CHAPTER ONE CAREER OPPORTUNITIES RELATED IN THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

DEFINITION OF CHEMISTTRY The following job opportunities are the careers related to the study of
chemistry:
Chemistry is a branch of natural science that deals with the study of
the composition and constitution of substances (matter) and the changes that 1. Analytical chemist.
they undergo as a consequence of alterations in the constitution of their Analytical chemists use their knowledge of chemistry,
molecules. instrumentation, computers, and statistics to solve problems in almost all
areas of chemistry and for all kinds of industries.
Terms in the definition 2. Chemical engineer.
A chemical engineer is a professional, who is equipped with the
Science: - This is the systematic study of nature for useful purposes.
knowledge of chemical engineering, works principally in the chemical
Constitution and composition this refers to the different particles or parts that the industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products, and
substances are made up of. The proportion and arrangement of the deals with the design and operation of plants and equipment.
different particles that make up the substances. 3. Healthcare scientist
Healthcare scientists - sometimes known as clinical scientists
Matter is anything that has weight an occupied space that is gasses, liquids and work at the cutting edge of medicine, researching and developing new
solids. treatments and equipment. Most of their work is done in laboratories,
although some does involve patient care.
Molecules: - These are the tiny particles that make up the substance.
4. Clinical biochemist
Why Study Chemistry in High School (Senior Secondary School) A clinical biochemist is a lab-based medical professional,
responsible for the analysis and interpretation of results obtained through
1. Chemistry is a requirement for many courses at university level. the diagnostic testing of physiological samples (both solid and fluid).
Chemistry been a natural science that deals with composition of 5. Forensic scientist
matter, knowledge on chemistry is requirement for many courses Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific
afforded at the university levels (example medicine, evidence during the course of an investigation.
pharmacology, Environmental science, Agriculture, Geology 6. Pharmacologist
Engineering and Home Economics etc.) A pharmacologist is a scientist who conducts research experiments and
2. Chemistry helps us to study the composition of the food we eat. tests drugs to study their effects on animals and humans.
Therefore chemistry helps us to prepare better food (balance diet) and 7. Research scientist (physical science)
preservation of food. A research scientist is a scientist who works primarily with
3. Chemistry helps us to know the substance in our environment (e.g. air gathering knowledge and understanding research.
and water). therefore chemistry helps in controlled of pollution (removal
of unwanted substances in the environment)
4. Most of the substances we use are chemical; chemistry helps us to use
them safely. 8. Toxicologist

1
 Toxicologist is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine CHAPTER TWO
(more specifically pharmacology) concerned with the study of the
adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. MODELS OF THE ATOM
9. Chemist 1. John Dalton’s model
Chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists 2. J.J Thompson’s model
study the composition of matter and its properties. 3. E. Rutherford’s model
10. Environmental chemistry 4. Neel Bohr’s model
11. Biochemist 5. Ware Mechanic model
Biochemists study chemical processes and chemical
transformations in living organisms, other biochemists study DNA,
JOHN DALTON’S MODEL
proteins and cell parts.
John Dalton’s model of the atom is based on simple chemical reactions
and calculations, Dalton came up with following postulates known as Dalton’s
Atomic theory:
1. All elements are made up of tiny indivisible particle called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed or sub divided.
3. Atoms of the same element have the same properties and same mass.
4. Atoms of different elements have different properties and different
masses.
5. When atoms combine to form molecules, they do so in simple whole
numbers.
6. All molecules of one compound are identical and different from the
molecules of all other compounds.

LIMITATIONS ANDMODIFICATIONS OF DALTON’S MODEL

1. With more advanced experiments it is now known that the atom is sub
divided into sub atomic particle mainly: protons, neutrons and electrons.
2. It also known that some elements have atoms with the same number of
protons (atomic number) but different number of neutron.
This means that some atoms behave chemically the same but physically
they are different because of their difference in masses. Such atoms are
known as isotopes. The phenomenon is known as isotopy.
3. It is also known as quantum physics that there is always a change
in mass for any change in energy.

2
 Einstein’s Energy mass equation The cathode ray oscilloscope
E = ( ∆ m) c 2, where
E = energy change, ∆ m=change∈mass and c = speed of light
1. Rays emitted by the cathode move straight because they cast out
4. Many molecules are now known which consist of very large
shadow to the object in their path. Anode passing through the hole in
number of atoms joined together.
the anode to a zinc fluorescent screen. They were detected a glow.
Example: polymers like starch, polyethene (plastics).
2. They were deflected by both magnetic and electric fields, in such as
Therefore an atom may now be defined as the smallest direction suggesting that they were negatively charge.
particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction to 3. The rays rotated a light paddle in their path suggesting they have
form new substances. mass (momentum).
5. With the discovery of radioactivity it is now known that new atoms 4. The rays behaved the same way when the gas in the tube and
are formed due to nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. This electrodes were changed . This suggested that electrons were present
phenomenon is known as transmutation (transformation of in all matter.
elements). J.J Thompson calculated the charge to mass ratio (e/m) and found out
that it always the same value. He called the rays as electrons.
235
U + 10n
92
92
36 Ba + 310n + Kr J.J Thompson’s model defined the atom as a small dense solid sphere
(Nuclear fission) positively charges with negative electrons stuck uniformly in it. The positive
2
H + 21H 3
He + 10n charge occupied most of the volume compared to the electrons and the whole
1 2
atom is neutral.
(Nuclear fusion)
Dalton modeled the atom to be a very small particle dense and spherical.

J.J THOMPSON’S MODEL

Under low pressure and high potential difference (voltage) gases
conduct electricity.
J.J Thompson studied the conduction of electricity in a large glass tube
observed the following

CLASS WORK
1. States four properties of cathode rays?
i. They travel in a straight line..
ii. They deflected by magnetic and electric field.
iii. They give light.

3
 iv. They have momentum. A few were deviated at fairly large angles and very few were repelled
2. State the differences between wave (rays in the electromagnetic spectrum backwards.
and cathode rays.
Cathode rays Electromagnetic wave/rays
1. They have mass 1. They do not have mass
2. They are negatively charge 2. They have no charge

RUTHERFORD’S MODEL
The alpha (α ) scaler positive experiment.
An alpha particle is Helium nucleus 42He2+. It has a relative atomic mass of 4 and
a relative charge of +2e.
Therefore an alpha-particle is positively charge and has mass.

Rutherford and team conducted an experiment using a thin gold leaf as target and
high speed alpha particles as bullets.

CONCLUSION
In explaining his experiment Rutherford suggested that:
1. Most of the α – particles passed through undeviated because they encounter no
– resistance (i.e. they pass through a free/empty space).
2. A few alpha particles were deviated because they came near a positive charge
particle with a heavy mass.
3. Very few were deflected backward because the heavy positive mass encountered
Observation could not be pushed aside after a head on collision. It positive charge repelled
Assuming J.J Thompson model, Rutherford and team were expecting the like positive charge alpha – particles.
He then concluded that the volume occupied by this heavy mass which
that positively charge alpha particle would be repelled by positively dense atoms.
is at the centre of the atom was very small hence alpha particles scarcely ever
However to their surprise almost all the alpha particles passed through
came in head – on collision course with it.
the gold leaf undeviated.

4
 2. Electrons
 have negative charge;
 move around the nucleus in orbits;
 have very small mass compared with protons;
 are spread in a volume which is almost empty space.
Structure of the atom
1. The atom is made up of three subatomic particles
 electrons
 protons
 neutrons
2. The protons are positively charged and the electrons have an equal negative
charge. In the neutral atom there are equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Based on this experiment and a lot of calculations he did, he postulated the 3. The protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the electrons around the
following: nucleus.
1. The mass of the atom is concentrated at the centre called nucleus.
2. The electrons are located round the nucleus which is positively charge. LINE SPECTRUM
He called the positive charge as protons. When light emitted from a gas in a discharge tube is passed through a
3. The region around the nucleus is large compared to the space occupied by the prism, a spectrum of bright lines with dark species is observed. Each line
nucleus. according to Bohr corresponds to a transition made by an electron when it jumps
4. The diameter of the atom is about 10-10m and the diameter the nucleus is about from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
10-14.
Rutherford predicted the existence of neutrons and Cheedwick discovered the existence
of neutrons.
A neutron = a proton + an electron
n=p+e
The Limitations / Defects of Rutherford’s model
(Defect means unexplained facts or experimented results)
1. The model was not able to explain how electrons could remain in fixed orbits
due to the attraction between negative electrons and positive nucleus.
2. The model was not able to explain how orbiting electrons could remain in fixed
orbit due to the emission of photons (light energy).
3. The model was not able to explain some observations behind the line spectrum
emitted by hot (incandescent) objects.
Summary of Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
E4
1. The atom has a centre called the nucleus.
E3
The nucleus has
E2
 Positively charged particles called protons;
E1
 almost all the mass of the atom concentrated in it;
E0
 a very small volume compared with the whole atom.
D C B A

5
 5. The chemical properties of the element depend on the number of electrons in the
NEIL BOHR’S MODEL outer most shell.
To explain Rutherford’s defects (limitations), Bohr postulated the following: 6. The chemical and physical properties of the element depend on the arrangement.

