

4) The phase of every particle changes from o to 2 ᴨ

3. Define standing waves. (CO2)

When two progressive waves of same amplitude and wavelength travelling along a
straight line in opposite directions superimpose on each other, stationary waves are
formed.

4. What are the differences between progressive and stationary waves? (CO2)

5. Define ultrasonic waves. (CO2)

Sound waves of frequencies above the audible range (above 20,000Hz to 20kHz) are known as
ultrasonic waves or simply ultrasonics. These sound waves are not audible to human ear.

6. What is piezo-electric effect? (CO2)

The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in
response to applied mechanical stress. This effect is reversible, meaning these materials
will also deform when an electric field is applied to them. It is used in applications such
as sensors, actuators, and frequency generators.

7. Define Progressive wave. (CO2)

A progressive wave is a travelling disturbance that carries energy and momentum

from one point to another without any net transport of matter. The particles of the
medium oscillate about their fixed, mean positions, transferring energy to their neighbors
as the wave propagates. Progressive waves are also called travelling waves.

8. What are properties of ultrasonic waves? (CO2)

Ultrasonic waves are high-frequency, high-energy, longitudinal sound waves with

frequencies above 20 kHz that can travel through solids, liquids, and gases but not a
vacuum. Key properties include their short wavelength, high penetration power, ability to
reflect and refract, and their capacity to generate heat and vibrations when passed through
a medium.

9. Write the Maxwell’s equations for free space. (CO2)

10. Give the properties of electromagnetic waves. (CO2)

11. List the types of oscillatory motion. (CO2)

1. Free vibration

2. Damped osscillation

3. Forced oscillation.

12. Define wave motion and give its types. (CO2)

A wave motion can be defined as a disturbance which travels in the material medium and is
due to the repeated motion of the particles in the medium, about their mean position wherein the
motion is being transferred from one particle to the next at regular interval of time

There are two types of waves, Transverse and Longitudinal waves.

13. Are the ultrasonic waves electromagnetic waves? Give proper reasons to your answer.
(CO2)

Ultrasonic waves are not electromagnetic waves because they are sound waves, which does
not consist electric and magnetic vectors as in electromagnetic waves.

14. Name the methods by which ultrasonic waves are produced. (CO2)

Mechanical generators

Magnetostriction generators

Piezo-electric generators.

15. Mention the properties of ultrasonics. (CO2)

Ultrasonic waves have a high frequency, high energy content, and a shorter
wavelength, making them inaudible to humans. They are mechanical, longitudinal waves
that share many of the same properties as audible sound waves but have key differences
that enable their unique applications.

16. How is acoustic grating formed? (CO2)

When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid, the density of the liquid varies
layer by layer due to the variation in pressure and hence the liquid will act as a diffraction
grating, so called acoustical grating. Under this condition when the monochromatic
 source of light is passed through the acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted. Then by
using the condition for diffraction,the velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined.

17. State the Gauss’s law. (CO2)

Gauss's law for electricity states that the electric flux Φ across any closed surface is
proportional to the net electric charge q enclosed by the surface; that is, Φ = q/ε0, where
ε0 is the electric permittivity of free space and has a value of 8.854 × 10–12 square
coulombs per newton per square metre.

18. State Amperes circuit law. (CO2)

Ampère's law states that ∮ B → · d l → = μ 0 I ∮ B → · d l → = μ 0 I where I is the

total current passing through the enclosed loop. The quickest way to evaluate the integral
is to calculate μ 0 I μ 0 I by finding the net current through the loop.

19. State the Gauss divergence theorem. (CO2)

The Gauss divergence theorem states that the outward flux of a vector field through a
closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of that field over the region
enclosed by the surface.

20. State the stoke’s theroem. (CO2)

The Stoke's theorem states that “the surface integral of the curl of a function over
a surface bounded by a closed surface is equal to the line integral of the particular vector
function around that surface.

21. List out the sources of electromagnetic waves. (CO2)

Accelerating charges - Radio waves

Fast collisions of electrons - X rays

Nuclear decay - Gamma rays

Hot object, Human body and sun - Infra-Red rays

22. Write a short note on cell phone reception. (CO2)

Cell phone is a two-way communicating radio, consisting of a radio wave transmitter

and a radio wave receiver. Cell phones contain radio antenna to receive radio signals and
it is a metallic element engineered to be an effective size and shape for transmitting and
receiving definite frequencies of radio waves. Receiver antenna converts the radio wave
to an electric signal, this receiving and converting function is said to be cell phone
reception.