1. The angular momentum of the electron is quantized. (It is an integral multiple of LIMITATIONS (DEFECTS) OF BOHR’S MODEL
h
2π ) 1. The model does not explain how fixed orbital for electrons are chosen when
they are not radiating energy.
nh
mvr= 2. The model is not applicable to the atoms with more than one electron.
2π 3. The model cannot be used to predict the energy levels for complex atoms with
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 many electrons.
2. The electrons move round the nucleus along imaginary circular path with certain
amount of energy at a particular level. At a particular level electrons do not emit THE WAVE MECHANICS MODEL
or absorb energy. Using mathematically, calculation and the wave like assumption of the
3. The centripetal force which keeps the electron in a fixed orbit is provided by the nature of the electrons around the nucleus, it is possible to predict the
electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nucleus and the negative arrangement of electrons in one or more orbitals.
electrons. The orbital is a region (space) around the nucleus where there is a
(No intermediary energy level available) higher possibility of locating the electron.
The wave mechanics model is able to predict the arrangement of many electrons
around the nucleus of an atom using quantum numbers. More of this is discussed
in Chapter Three (3).

4. Energy is only emitted (in the form of light), when electron jump from a higher CHAPTER THREE
energy level to a lower energy level. Electrons emit or absorb energy in discrete
(specific or quanta) amount in order to move from one level to the other. This ATOMIC STRUCTURE
explains the observations behind spectra lines.

6
 Atoms are now known to be sub divided into protons, electrons and  The larger n is the greater the average distance of an electron from the
neutrons. orbital, and less tightly bound the electron is to the nucleus. Where n can
Sub atomic Symbols Relative Relative have integral values 1, 2, 3 etc.
particles Charge Atomic mass Principal Quantum Shell
Protons P +1 1 number
Neutrons n 0 1 n=1 K
Electrons e -1 1 n=2 L
1840 n=3 M
n=4 N
The protons and the neutrons constituent the central nucleus and the n=5 O
electrons revolve round the nucleus in elliptical orbits. n=6 P
n=7 Q

n=6 P – Shell
n=5 O - Shell

n=4 N – Shell

n=3 M – Shell
n=2 L – Shell

Arrangement of electrons round the nucleus.

The arrangement of electrons round the nucleus is what determines the n=1 K – Shell
chemical properties of an element. Based on careful study of spectra lines
(emission spectra) and the wave mechanics theory of orbiting electrons, four
types of quantum number have been discovered in order to fully describe the
arrangement of electrons round the nucleus of the atom.
1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
This describes the main energy levels which are known as shells.
 Determines the size of the shell in which a particular electron orbits
round the nucleus.
 It largely determines its energy and relates to average distance of the
electron nucleus of a particular orbitals.

2. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER L= (n – 1)

(Subsidiary or angular quantum number)

7
 This quantum number describes how the main energy level is sub- s 1
divided in to sub-energy levels. p 3
 This quantum number specifies the angular momentum of orbiting d 5
electrons. f 7
 It determines to a minor extent the energy.
 It defines the shape.
Shell Main energy Sub-energy
level Level
K n=1 S
L n=2 S P
M n=3 S P d
N n=4 S P d f

Azimuthal quantum No. of orbital Maximum

Number l = (n-1)
0 s-1 2
1 p–3 6
2 d–5 10
3 f–7 14 The S – orbital is spherical in shape and the P – orbital is dumb bell in
4 g-9 18 shape (a blown balloon squeezed in the middle).
5 h - 11 22 4. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (MS)
3. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml) It determines the direction of the electronic spin around its own axes M S
Except the S - sub energy level the p, d, f sub energy levels have more takes values + ½ (parallel spin) and – ½ (anti-parallel spin)
than one orbital with similar energy levels. The magnetic quantum Each orbital can take a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. The
number describes the magnetic orientation of orbitals with similar energy spin quantum number describes the spinning of the electrons in the orbitals.
in the subsidiary energy level.
It controls the number of spatial orientations (degeneracy) of SUMMARY TABLE
each orbital characterized by l in a given shell [characterized by n]. Main energy Sub energy No. of Max. of Total number of
Degenerate states are of identical energy. level level orbital electrons electron = 2n2
The total number of allowed orbital orientation for any sub energy level n = 1 K-Shell 1S 1 2 2
is characterized by L is (2L + 1) n = 2 L-Shell 2S 1 2 8
Ml = (2l + 1) ml = - l ….. 0 …… +l 2P 3 6
n = 3 M-Shell 3S 1 2 18
3P 3 6
3d 5 10
Sub energy level Number of orbitals n = 4 N-Shell 4s 1 2 32
4p 3 6

8
 4d 5 10 In this model Aufbau rule is disobeyed 2s shell should be completely filled
4f 7 14 before electron can occupy 2p.
8X 1s2 2s2 2p4
RULES WHICH GOVERN THE ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS USING
THE QUANTUM NUMBER
1. AUFBAU’S (building up): - This states that in the ground state In this model hundu’s rule is disobeyed.
electrons always occupied the lowest energy first, before filling the 8X 1s2 2s2 2p4
higher ones.

The model disobeyed Pauli’s exclusion principle; the electrons in 2S

have the same spin.
15Y 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

Aufbau’s is obeyed; Pauli’s exclusion principles and the Hundu’s rule

are disobeyed.
12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p4 3s2 3p2

Aufbau’s rule is disobeyed because the 3P is not completely filled before

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p 8s electron can occupy.
Pauli’s is disobeyed because the electrons should not have the same spin.
2. HUNDU’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY: - This states that Hundu’s is disobeyed because orbital singly with the same spin as far as
when orbitals of identical energy level are available electrons occupy possible before paring occur with opposite spin.
these energy levels singly with the same spin as far as possible before
paring occurs with opposite spins.
Example: 8O K L
2
1s 2s2 2p4

3. PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE: - This states that no two

electrons can have the same values for all four quantum numbers.
Examples: 2s 2p

9
The electronic configuration of the first 36 elements using the s, p, d and f 32 Germanium Ge (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p2
notation. 33 Arsenic As (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p3
34 Selenium Se (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p4
35 Bromine Br (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p5
No ELEMENT SYMBOL CONFIGURATION
36 Krypton Kr (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p6
1 Hydrogen H 1s1
2 Helium He 1s2
3 Lithium Li 1s2 2s1 Note: the electronic configuration of 24Cr (is Ar18 4s13d5) and not (Ar18 4s2 3d4.
4 Beryllium Be 1s2 2s2 This is due to stability of the half-filled sub-shell. Also the electronic
5 Boron B 1s2 2s2 2p1 configuration of 29Cu is (Ar18 4s1 3d10). This is due to the stability of the
6 Carbon C 1s2 2s2 2p2 completely filled M-shell (third-shell).
7 Nitrogen N 1s2 2s2 2p3 Example: Write down the electronic configuration of 26Fe using the s, p, d and f
8 Oxygen O 1s2 2s2 2p4
notation.
9 Fluorine F 1s2 2s2 2p5
10 Neon Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 a) Which sub-energy level is not completely filled?
11 Sodium Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 b) Draw a model for filling of this energy level.
12 Magnesium Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 c) How many electrons are unpaired?
13 Aluminum Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 ANSWER
14 Silicon Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 26Fe = 1s 2
2s 2
2p6
3s 2
3p 6
4s 2
3d6

15 Phosphorus P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 a) The 3d6 sub-energy level is not completely filled.
16 Sulphur S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
17 Chlorine Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 b) 3d6 =
18 Argon Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
19 Potassium K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 c) There are 4 unpaired electrons in the 3d sub-energy level.
20 Calcium Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
21 Scandium Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
22 Titanium Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2 This is the arrangement of element into rows and columns. The rows
are called periods, the columns are called groups. The arrangement is possible
Argon (Ar) configuration
23 Vanadium V (Ar)18 4s2 3d3 because some properties of elements are periodical (repeated) with increase in
24 Chromium Cr (Ar)18 4s1 3d5 atomic number.
25 Manganese Mn (Ar)18 4s2 3d5 PERIODIC LAW
26 Iron Fe (Ar)18 4s2 3d6 This states that the properties of an element are a function of the
27 Cobalt Co (Ar)18 4s2 3d7 atomic number of the element i.e. knowing the atomic number of an element,
28 Nickel Ni (Ar)18 4s2 3d8 we can write the electronic configuration of an element and determine it period
29 Copper Cu (Ar)18 4s1 3d10
and group, predict its chemical and physical properties and even the method of
30 Zinc Zn (Ar)18 4s2 3d10
31 Gallium Ga (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p1 obtaining the element.
In other words the properties of an element depend on the atomic
number. Its position on the periodic table also depends on the atomic number.