23. Define Maxwell's equations. (CO2)

 Maxwell's equations are a set of four equations that describe the behavior of electric
and magnetic fields and how they relate to each other. Ultimately they demonstrate that
electric and magnetic fields are two manifestations of the same phenomenon.

In a vacuum with no charge or current, Maxwell's equations are, in differential form:

∇·E=0

∇·B=0

∇ x E = -(∂B/∂t)

∇ x B = µ0ε0 (∂E/∂t)

24. What are plane electromagnetic waves? (CO2)

In a Plane electromagnetic waves are waves where the electric and magnetic fields

oscillate in perpendicular planes, and the wave propagates in a specific direction.

25. What is the relationship between electric field and magnetic field in a plane

electromagnetic wave? (CO2)

In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) are related

in the following ways:

• Direction
The magnetic field is perpendicular to both the electric field and the direction of
wave propagation.

• Magnitude
The magnitude of the magnetic field can be calculated using the equation B= cE

26. Explain polarization of an electromagnetic wave. (CO2)

Polarization refers to the orientation of the oscillations of the electric field in an

electromagnetic wave. In linearly polarized waves, the electric field oscillates in one
direction.
28. Give any four properties of EMW. (CO2)

Characteristics of EM waves

They do not require a medium for propagation.

They propagate in vacuum with a speed of 3.0 ×108m/s.

EM waves are transverse in nature.

They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

EM waves get polarized.

 They carry energy and momentum.

29. Define SHM. Write its differential equation. (CO2)

SHM is motion in which restoring force is proportional to displacement and opposite in

direction.

Differential equation: d²x/dt² = −ω²x.

PART B (16 MARKS)

1. Derive the wave equation for an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum from Maxwell's
equations.( CO2, PO1)

2. Deduce Maxwell’s equations for free space. ( CO2, PO1)

3. Give the Maxwell’s equations interms of Ampere and faraday’s law. ( CO2, PO1)

4. Describe the production of plane electromagnetic waves in the form of electric and magnetic field.
( CO2, PO2)

5. Describe the production of EM waves. Explain reception and transmission of cell phone. ( CO2,
PO2)

6. Explain simple harmonic motion and discuss its characteristics. ( CO2, PO2)

7. Derive an expression for the period of oscillation of a torsion pendulum. How can it be used to
determine the torsional rigidity of a wire? ( CO2, PO1)

8. Derive an expression for the torsional couple per unit angular twist when a cylinder is twisted.
( CO2, PO1)

9. Derive Maxwell’s equations in differential and integral form. ( CO2, PO1)

10. How are standing waves produced? Derive the expression for the wave equation for standing
waves. ( CO2, PO2)

11. Write a brief note on standing and travelling waves. ( CO2, PO2)

12. Derive a stationary wave equation and show that the rate of energy transfer in a stationary wave is
zero. ( CO2, PO1)

13. Explain with neat sketch, the construction and production of ultrasonic waves using piezoelectric
oscillator. ( CO2, PO2)

14. Explain the determination of velocity of ultrasonics using an acoustical grating. (CO2, PO2)
 UNIT-3

Quantum Mechanics: Black body radiation, Photoelectric effect, de Broglie hypothesis,

Schrodinger Wave equation, Particle in a box (infinite potential well - three-dimensional
box), Barrier penetration and quantum tunnelling.

PART-A

3Marks Question and Answers

[Link] is the physical significance of thewave function?(C03)

a. The probability of finding a particle in space, at any given instant of time is characterized
by a function Ψ(x, y, z) called wave-function.
b. It relates the particle and the wave statistically.

c. It gives the information about the particle behavior.

d. It is a complex quantity.

e. |Ψ 2| Represents the probability density of the particle, which is real and positive.

2. What is meant by degenerate and non-degenerate state? Give examples.(C03)

Degenerate state for various combinations of quantum numbers if we get same Eigen
value (Energy levels) but different Eigen functions, then it is called degenerate state.
Non- degenerate state: for various combinations of quantum numbers if we get same
Eigen values (Energy levels) and same Eigen functions, then it is called Non- Degenerate
state.