10
The periodic table is build up systemically based on a regular distribution of The true group 1 elements are:
electrons in the element (electronic configuration). Lithium – 3Li 1s2 2s1
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Sodium – 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
This is the arrangement of element into rows and columns. The rows are Potassium – 19K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
called periods, the columns are called groups. The arrangement is possible Rubidium – 37Rb (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1
because some properties of elements are periodical (repeated) with increase in Cesium – 55Cs (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s1
atomic number. The elements in this group are called alkaline metals.
PERIODIC LAW GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP 1 ELEMENTS
This states that the properties of an element are a function of the 1. They have very low ionization energy. They easily loose electrons and
atomic number of the element i.e. knowing the atomic number of an element, become positively charge (they are electro – positive)
we can write the electronic configuration of an element and determine it period 2. They form ionic substances when they combine with non – metals.
and group, predict its chemical and physical properties and even the method of 3. They are very good reducing agents and very reactive.
obtaining the element. 4. They have one electron in their outer most shell and have a fixed
In other words the properties of an element depend on the atomic oxidation state of +1.
number. Its position on the periodic table also depends on the atomic number. 5. They are always found in nature combine to other elements.
The periodic table is build up systemically based on a regular distribution of 6. They are extracted by electrolysis.
electrons in the element (electronic configuration). 7. They react with water to form alkaline solutions and liberating hydrogen.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
1. The periodic table makes it possible to identify and study the elements 8. There oxides are basic oxides.
easily. Note: The reactivity of these elements increases down the group as the ionization
2. It makes it possible to predict the properties of some elements based on energy decreases.
the study of some members in the same group. They are relatively soft metals and have low melting point. The melting
3. The physical and chemical properties of some elements are similar; point decreases down the group.
therefore they can be studied in group. Element Atomic Hardness Melting Reactivity with
4. It makes it possible to easily identify the methods of preparation of the Number point water
elements. Lithium 3 The 454 Fast
The first 36 elements can put into three blocks; they are: Sodium 11 hardness 371 Very fast
Potassium 19 decreases 336 Vigorous
S - Block i.e. group 1 and 2 elements.
Rubidium 37 down the 312 Violent
P – Block: - These are elements which are filling the p – sub shell. It contains Caesium 55 group. 302 Explosive
elements in group III, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII/0 9. They react with oxygen and water when expose to air.
D – Block: - This contains element which are filling the d – sub shell, they are 2Na(s) + O2 2Na2O(s)
also known as transition elements, because they are located between the s – Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
block and the p – block in the periodic table. GROUP 2 ELEMENTS
GROUP 1 ELEMENT All elements in group 2 have two electrons in their valence shell (outer
All elements in group 1 have one electron in their valence (outer most) shells. most). Their electronic configuration ends with ns2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 …..
Their electronic configuration ends with ns1 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 …..

11
Note: Helium 2He = 1s2 is not a group II element because its outer most shell is GROUP 3 ELEMENTS
completely filled and do not have the properties of group II elements. The The elements in this group have three electrons in their valence shell.
elements in this group are known as Alkaline earth metals. There electronic configuration ends with ns2 np1 where n = 2, 3, 4, 5 … etc.
The elements are:
The elements in group II are: Boron 5B 1s2 2s2 2p1
Beryllium 4Be 1s2 2s2 Aluminum 13Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Magnesium 12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Gallium 31Ga (Ar)18 3d10 4s2 4p1
Calcium 20Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 Indium 49In (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p1
Strontium 38Sr (Ar)18 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s2 Thallium 81Tl (Xe)54 5d10 4f14 6s2 6p1
Barium 56Ba (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP III ELEMENTS
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP II ELEMENTS Boron is a metalloid. The other elements Al, Ga, In, Tl are metals. Aluminum has
1. They all have two electrons in their outer most shell. a fixed valence of +3 it loses three electrons to form a cation in ionic bonding.
2. They are very electro – positive, they lose two electrons to gain a charge Aluminum is extracted by electrolysis. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is amphoteric
of +2. (react with strong acid to form salt and water); it also reacts with strong bases to
Example: Mg Mg2+ + 2e form salts.
Ba Ba2+ + 2e Example: Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Ca Ca2+ + 2e 3H2O(l) + Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2Na[Al(OH)4]
3. They have a fixed oxidation state (valence) of +2. GROUP 4 ELEMENTS
4. They are very reactive but they are less reactive than the corresponding These elements have four electrons in their valence shell. Their
alkaline metals (group I). electronic configuration ends with ns2 np2 where n = 2, 3, 4, 5 ….. etc.
5. They are physically harder than the alkaline metals because they provide The elements are:
two valence electrons for their metallic bonding. Carbon 6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
6. They have higher melting point than the corresponding group I element. Silicon 14Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
7. They form ionic compounds with non – metals. Germanium 32Ge (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p2
8. They are extracted by electrolysis Tin 56Sn (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s2
Comparing group I elements to group II elements Lead 82Pb (Xe)54 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2
Group I Group II GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP IV ELEMENTS
3Li 4Be 1. Carbon is a non – metal.
11Na 12Mg 2. Silicon and germanium are metalloid (metalloid has both metallic and
19K 20Ca
non – metallic properties, metalloids are also called semi – conductors).
37Rb 38Sr
3. Tin and lead are metals.
Sodium (Na) is more reactive than Magnesium (Mg).
USES OF METALLOIDS (Semi – conductors)
Magnesium (Mg) is harder than Sodium (Na). Also
Metalloids are not very good conductor of electricity, they partially
Potassium (K) is more reactive than Sodium (Na)
conduct electricity hence they are called semiconductors. Semiconductors are
Calcium (Ca) is harder than Potassium (K).
used in modern electronics to manufacture diodes. These diodes have replaced
thermionic diodes in modern electronics. These diodes are smaller and more

12
effective in converting alternating current (A.C) to direct current (D.C) hence Sulphur is in the solid states form three allotropes, they are:
they are used to charge batteries, play radio and television from an A.C supply. Rhombic Sulphur
GROUP 5 ELEMENTS Monoclinic Sulphur
The elements in this group have five electrons in their outer most shell. Amorphous Sulphur
Their electronic configuration ends with ns2 np3. The elements are: Allotropy refers to the existence of an element in the different forms but the same
Nitrogen 7N 1s2 2s2 2p3 physical states.
Phosphorus 15P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Arsenic 33As (Ar)18 4s2 3d104p3
Antimony 51Sb (Kr)36 3d10 5s2 5p3 Example Carbon Graphite
Bismuth 83Bi (Xe)54 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 Diamond Crystalline
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP V ELEMENTS Amorphous carbon
1. Nitrogen, phosphorus and arsenic are non – metals. GROUP 7 ELEMENTS (Halogens)
2. Antimony and bismuth are metals. They have seven electrons in their outer most shell. Their electronic
3. Nitrogen bonds to itself covalently to form a diatomic gas. configuration ends in ns2 np5 where n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 …. Etc. the elements are:
N2(g) ↔ N ≡ N. The triple bond is very strong as a result Fluorine 9F 1s2 2s2 2p5
nitrogen gas is less reactive. Chlorine 17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Example it does not burn nor does it support combustion. Bromine 35Br 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
Phosphorus is more reactive it forms tetra atomic molecules (P 4). Iodine 55I (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p5
GROUP 6 ELEMENTS Astatine 85At (Xe)54 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5
The elements in this group have six electrons in their outer most
shell. Their electronic configuration ends with ns2 np4 they are: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP VII ELEMENTS
Oxygen 8O 1s2 2s2 2p4 1. They have seven elements in their outer most shell therefore they obtain
Sulphur 16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 the noble gas configuration by gaining one electron.
Selenium 34Se (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p4 2. They have very high electronegativity values.
Tellurium 52Te (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p4 3. Fluorine and chlorine exists as diatomic gases, bromine exist as a
Polonium 84Po (Xe)54 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4 diatomic liquid.
The elements in this group are all non – metals except polonium. Oxygen 4. Iodine is solid at room temperature and iodine sublimes.
is very electronegative; it has an oxidation state of -2 in all compounds except in 5. They are all non – metals.
peroxide where it is -1. Oxygen in the gaseous state exhibits two allotropes, they 6. They are very reactive, they are not found free in nature, they are found
are oxygen gas O2 and ozone O3. Ozone is the blue layer which covers the in compounds. Example in salts.
atmosphere and protects the earth from ultra violet rays. 7. Their reactivity decreases down the group. Therefore the upper members
The elements in this group form ionic compounds by gaining two electrons to will displace the lower members from an ionic solution.
form anions which charge is -2. Example 2NaI(aq) + Br2(l) 2NaBr(aq) + I2(g)
O + 2e- O2- 2KCl(aq) + F2(g) 2KF(aq) + Cl2(g)
S + 2e -
S2- 8. They are very good oxidizing agent (they easily gain electron to form
Te + 2e-Te2- anions). Example:

13
 Cl + e Cl- Nickel 28Ni (Ar)18 4s2 3d8
I+e I- Copper 29Cu (Ar)18 4s1 3d10
F+e F- Zinc 30Zn (Ar)18 4s2 3d10
GROUP 0/VIII ELEMENTS CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
The members in this group are called inert (not reactive) rare or noble 1. They have variable oxidation state.
gases. The name noble is preferred to inert because under harsh conditions they Example copper (I) and Copper (II)
are known to reacts with other elements. The elements are: Cu2O and CuO
Helium 2He 1s2 Iron (II) and Iron (III)
Neon 10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 Manganese (II) and Manganese (VIII)
Argon 18Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Chromium (III) and Chromium (VI)
Krypton 36Kr (Ar)18 4s2 3d10 4p6 2. The elements have variable oxidation state because the d – sub shell is
Xeon 54xe (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p6 slightly lower in energy than the s – sub shell.
Radon 86Rn (Kr)36 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6 Therefore electrons can be lost with the same ease from either sub shells.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP VIII ELEMENTS 3. They form coloured compound when electrons move from higher to
1. Helium has two electrons in its outer most shell. lower.
2. The other elements have eight electrons in their outer most shells. Example Fe3+ reddish brown
2+
3. Helium and Neon have their outer most shells completely filled. Fe dirty green
2+
4. Although the outer most shells of the others are not completely filled the Cu pale blue
octet valence configuration is a much stable. Hence noble gasses can Cr3+ cream green
6+
only react under very harsh conditions. Cr orange
5. They exist as mono atomic gases.
6. Their electronegative values is zero, their valence is also zero. 4. They are paramagnetic because they have unpaired electron in the 3d –
7. They are all non – metals. orbital.
8. They are used to fill incandescent bulbs. Example neon gives yellow in 5. They are catalytic; they can be used as catalysts in the preparation of
street light bulbs. some substances.
TRANSITION ELEMENTS Example:
These elements are found in the d – block between group II and group III Nickel is used in the preparation of margarine.
of the periodic table. The first series of transition elements are filling the 3d Iron is used in the industrial preparation of ammonia.
sub – energy level. They are all in period IV. They are: 6. They form complex ions; they form complex compound by using the
Scandium 21Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 empty 4p and 3d orbitals in coordinate covalent (dative) bonding.
Titanium 22Ti (Ar)18 4s2 3d2 Examples
Vanadium 23V (Ar)18 4s2 3d3 [Cu (NH3)4]2+ tetra amine copperate (II)
Chromium 24Cr (Ar)18 4s1 3d5 [Zn (OH4)]2- tetra hydroxyl zincate (II)
Manganese 25Mn (Ar)18 4s2 3d5 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS INTO METALS AND NON – METALS
Iron 26Fe (Ar)18 4s2 3d6 The elements in the periodic table can be classified into metals and non –
Cobalt 27Co (Ar)18 4s2 3d7 metals.

14
 METALS
These elements are found on the left side on the periodic table, they include; all Cl + e Cl-
the elements in group I and II, all the elements in group III except Boron, all the (non – metal) (anion)
transition metal and a few below the periodic table in group IV and V. N + e N-
Metals are elements that can lose electrons from their valences shells to (non – metal) (anion)
achieve a stable/inert gas configuration. 2. Most of them are very good oxidizing agents.
Example: 3. Most of them have very high electronegativity values. In their pure state;
11Na Na+ + e 2, 8, 1 2, 8 they form covalent bonds to form molecules.
2+
20Ca Ca + 2e 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 8 4. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
3+
13Al Al + 3e 2, 8, 3 2, 8 5. Most of their oxides are acidic oxides.
6. The forces holding the molecules are weak van der Waal’s forces
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS therefore they have low melting and boiling points.
1. They are electropositive. They have low ionization energy, so they can Non – metals are found on the right hand side of the periodic table. They
easily lose electrons to form cations. Therefore they are good reducing include all the elements in group VIII/0, all the elements in group VII, all
agents. the elements in group VI except polonium, all the elements in group V
M(metals) Mn+(cation) + ne except antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) and carbon in group IV.
2. They form metallic bonds in their pure states. A metallic bond is made
up of a lattice of cations in a cloud of delocalized electrons.
3. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They are malleable (can be made into sheets) and ductile (made into
wires).
5. They have shiny silvery surfaces.
6. Their oxides are basic oxides.
7. Some metals are very hard and strong.
8. They are lustrous; hence some of them can be used as ornaments.
9.

NON – METALS
These are elements which readily gain electrons to form anions. They
have high ionization energy therefore they gain or share electrons to achieve a
stable or inert gas configuration. They are found on the right hand side of the
periodic table.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NON – METALS
1. They readily gain or share electrons to achieve a stable or inert gas
configuration.

15
 CHAPTER FOUR Rb
37 (Ar)18 3d10 4s2 4p65s1 5

PERIODIC PROPERTIES Cs
55 (Kr)36 4d10 5s2 5p6 6s1 6
Periodic properties of elements are physical and chemical properties of elements
which change periodically (they are repeated) with increase in atomic number. Increase in the number of shells increases the shielding effect on the electrons in
the outer most shell from the nuclear charge.
The fundamental properties of the periodic table are:
1.
Atomic (radius) size Example 19K is larger than 11Na and 37Rb is larger than 19K.
2.
Ionic (radius) size
3.
Electron affinity As we go down the group the shielding effect increases and the atomic
4.
Electronegativity radius increases.
5.
Ionization energy
ATOMIC RADIUS / SIZE Also as we go down the group the number of electrons in the shell
This is half the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded increases. The repulsion between the electrons also causes increase in the atomic
identical atoms. size or radius. Hence the two factors that cause increase in the atomic radius as
d = distance between two completely bonded identical nuclei. we go down the group are:
Atomic radius = ½ d
The atomic radius is the measure of the size of the atom (as the atomic radius 1. Shielding effect due to increase in the number of inner shells.
increases the atomic size increases. 2. The increase in the repulsion between the electrons.
The atomic radius depends on:
1. Nuclear charge. IONIC RADIUS/SIZE
2. Number of inner shells.
3. Stability of the electronic configuration. An ion is form when a neutral atom or molecule gains or loses an electron(s).
NUCLEAR CHARGE Cations are formed when neutral atoms lose electrons.
The nuclear charge provides the electrostatic force of attraction which pulls the
electrons closer to the nucleus. If the number of shells is constant, increase in the Examples Na Na+ + e-
nuclear charge increases the electrostatic force of attraction which decreases the
atomic radius by pulling the electrons closer. Ca Ca2+ + 2e-
As we go across a period from the left to the right.
Example (3Li, 4Be, 5B, 6C, 7N, 8O, 9F and 10Ne) the central nuclear charge Al Al3+ + 3e-
increases and electrons are being added to the same shell (No. of shells is
constant), therefore the electrostatic force of attraction increases on the outer Anions are formed when neutral atoms gain electrons.
most shells and the atomic radius decreases as we go across a period from the left
to the right. As we go down a group, the number of shell increases. Examples: Cl + e- Cl-
Example No. of shell
O + 2e- O2-
3Li 1s2 2s1 2
N + 3e- N3-
11 Na 1s22s2 2p6 3s1 3

19 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 4

16
When electrons are lost from a neutral atom they are usually lost from the outer For an anion the atomic radius is large than the corresponding neutral atom.
most shell. This decreases the number of shells but the nuclear charge remains
the same, therefore the attraction on the remaining electrons increases. Example:

This leads to decrease in the atomic radius, therefore cations are smaller Radius (Cl-) < radius (Cl)
in radius and size than their corresponding neutral atoms. Radius (O2-) < radius (O)
Example: Reason: when an atom gains an electron the nuclear charge remains the same.
+
Radius (Na ) < radius (Na) This means that the same nuclear charge attracts more electrons.

Radius (Ca2+) < radius (Ca) O + 2e- O2-

8O No. of protons 8

No. of electrons 8

8O No. of protons 8

No. of electrons 10

Also when an atoms gain electrons they are added to the valence shell. This
means that an increase in the repulsion between electrons in the valence shell.

Comparing isoelectronic species

Isoelectronic species have the same number of electrons and the same
electronic configuration but the number of protons (nuclear charge) is different.

Examples:

Arrange the following in increasing order of size.

Al3+, 12Mg2+, 9F-, 10Ne, 8O2- and 11Na+.

13

Each has ten (10) electrons.