3. What is black body and what are its characteristics? (C03)

Black body is said to be a perfect absorber, since it absorbs all the wavelengths
of the incident radiation. The black body is a perfect radiator, because it radiates the entire
wavelength absorbed by it. This phenomenon is called black body radiation.
4. Define stefan boltzmann law?(C03)
According to this law the radiant energy (E) of the body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (T) of the body.
5. What is meant by quatum tunnelling or tunnelling effect? (C03)
In quantum mechanics a particlehaving lesser energy (E) than the barrier potential (V)
can easily cross over the potential barrier having a finite width ‘l’ even without climbing over
the barrier by tunnelling through the barrier. This process is called tunnelling.
6. Define work function. (C03)
This additional energy required to make an electron to escape from the metal surface is
called work function.
ϕ = EB - EF
7. Obtain Einstein photo-electric equation.(C03)
When a photon of energy hυ is incident on the surface of the metal, a part of energy Φ
is used in liberating the electron from the metal. This energy is known as the work function of
the metal. The rest of energy is given to the electron so that is acquires kinetic energy ½ mv2 .
Thus a photon of energy hυ is completely absorbed by the emitter.

Energy of photon = Energy needed to liberate the electron + Maximum K.E of the liberated
electron

hυ = Φ + KEmax

hυ = Φ + ½ mv2 max

The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

8. State Wien’s displacement law and its significance.(C03)

Answer:
Wien’s law:

8. where .
Significance: It shows that peak wavelength shifts to shorter wavelengths as temperature
increases

9. Define work function and threshold frequency.(C03)

Answer:

Work function ( ): Minimum energy needed to liberate an electron.

Threshold frequency ( ): Minimum frequency required to start photoemission.

10. How does de Broglie hypothesis unify particle and wave nature?(C03)

Answer:
It assigns a wavelength to particles, showing dual nature. It bridges classical mechanics and quantum
mechanics by treating matter as having both wave and particle properties.

Matter also exhibits wave nature.

11. Write the time-independent Schrödinger equation.(C03)

Answer:

12. Write the energy expression for a 3D infinite potential well.(C03)

Answer:

PART-B
16 MARKS
1. What is meant by black body radiation. Write planck’s quantum theory of black body
radiation.(C03,PO3)
2. i) What are matter waves? Gives its properties.
ii) obtain the de-broglie wavelength in terms of momentum, energy and temperature.
3. With quantum concepts, explain the energy level of an electron enclosed in an infinetly deep
one dimensional potential box.
4. Derive schrodinger time dependentand time independent wave equations.
[Link] the barrier penetration process and quantum tunnelling of an electron.
6. Derive the schroedinger time independent wave equation for a free particle enclosed in a one
dimensional potential well of length a with infinite potential barrier and get the normalised
wave function for the free particle.
7. Derive the transmission and reflection coefficients for a particle which undergoes quantum
tunnelling.
8. What is meant by photoelectric effect? Deduce an expression for Einsteins photo-electric
equation and discuss its special cases.
9. Based on quantum mechanics, shows that the energy levels of an electron are discrete.
10. Discuss the normalization and probability interpretation of a wave function.
11. Arrive at the Eigen value and Eigen functions for an electron enclosed in a one
dimensional potential box and extend the same for a three dimensional box.
12. a). List out the physical significance of the wave function.
b) Explain the application of schrodinger wave equation to one dimensional potential
well.
 UNIT-4

Applied Optics: Interference: Air wedge, Michelson’s Interferometer, Fiber optics: Structure
of a fiber, Fiber Optic Communication System, Fiber Sensors (Virtual demo), Displacement,
pressure sensor and Temperature sensor, Einstein Coefficient, Nd:YAG laser, CO 2 laser
(construction, functioning and applications), dye laser

PART-B (3 Mark Questions with Answers)

1. What is an air wedge? How are fringes formed in it? (CO1)

An air wedge is formed when two glass plates are kept together at one end and separated by a
thin spacer at the other, creating a thin film of air of linearly increasing thickness. Interference occurs
between the light waves reflected from the top surface of the air film and the bottom surface. The
thickness varies linearly, straight and parallel fringes are produced.

2. Derive the expression for fringe width in an air wedge. (CO2)

Answer:
For air wedge: Path difference = 2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆
For successive fringes:

𝜆
Δ𝑡 =
2

Thickness increases linearly

𝑡 = 𝑥𝜃

Thus, fringe width

Δ𝑥 = 𝜆
𝛽=
2𝜃

Therefore,

𝜆
𝛽=
2𝜃

3. How is the thickness of a thin wire measured using an air wedge? (CO2)

When the wire is placed between two glass plates, it creates an air wedge.
The thickness 𝑡is given by:

𝛽𝐿
𝑡=
2

where
β = fringe width
L = length of wedge
By measuring β and L, the thickness of the wire is calculated accurately.

4. Why are the fringes straight in an air wedge?

 ❖ The thickness of the air film increases linearly from the line of contact.
❖ Th equal thickness are straight lines.
❖ Hence equal-thickness fringes appear as straight parallel bands

5. What happens to the fringes when a spacer thickness increases? (CO2)

Increasing the spacer thickness increases the wedge angle (θ).

Since

𝜆
𝛽=
2𝜃

As θ ↑ ⇒ β ↓
So fringes become closer and more crowded.

6. Explain the working principle of Michelson’s interferometer. (CO1)

It works on interference due to division of amplitude.

A beam splitter divides incident light into two beams that travel to mirrors 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 .
They reflect back and recombine at the beam splitter, forming interference fringes.
The fringe pattern depends on the path difference between the two arms.

7. Derive the expression for number of fringes observed when one mirror moves by distance d.
(CO2)

When mirror 𝑀1 is moved by distance d, the change in optical path is 2d.

A fringe shifts whenever path difference changes by λ.

Thus number of fringes counted:

2𝑑
𝑁=
𝜆

Therefore,

2𝑑
𝑁=
𝜆
8. What are circular fringes in Michelson’s interferometer? When do they occur? (CO2)

Circular fringes occur when the two mirrors are exactly perpendicular and optical paths are
equal. The locus of constant inclination gives concentric bright and dark rings.
These are called fringes of equal inclination.

9. What is the purpose of the compensating plate in Michelson’s interferometer? (CO2)

The compensating plate compensates for the extra glass thickness traversed by one beam in the
beam splitter. It equalizes the optical paths in the two arms.
This ensures formation of clear, sharp interference fringes.

10. Mention two applications of Michelson’s interferometer. (CO1)

❖ Measurement of wavelength of monochromatic light.

❖ Measurement of small distances or mirror displacements in the order of 10-6 m.

 ❖ Used in the Michelson–Morley experiment to detect ether drift.

12. Why does Michelson’s interferometer produce high precision measurements? (CO2)

Because interference is extremely sensitive to changes in optical path length. A displacement as small
as λ/2 causes one fringe shift. Thus, it can measure distances in micron or nanometer scale with high
accuracy.

13. Explain the structure of an optical fiber. (CO2)

1. Core – Inner region of higher refractive index through which light propagates.

2. Cladding – Surrounds core, has lower refractive index to ensure total internal reflection.

3. Jacket – Protective outer coating providing mechanical strength.

Light propagation occurs through total internal reflection at the core–cladding boundary.

14. What is numerical aperture (NA)? Give its significance. (CO1)

𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

It determines the light-collecting ability of the fiber. A higher NA means the fiber can accept
lighter and has a larger acceptance angle.

15. Distinguish between step-index and graded-index optical fibers. (CO3)

❖ Step-Index Fiber: Core refractive index is uniform; sharp boundary at the cladding. Light zig-
zags.

❖ Graded-Index Fiber: Core index decreases gradually from center to cladding; reduces modal
dispersion. Graded-index fibers give higher bandwidth.

16. What is attenuation in optical fibers? Explain any two causes. (CO2)

Attenuation = loss of optical power during transmission.

Causes:

❖ Absorption loss – Impurities absorb light.

❖ Scattering loss – Rayleigh scattering due to material imperfections.

❖ Bending loss – Loss due to sharp bends.

17. Draw the block diagram of a fiber optic communication system and explain. (CO2)

Components:

❖ Transmitter – Converts electrical signal into optical using LED/laser.

❖ Optical fiber channel – Carries the modulated light.