Na+
11 1s2 2s2 2p6

Ne
10 1s2 2s2 2p6

Mg2+
12 1s2 2s2 2p6

17
13 Al3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 1st ionization energy = XKJ mol-1

8O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6 SECOND IONIZATION ENERGY

9F- 1s2 2s2 2p6 This is the energy required to remove one electron from one mole of each
singly charge gaseous cation to form one mole of double charge cations.
Since they all have the same number of electrons and electronic configuration the
different will depend on the magnitude of the nuclear charge that pulls the Ca(g) Ca+(g) + e ∆ H = xKJ mol-1
electrons closer to the nucleus, therefore the larger the nuclear charge the smaller
the size of the atom or ion. Ca+(g) Ca2+ (g) + 2e ∆ H = yKJ mol-1

Nuclear charge = no. of protons x = 1st ionization energy

13Al3+ < 12Mg2+ < 11Na+ < 10Ne < 9F- < 8O2-20Ca2+ < 18Ar < 16S2- y = 2nd ionization energy
Increase in size
2+ 20 Ca has 1st and 2nd ionization energy because it can lose up to two electrons.
20Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Al has 1st, 2nd and 3rd ionization energy because it can lose up to three electrons.
13
18 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ionization energy depends on the following:
16 S2- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1. The atomic size.
Ca2+ has the smallest size because it has the largest nuclear charge that pulls the
20
2. Stability of the cation formed
electrons closer. 3. Shielding effect
4. Penetrating effect
IONIZATION ENERGY
Note: the greater the ionization energy the more difficult it is to remove an
This is the energy required to remove and free an electron from the
electron from an atom.
attraction of the nucleus of an atom. The less tightly an electron is held, the
easier it takes to remove an electron from the atom. In other words if an electron ATOMIC SIZE
is tightly held the ionization energy would be high. If it is loosely held the
ionization energy would be low, some atoms can lose up to 3 electrons. +Q -q
Therefore, we have 1st, 2nd, 3rd ionization energy.
Nuclear charge electronic charge
FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY
COULOMB’S LAW
This is the amount of energy required to remove one electron from one mole
of each gaseous atom to form one mole of singly charge gaseous cations. kQq
Na(g) Na+(g) + e-, ∆ H = xKJ mol-1 Electrostatic force ¿ 2
r
From Coulomb’s law, the atomic radius(r) is inversely proportional to
1 mole 1 mole the attractive force that pulls the electrons towards the nucleus. Therefore,

18
increase in the atomic radius decreases the attractive force. Decrease in the
attractive leads to decrease in the ionization energy because the electron is less
tightly held when it is far away from the nucleus.
As we go across a period the atomic size or radius decreases therefore
the ionization energy increases. As we go across a period the atomic radius
decreases and the electrostatic force increases on the outermost electrons. It
becomes more difficult to remove an electron from the shell because the
electrons are strongly held. Therefore the ionization energy increases across a
period from the left to the right.

Stability of the cation formed ELECTRON AFFINITY

A cation with inert gas configuration is more stable.
Example When an electron is added to a neutral atom there is an energy change
Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) in group I easily undergo first ionization due to the attraction and the repulsion on the incoming electrons this energy
energy to obtain an inert gas configuration.
change is known as electron affinity.
Potassium and sodium have low ionization energy because the inert gas
configurations are more stable. The electron affinity is negative if energy is given off when an electron is added
The shielding effect by the inner shells
to the atom. In this case the anion formed is more stable than the neutral atom.
As we go down a group there is an increase in the number of inner shells The attractive force by the nucleus on the incoming electron is greater than the
and the atomic radius increases, therefore it becomes easier to remove an electron force of repulsion on the incoming electron by the other electrons in the atom.
from the outer most shell. Therefore, ionization energy decreases down a group.
The electron affinity value is positive if energy is absorbed by the atom
Example on the addition of an electron. In this case a less stable anion than the neutral
atom is formed. The force of repulsion on the incoming electron is greater than
3 Li 1s2 2s1 the force of attraction by the nucleus.

11 Na 1s22s2 2p6 3s1 FIRST ELECTRON AFFINITY

19 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 This is the energy change when one mole of electrons are added to one
mole of neutral gaseous atoms to form one mole of singly charge gaseous
anions.
−1
Example: Cl( g) + 1e- = Cl –(g) ∆ H =xKJ mol

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole of

Gaseous atom of electron gaseous anion

∆ H = energy change is first electron affinity.

19
If ∆ H is negative the anion formed is more stable. Fluorine 4.0
Oxygen 3.5
If ∆ H is positive the anion formed is less stable. Chlorine 3.0
Nitrogen 3.0
Factors that influence electron affinity values Electronegativity depends on the following:

1. Atomic size/radius 1. Atomic size

2. Stability of the anion 2. Shielding effect
3. Charge carried by the anion
4. Nuclear charge
Generally, electron affinity values decrease across a period from the left
to the right. (Increases in negative values). H He
2.1 0
Li Be B C N O F
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0
Electron affinity decreases (increases in negative values).
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
The anions formed are more stable as we go from left to the right. 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0

As we go across a period the nuclear charge increases and the atomic radius
decreases. Therefore, an incoming electron is added closer to the nucleus
forming a more stable anion.
Generally, electronegativity values increases across a period from the left to
Generally, electron affinity value increase as we go down a group
right.
(decrease in negative values) and the anions formed are less stable as we go
down a group. The incoming electron is added far away from the nucleus as REASON: As we go across a period the nuclear charge increases and the atomic
we go down due to increase in the atomic radius. Also the force of repulsion size decreases and the ability of the atom to attract electron to it increases.
on the added electron increases as we go down a group due to increase in the
number of electrons in the shells. Group 8/0 elements has zero (0) electronegativity values because they do
not take part in covalent bonding easily.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity decreases down a group; this is due to the increase in
This is the ability of the atom to attract covalently bonded electrons to size of the atom and the shielding effect.
itself in a molecule. Electronegativity values are relative values therefore
they have no unit. On the electronegativity scale fluorine has the highest
values.
ELECTROPOSITIVITY
Element Electronegativity

20
 This is the ability of an atom to lose it valence electrons and becomes hand and non – metals of group VI and group VII on the other hand. Metals are
positively charge. The lower the ionization energy the more electropositive the electropositive i.e. they can easily lose valence electrons to form cations.
atom is.
Example
Group 1 elements are the most electropositive in any period because they
have the lowest ionization energy. Na Na+ + e-

Mg Mg2+ + 2e-

Al Al3+ + 3e-

The non – metals are electronegative; they gain electrons to form anions. The
bond is between cations and anions. Ionic bonding is very strong because it is a
strong electrostatic force between the ions. Ionic bond results in the formation of
crystals. In a crystal the ions are arranged in a lattice to form a solid with plane
CHAPTER FIVE
surfaces arranged at regular angles to each other. A lattice of anions and cations
CHEMICAL BONDING refers to the regular arrangement of the ions continuously throughout the solid
structure.
All elements except those in group 8/0 try to obtain a stable or octet Note; there is no single unit of anion – cation pair but a large number of them in
electronic configuration i.e. ns2 np6. To achieve this, the atoms share/ gain or lose lattice.
electrons. The process by which atoms are held together as a result of sharing, Example of ionic bonding
gaining or losing electrons is called chemical bonding. Formation of sodium chloride
The force of attraction as a result of chemical bonding is called a bond. 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING 11Na
+
1s2 2s2 2p6

Chemical bonding can occur between atoms or between molecules. Chemical

bonding is known as inter atomic bonding.
Types of inter atomic bonding
1. Ionic (electrovalent) bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Co – ordinate or co – ionic (dative) bonding
4. Metallic bonding
IONIC (ELECTROVALENT) BONDING

In ionic bonding complete transfer of electrons occur from metals to non

– metals. Ionic bonding occurs between atoms whose electronegativity difference
is high. In most cases it is between group I, group II and transition metals on one

21
 EXAMPLE
An element X has isotopic masses 6 and 7 if the relative abundance is 1
to 12.5 respectively. What is the relative atomic mass of X?
Solution
Relative atomic mass = average mass of the abundance

x f Fx
6 1.0 6.0
7 12.5 87.5
Cl- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Total 13.5 93.5
17

The sodium ion is positive and the chloride ion is negative. The ionic bond εfx 93.5
Relative atomic mass = =
between the ions is an electrostatic force of attraction. εf 13.5

= 6.9
COVALENT BONDING
The main principle in covalent bonding is that of sharing electrons
between two atoms to achieve a stable noble gas configuration.
Note; the conditions necessary for a pure covalent bond to occur are;
1. The two atoms must be similar in size.
2. They must have zero or very little electronegativity difference.
3. The size of the atoms must be smaller.
In covalent bonding the bond is electrostatic force of attraction
between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC BONDING

1. Ionic bonding results in the formation of crystals which have a definite

shape and definite size. The crystals are hard and brittle.
2. The crystals are soluble in ionic or polar solvent.(example water).
P = 1, n = 0, e =1
3. The crystals have high melting and boiling point.
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) molecule
4. The crystals do not conduct electricity in the solid state, but in the molten
or aqueous state (when the strong ionic bonds are broken and the ions
charge carries are free to move) they conduct

22
Nitrogen (N2) molecule Ammonia (NH3) molecule
These are three (3) hydrogen atoms and one (1) nitrogen atom.

Oxygen (O2) molecule Draw the lewi’s structure of:

Cl2 - Chlorine molecule
H2O - Water molecule
F2 - Fluorine molecule
Note: covalent sanding results in the formation of a molecule.
Example: O2 , N2 , H2 , Cl2 , H2O , NH3

PROPERTIES OF CONVALENT BONDING.