❖ Receiver – Photodetector converts optical signal back to electrical.

Repeaters may be added for long distances.

18. What are the advantages of fiber optic communication? (CO2)

 ❖ High bandwidth.

❖ Low attenuation.

❖ EMI immunity.

❖ Lightweight and flexible.

❖ High security of data.

19. What is the function of a photodetector in fiber communication? (CO1)

A photodetector converts incoming optical signal into an electrical signal.

Common detectors: PIN diode, Avalanche Photodiode (APD).

20. What is meant by a fiber optic sensor? (CO1)

A sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sensing element or as a carrier of light. Based on changes
in intensity, phase, frequency, or polarization, the physical quantity is measured.

21. What are intrinsic and extrinsic fiber sensors? (CO2)

❖ Intrinsic: Sensing occurs within the fiber itself (e.g., microbending sensor).

❖ Extrinsic: Fiber only carries light to and from an external sensing device.

22. What is a fiber optic pressure sensor? (CO2)

Pressure causes deformation of a diaphragm connected to the fiber.

This changes the reflected light intensity or phase, which is calibrated to measure pressure.

23. How does a fiber-based temperature sensor work? (CO2)

Temperature affects the refractive index, absorption, or physical length of the fiber.
Resulting changes in transmitted/reflected light intensity or wavelength allow accurate temperature
measurement.

24. What is spontaneous emission? (CO1)

An atom in excited state returns to ground state without external stimulation, emitting a photon
randomly in direction and phase.

25. What is stimulated emission? Why is it important for lasers? (CO1)

An incident photon forces an excited atom to emit another photon that is identical in phase,
direction, and energy. This leads to coherent light, the principle of laser action.

26. What is the active medium and pumping source in Nd:YAG laser? (CO2)

❖ Active medium: Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd:YAG) crystal.

❖ Pumping source: Flash lamp or laser diode.

21. Give two applications of Nd:YAG laser. (CO1)

❖ Materials processing: cutting, welding, drilling.

❖ Medical applications: eye surgery, dermatology.

22. What is the active medium of a CO2 laser? (CO2)

A gas mixture of CO2, N2, and He inside a discharge tube.

23. Explain any two features of CO2 lasers. (CO2)

❖ High efficiency (~20%).

❖ Emits powerful infrared radiation at 10.6 µm.

❖ Suitable for continuous-wave operation.

25. Why is nitrogen used in CO2 lasers? (CO3)

Nitrogen transfers energy to CO2 molecules by resonant energy transfer, enabling population
inversion.

PART-C (12 Mark Questions)

1. Describe the air wedge experiment in detail. Derive the expression for fringe width and
explain how the thickness of a thin spacer or wire is measured. (CO2) (PO1)

2. Explain the formation of straight, parallel fringes in an air wedge. Derive the conditions for
bright and dark fringes and discuss applications. (CO1)

3. Discuss the effect of inserting a thin transparent sheet in an air wedge. How does the fringe
pattern shift? Derive expressions. (CO3) (PO2)

4. Derive the mathematical expression for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light
using Michelson’s interferometer. (CO2) (PO1)

5. Explain the construction and working principle of Michelson’s interferometer with labelled
diagram. (CO2) (PO1)

6. Explain the construction and working principle of an optical fiber. Discuss total internal
reflection. (CO2) (PO1)

7. Derive the expression for Numerical Aperture (NA) and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.
(CO2) (PO1)

8. Explain the difference between step-index and graded-index fibers with diagrams. (CO2)
(PO1)

9. Draw and explain the block diagram of a fiber optic communication system. (CO2) (PO1)

10. Derive Einstein’s relations between spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, and
absorption coefficients. Explain their significance in laser action. (CO2) (PO1)

11. Explain the construction, pumping mechanism, energy levels, and operation of the
Nd:YAG laser in detail. Mention its applications. (CO2) (PO1)
12. Describe in detail the construction, energy transfer mechanism, working, and applications
of the CO2 laser. (CO2) (PO1)

13. Explain the principles, construction, tunability mechanism, and applications of dye lasers
in detail. (CO2) (PO1)

14. Compare Nd:YAG, CO2, and dye lasers in detail (construction, wavelength, efficiency,
operation, and uses). (CO2) (PO1)