23
1. Covalent substances are molecules of liquids, gases or acids. 1. The formation of hydroxonium (H3O+)
2. They do not conduct electricity, they are use as insulators.
3. Covalent substances are four conductors of heat E.g. water. H2O(l) + H+(aq) H3O+(aq)
4. They have low soiling and melting points.
5. They are soluble in covalent or non– polar substances (solvent).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING

IONIC BOUNDING COVALENT BOUNDING

1. In ionic bounding complete transfer 1. In covalent bonding the atoms

of electrons occur in anions and share electrons to obtain a noble gas
cations; the bounding is between the configuration, the bond is between
cations and the anions. the shared electrons and the nuclei of
the atoms.
2. In ionic bonding the 2. The electronegativity differences
electronegativity different between between the two elements is very In the co – ordinate bonding the oxygen atom in the water molecule donate a lone
the two elements In have is very high. small or zero. pair of electrons to the hydrogen ion which has an empty s – orbital.
3. Ionic bonding results in the 3. Covalent bonding results in the
formation of acetyls. Crystals have formation of molecule– molecule 2. Formation of ammonium ion NH4+(aq)
high melting and bonding points. substance have low melting and
boiling points.
4. The crystals conduct electricity why 4. Covalent substances do not
in the molten or aqueous state. conduct
electricity
5. Ionic substances are soluble in Ionic 5. Covalent substance as soluble in
or polar solvent. covalent or non-polar solvent.

CO – ORDINATE COVALENT BONDING

This type of bonding is also known this bonding occurs when are atom
donates a lone pair electrons to be shared between itself and another atom
which has an empty orbital. In most cases the atom while empty orbital is
positively charge.

Example H3N : + H+ NH4+

24
 The co – ordinate covalent bond is between the ammonia molecule and In the co – ordinate covalent bonding above each ammonia molecule
the hydrogen ion. In this bond the nitrogen in the ammonia molecule donates a donates a lone pair of electrons to the four empty orbitals of the N – shell of the
lone pair of electrons to the hydrogen ion with an empty s – orbital. Cu2+ ion.

3. Tetra amine copperate (II) ion. 4. The reaction between ammonia and boron triflouride.
This is a complex ion which forms a deep blue solution. H3N + BF3 H3N : BF3
Co – ordinate covalent bond.
[Cu (NH3)4](aq)2+

Cu
29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 4p0

Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s0 4p0

5B 1s2 2s2 2p1

ground state

excited state
In BF3 each fluorine atom share an electron with boron.
BF

But are of the P– orbital is still empty. It is this orbital that the ammonia
molecule donates if lone pair of electron.

25
 11Na+ 1s22s22p6
2+
12Mg 1s2 2s22p6
3+
13Al 1s2 2s22p6

METALLIC BONDING
This is the bond that holds the atoms together in a metal.
In metallic bonding the atoms contribute their valence electrons to from Al is stronger than Mg which is stranger than Na, why?
an electron cloud and atoms become positively charge. The cations (positively Al is smaller than Mg2+ and Al contribute 3 electrons to its electron cloud.
charge ions) are help together in LATTICE by the ELECTRON CLOUD. Mg contributes 2 electrons and Na contributes only one.

PROPERTIES OF METALLIC BOND

1. Metal contains many delocalised electrons. Under electric potential difference
and heat. These electrons can move. Therefore metal are good conductor of
heat and electricity.
2. Metal are Malleable (can be beaten into sheet) and ductile (can be drawn into
wire).
Why? When a force is applied to the metallic ion. The layers slide over one
another without destroying the crystal lattice. Note there is no rigid or direct
bond in a metallic crystal the bonding agent is a moving cloud of electrons
which can easily react by readjusting itself when a metallic layer achieves a
new stable arrangement.
3. They have high melting and boiling point. Metallic bond can be very strong.

THE SHAPE OF SOME SIMPLE MOLECULE.

Examples
1. Linear molecules
The metallic bond is formed by the electrostatic of attraction between the
CO2 O=C=O
delocalised electrons and the fixed positive ions (cations) at LATTICE point the
strength of the metallic bond spend on the following. 1800
1. The ionic native of the cations.
2. The number of valence electrons denoted to the electron class. HF H F
The strength of the bond can increase by mixing metals to from ALLOY.
Note: The strength of the metallic bond increase with decrease in ionic radius SO2 O=S=O
and increase in the number of valence electrons denoted to the electron cloud.
2. Non – linear (triangular)
I II III Note: when they lose electrons, they
Water H2O
will
Li Be B become is electronic.
Na Mg Al
K Ca
Example

26
 3. Tetrahedral
Methane CH4
H

H C H Example: HCl(g) is very SOLUBLE in water to form an ACIDIC

ELECTROLYTE.
H
Carbon (IV) Oxide (CO2(g))
4. Pyramidal
NH3 Ammonia

POLAR MOLECULES
A polar molecule has dipole moments (i.e. the opposite ends of the molecules are
slightly charged).
The shape of the molecule depends whether the central atom in the molecule has
lone pair or not.
Example:
1. Hydrogen Chloride HCl(g)

27
 Oxygen being more electronegative than hydrogen, the bonding electrons are
closer to it than the hydrogen atoms.
Example
CO2 is linear and non – polar. Although oxygen is more electronegative than Methane CH4
carbon, the equal but opposite attraction of the oxygen atoms on either sides Methane is TETRAHEDRAL in shape. The central atom carbon has no
cancelled their effect. lone pair in the valence shell.
All the four (4) paired are bonded pair the repulsion are equal, therefore the
molecule is PERFECTLY SYMMETRICAL and non – polar with the bonding
angle of 1090.

Example Water H2O Example Ammonia NH3

In the water molecule, the central atom (oxygen) has two lone pairs of electrons.
The repulsion between the two lone pairs is STRONGER than that of between
the lone pair and the bonded pair.
The repulsion between the bonded pair is WEAKER. Therefore water
molecules are triangular in shape.
NOTE: Water is not LINEAR and not SYMMETRICAL and therefore POLAR.

28
The central atom nitrogen has a lone pair of electrons in the molecule. The
repulsion between the lone pair and the bonded pair is STRONGER than the
repulsion between the bonded pair and the bonded pair. Therefore the molecule is
not SYMMETRICAL (Asymmetrical) but a distorted tetrahedron (pyramidal in
shape). The ammonia molecule is therefore slightly polar. This explains why
ammonia is very soluble in water.

INTERMOLECULAR BONDING NOTE: The strength of the hydrogen bonding depends on the
ELECTRONEGATIVITY of the other atom.
This is the force of attraction between molecules.
The H – bonding is stronger if the other element is very electronegative.
Types of Intermolecular bonding

1. Hydrogen bonding
2. Van der Waal forces Example
HYDROGEN BONDING Hydrogen bond in water is very strong why? Because oxygen is very
Hydrogen bonding is a dipole – dipole attraction which occurs electronegative. This explains why water has a high melting and boiling point.
between two molecules, when hydrogen is bonded to a electronegative The strength of the hydrogen bonding decreases down a group (because
atom. electronegativity decreases down a group).
Hydrogen bonding is found between water molecules, hydrogen
fluoride, hydrogen chloride molecules. State at room Relative Melting Boiling point
Compound
temperature Molecular Mass point C0 C0

H2O Liquid 18 0 100

H2S Gas 34 -85 -60

H2Se Gas 81 -66 -41

29
 H2Te gas 130 -48 +2 (c) The electronic configuration of an element Y is 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 3p6
4d7 4s2. State
NOTE: The high difference between the melting and boiling point of water (i) the orbital with the lowest energy;
(H2O) and the other substance is due to Hydrogen bonding. The increase in the (ii) the atomic number of Y;
melting or boiling point from H2S H2Se H2Te is due to the (iii) the number of unpaired electrons in its ground state
van der Waal forces which increases with increases in relative molecular mass
structure;
(RMM).
(iv) whether Y is an s – block or d – block element and give
VAN DER WAAL FORCES reasons for your answer;
They are due to fluctuation in dipole moment of the molecule brought (v) three characteristic properties you would expect Y to
about by the movement of electrons around the atomic nuclei. exhibit.
June 2001
Van der Waal forces increase with increase in the number of electrons in the
molecules. Therefore van der Waal forces increase with increase in the relative 2.
molecular mass in the molecule. (a) The electronic configurations of five elements represented by the
letters P, Q, R, S and T indicated below.
Since the relative molecular mass increase down a group the strength of P 1s2 2s2 2p2
the van der Waal forces between the molecules increases. Q 1s2 2s2 2p4
R 1s2 2s2 2p6
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
T 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

State at room Number of Relative Without identifying the elements, state which of them
Molecule
temperature electron in mole molecular mass
(i) belongs to group VI in the periodic table;
F2 Gas 18 33 (ii) is strongly metallic in character;
Cl2 Gas 34 71 (iii) readily ionizes by gaining one electron;
(iv) contains two unpaired electrons in the ground state
Br2 Liquid 70 160
atom;
I2 Solid 106 254 (v) does not participate readily in chemical reactions;
PAST QUESTIONS (vi) is an s – block element.
1. (b) The
(a) State four characteristics of cathode rays. (i) Copy and complete the table below as appropriate.
(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of potassium given that it exists as
41
K and 39K with natural abundance of 6.7% and 93.3% respectively.

30
 (ii) Arrange the following ions in order of increasing size giving
Number of protons Number of electrons Number of neutrons
Particle reasons: Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ [11Na, 12Mg, 13Al]
1
(b) (i) Copy and complete the table below as appropriate.
1 H 1 1

27 3 +¿
13 Al ¿ Ion Atomic number Number of proton Number of
electron
16 2−¿ 8
8 O ¿
X 7
Q-
(ii) Give the reason why atomic radius increases down a group 10
in the periodic table but decreases from left to right in a
period. R 10
June 2003
3. Y2- 12
(a) (i) Mention two types of bond present in the ammonium ion. (ii) Explain why it is easier to remove an electron from the
(ii) Give three characteristics properties of electrovalent outermost shell of 19K than from 3Li.
compounds. (iii) write the electronic configuration of an element whose atom
19
(b) Two elements represented by the letters X and Y have atomic is represented as 9 X and state the group to which it
numbers 9 and 12 respectively. belongs in the periodic table.
19
(i) Write the electronic configuration of X using the s, p, d, f (iv) State with reason whether 9 X will be an oxidizing agent or
notation. a reducing agent. June 2008
(ii) To what group does Y belongs in the periodic table?
(iii) Write the formula of the compound formed when X
combines with Y.
(iv) Explain why X is a good oxidizing agent.
(v) State with reason, whether Y would be expected to form 5.
acidic or basic oxide. (a) State
(c) Consider the following list of substances: I. Pauli’s Exclusion principle;
Carbon (IV) oxide, hydrogen, zinc, Sulphur, methane, potassium and II. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
mercury. From the list, state the: (b) The
(i) elements that are metals; i. Write the electronic configuration of each of the following
(ii) compounds that are gases at room temperature; ions of copper:
(iii) non-metals that are solids at room temperature. June 2004 I. Cu+;
4. II. Cu2+. [29Cu]
(a) (i) State with illustration the difference between covalent bond ii. Give the number of unpaired electrons in each of the ions in
and coordinate bond. 5(b)i. above.

31
 (c) Arrange the following ions in order of increasing size. Give a reason of an element.
for your answer in each case. (ii) An atom has mass number 34 and neutron number 18.
I. Li+, K+, Na+; I. Deduce its number of electrons.
II. O2-, F-, N3-. II. Draw the electronic structure of the atom.
(d) Determine the percentage composition of phosphorus and oxygen in
phosphorus (V) oxide. (iii) Explain briefly why the relative atomic mass of chlorine is
[P = 31, O = 16] June 2008 not a whole number.
6.
(a) (i) Define covalent bond. (b) (i) What are transition elements?
(ii) Give two properties of covalent compounds. (ii) Name two transition elements.
(iii) With the aid of a diagram, show how ammonia molecule (iii) Explain briefly what is responsible for each of the following
is formed. properties of transition elements:
(iv) Illustrate with a diagram the formation of ammonium ion. I. variable oxidation state;
(v) What type of bond (s) exist (s) in II. formation of complex compounds.
I. ammonia,
II. ammonium ion? [1H, 7N]
(b) (i) Write three subatomic particles with their corresponding
relative masses.
(ii) Name the possible states in which water can exist.
June 2008
7.
(a) Define each of the following terms:
i. atomic number;
ii. isotopy.
35 37
(b) Two naturally occurring isotopes 17 R∧17 R have relative abundances
of 75.5% and 24.5% respectively.
(i) State the subatomic particles and the corresponding number CHARTER SIX
present in each of the isotopes.
(ii) Determine the: STOICHOIMETRY
I. relative atomic mass of element R; NAMING OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
II. number of molecules present in 17.75g of R. 1. NAMING ATOMS
[Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023 particles mol-1] Example
Nov. 2010 Na means Sodium atom.
8. Na also means the element sodium.
(a) (i) Distinguish between the mass number and the atomic number In an equation Na means one mole of sodium atoms
Na(s) + ½ Cl2(g) NaCl(s)

32
 as follows:
2. NAMING MOLECULES
Atomicity: This refers to the number of atoms in one molecule of the 1. The oxidation number of a pure element in its atomic or molecule from in
compound. zero.
i. Mono atomic gases (one atom gases)
Examples are Example: The oxidation number of Fe in Fe metal is zero. The oxidation
He, Helium gas number of Cl in Cl2 is zero.
Ne, Neon gas 2. The oxidation state of an ion from a simple atom is equal to the charge on
the ion. Examples:
Ar, Argon gas.
Fe3+ Oxidation state is +3
ii. Diatomic (two – atom molecules).
Example S2- Oxidation state is -2
H2(g) Hydrogen gas
Ag+ Oxidation state is +1
Cl2(g) Chlorine gas
O2(g) Oxygen gas Cl- Oxidation state is -1
N2(g) Nitrogen gas
HCl(g) Hydrogen Chloride gas Cu2+ Oxidation state is +2
iii. Triatomic (three atoms molecules) H+ Oxidation state is +1
Example
O3 Ozone 3. The oxidation state of oxygen is –2 in all compounds except in
H2O Water peroxides where it is –1. In peroxides oxygen in bonded to itself.
CO2 Carbon (IV) oxide
Example Hydrogen peroxide
SO2 Sulphur (IV) oxide
iv. Tetra atomic (four atoms molecules) H02 2 H
Example
P4 Phosphorous molecule. O O
NH3 Ammonia
H
v. Poly atomic molecules (many atom molecules)
Example 4. The oxidation state of hydrogen in all compounds is + 1 except in
S8 Sulphur metallic hydrides where it is –1.
C2H5OH Ethanol
Examples
OXIDATION NUMBER (Oxidation State)
The full IUPAC names of many compounds require the knowledge of NaH Sodium hydride
oxidation number.
The Oxidation Number of an atom is the real or hypothetical charge carried by KH Potassium hydride H is -1
the atom in a compound or in its pure state based on given rules. The rules are CaH2 Calcium hydride

33
In NH3, H2O, H2S, HNO3. Hydrogen is +1 in these compounds. Fe I2 Iron (II) iodide

5. The sum total of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a neutral AlF3 Aluminum Fluoride
compound is zero.
6. The total oxidation number of all atoms in an ion of more than one CaO Calcium oxide
atom is equal to the charge carried by the ion.
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
Examples
SO42 - tetraoxosulphate (VI) NaH Sodium hydride
x + 4 (-2) = -2
x – 8 = -2 Na2O Sodium oxide
x=6
CO Carbon (II) oxide
MnO4- tetraoxomanganate (VII)
x + 4 (-2) = -1 Carbon mono oxide
x – 8 = -1 CO2 Carbon (IV) oxide
x=7 Carbon dioxide
Al2O2 Aluminum oxide
NAMING BINARY COMPOUNDS Fe2O3 Iron (III) oxide
Cr2O3 Chromium (III) oxide
In naming binary compounds the electro positive atom is written first before the CoCl2 Cobalt (II) chloride
electronegative atom, and the electronegative atom ends ‘ide’. N2O Nitrogen (I) oxide
NO Nitrogen (II) oxide
Note: The oxidation state of all elements in group 7 for binary compounds is –1.
NO2 Nitrogen (IV) oxide
Examples: NaCl, KI, KBr, NaF. N2O4 dinitrogen (IV) oxide

In these compounds

Cl, I Br and F have oxidation state –1

Valency/oxidation number
Also metal in Group 1 have oxidation state +1 and metals in group 2 have
oxidation state +2. Transition metals have variable oxidation number. The valency/combining power of an element or radical/ion is the number of H
Note: Al is +3 and Zn is +2 atoms it combines with or replaces in a chemical reaction.

Examples: Examples

SO2 Sulphur (IV) oxide Ions Valency

H+ 1
SO3 Sulphur (VI) oxide H- 1
Br - 1
FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride Cl - 1

34
 F- 1 K2Cr2O7 Potassium heptaoxodichromate (VI)
I- 1
K+ 1 NAMING OXO ACIDS
HCO3- 1
Acids have replaceable hydrogen ions. In naming acids the replaceable hydrogen
HSO4- 1
is not pronounced but the names end with acid.
MnO4- 1
Examples
NO3- 1
H2SO4 Tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Ca 2+ 2 H2 CO3 Trioxocarbonate (IV) acid.
O2- 2 HNO3 trioxide nitrate (V) acid
S2- 2 H3PO4 tetraoxophosphate (V) acid
SO32- 2 H2SO3 trioxosulphate (IV) acid
SO42- 2 HClO3 trioxochlorate (V) acid
CO32- 2 HClO Monooxochlorate (I) acid
Cr3+ 3 Other examples
N3- 3 NaHCO3 Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV)
PO43- 3 KHSO4 Potassium hydrogen tetraoxosulphate (VI)

NAMING OXO– COMPOUNDS

 In these compound the numbers of oxygen atoms is always stated CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS AND MOLE RATIO
example:
A chemical reaction represents the change in which one or more substances act
Mono 1 penta 5 alone or on each other to produce one or more substances which change are
Di 2 hexa 6 called reactants.
Tri 3 hepta 7 The new substances formed are called products.
Tetra 4 octa 8 A + B C + D + E

Reactants Products
 Also the oxidation state of the central atom is stated at the end in Roman A chemical equation is an expression in symbols of the relative amount of
numbers. substances taking part in a reaction. It can be deduced from an experiment.
 The compounds name end with ate.
Examples A balanced chemical equation has:
Na2 SO4 Sodium tetraoxosulphate
i. Correct names or symbols and formulae of substances taking part in
KMnO4 Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
the reaction.
NaClO3 Sodium trioxochlorate (V) ii. Symbols showing the physical states of each substance involved.
NaClO Sodium monooxochlorate (I) iii. The relative amount of reactants and products involved in the
KClO4 Potassium tetraoxochlorate (VII) reaction.

Na3PO4 Sodium tetraoxophosphate (V) Signs or Symbols Meaning

s Solid or precipitate

35
 l Liquid Cu : 2 Cu : 1 (+ 1 = 2)
g Gas
aq Aqueous O:1 O:1
+ on the reactant side reacts with
+ on the product side and H2 (g) + Cu2O(s) 2Cu(s) + H2O(l) (Balanced equation)
Forms or produces in the formed
A balanced chemical equation shows relative amounts of the substances
direction(reaction cannot be reversed)
taking part in the reaction.
= Stoichiometric reaction A mole ratio is the relative amounts of any two substances involved in a
Forms in both directions chemical reaction.

Equilibrium state Example

e- Electron which takes part in redox 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)
reactions
2mol + 1mol 2mol (mole ratio)

4g + 32g 36g (gram ratio)

Note: A catalyst can be placed in the arrows above
A balanced chemical reaction follows from the law of conservation of mass.
BALANCED EQUATIONS
Ionic Equations
A balanced equation is an equation in which the total number of atoms of each
element on the left hand side is equal to the total number of the same atoms on A chemical reaction which involves at least one ionic species as a reactant or
the right hand side. product is called an ionic equation. Example

Examples H+(aq) + OH- H2O(l)

Balance the following equations In the aqueous state some ionic substances dissolve and their ions behave as two
separate (different) chemicals independent of each other. In a reaction some of
H2 (g) + Cu2O(s) Cu(s) + H2O(l) these ions do not take part in the reaction (rxn) they are known as Spectator Ions.
These ions cancelled out in a chemical equation and are therefore not shown in
KClO3 (s) catalyst KCl (s) + O2 (g) ionic equations

CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) CO2 (g) + H2O(s) Example

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na Cl + H2O(l)

Solution
H+(aq_ + Cl-(aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
H2 (g) + Cu2O(s) Cu(s) + H2O(l) (Unbalanced equation)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
H:2 H:2
In writing Ionic equation

36
1. Both mass and charge are conserved 1
2. The state of the reaction and products should be clearly stated of the mass of one atom of carbon –12
12
3. An Ionic solid should be shown as a formula unit Note: Relative atomic mass has no unit because it in a ratio of two masses.
4. Molecule substances (except hydrogen chloride) do not give ionic in aqueous NOTATION Ar (Na) means the relative atomic mass of sodium.
solution On the carbon – 12 scale.
An insoluble solid formed when dissolved substances react together is called a Ar (Na) = 23 or 23 amu
precipitate. A precipitate is a suspension of small solid particles in a chemical Ar (12C) = 12 or 12 u
reaction.
1 12
Ar ( C) = 1 or 1 u
12
U atomic mass unit (amu)
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
The relative molecular mass of a molecule is defined as the average mass of one
1
molecule compared to of the mass of one atom of carbon —12.
12

i.e. Mr = average mass of one molecule of the substance

1
the mass of carbon –12 (12C)
12

Examples: Mr (H2O) = 18
Mr (Cl2) = 71
Mr (H2 SO4) = 98

The Mole
The mole is the S I unit of amount of substance quantity. It is a fundamental
quantity unit.

AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE AND THE MOLE CONCEPT Definition One mole of any substance is the amount of that substance which
contains as many particulate entities as there are carbon atoms in 0.012kg (12g)
In chemistry the quantity of a substance can be measured in two basic ways. of 12C.
I. Mass quantity (in grams)
II. Amount of substance quantity (in moles)
Avogadro’s Constant (NA)
Relative Atomic Mass Ar
The relative atomic mass of an atom is defined as the average mass of one atom Avogadro’s Constant is the number of atoms in 12g of carbon –12. Avogadro’s
1 constant is the number of specified entities in one mole of any substance
of element compared to of the mass of one atom of carbon –12 isotope.
12 NA = 6. 02 x 10 23 entities per mole (mol-1)
i.e. Ar = average mass of one atom of the element
Let N = number of entities

37
 n = amount of substance in mole occupies 22.4 dm at standard temperature (273k) and standard pressure
3

N (1. 01 x 105 Pa). 1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg.

n=
NA
The molar volume (Vm) is equal to 22.4 dm mol at s.t.p
3 -1
Vm= 22.4 dm mol -1

∴N = n N A
Let V = a given volume of a gas at s.t.p
V
Examples Calculate n=
Vm
a. the number of molecule.
b. the number of atoms in 0. 05 moles of oxygen gas. N = n Vm

UNIT OF VOLUME
Molar Mass (M)
The molar mass of any substance is the mass of one mole of the substance. The 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 = 1 Litre (L)
molar mass of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 entities. 1
1 cm3 = dm3
The unit of molar mass (M) is gram per mole (gmol ) -1 1000
Molar Mass = Mr x g mol-1
= Ar x g mol-1 = 10-3 dm3
= 1 millilitre (ml)
Also 1 cm3 = 10 -6 m3
Examples
Concentration
Ar (Na) = 23 Concentration is the quantity of solute in solution in a uniform mixture of two
M (Na) = 23g mol -1
or more substances.
Mr (CH3 COOH) = 60 A solute dissolves in the solvent to give a solution. The substance which has a
M (CH3 COOH) = 60 g mol -1 smaller volume is considered to be the solute and the other making the larger
Let m = mass of substance in grams volume is the solvent
The quantity of solute per unit quantity of solution is called its concentration.
m Amount of substance concentration (C)
n= mass in grams
M This is defined as the amount of substance that dissolves to make up 1 dm 3 of
molar mass in g mol -1
solution.
amount of n
c= amount of substance in moles.
substance in moles V
volume of solution
in dm-3
Molar Volume (Vm) concentration
in mole dm-3
Avogadro’s law of gases
m
This states that equal volume of gases under the same condition of temperature but n= mass in gram
M
and pressure contain equal number of molecules. Therefore one mole of any gas molar mass

38
 m DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS
c =
MV
Standard solutions can be diluted to lower the concentration by the addition of
m = CMV
water, the process is known as dilution.
Mass Concentration ( ρ )
In dilution only the volume of the solvent is increased the amount of substance is
This is the mass of substance dissolved to from 1 dm3 of solution. the concentrated solution is equal to that in the diluted [Link] is:
n (concentrated solution) = n (diluted solution)
ρ= mass = m
Volume V (dm3) ∴ C (conc.) x V (conc.) = C (dil.) x V (dil.)
The unit of ρ is g dm-3. ρ is also known as the density of the solution in g dm-3.
c = mass C 1 V1 = C 2 V2
Molar mass x volume (dm3)
c = m Where V2 = V1 + volume of water added
MxV Example
c = ρ
M 1. i. Calculate the concentration of the stock solution of HCI with the
ρ = cM following label specifications
PREPARATION OF SOLUTION
The substance used in preparing solutions are mainly obtained from chemical density = 1.18 g/cm3
shops
% purity = 36%
Their containers are labeled specifying:
their purity, density (specific gravity) and molar mass and in addition to Mr (HCl) = 36.5
this information are the methods used in the preparation, ii. Calculate the volume of stock solution that would be taken to dilute it to
A full list of experimentally determined purity of the chemical including its 2 dm3 of concentration 0.8 mole dm3
impurities is called its assay
Standard solutions 2. Calculate the following
A standard solution is one whose concentration is accurately known. I. The one of 40g of NaOH dissolved to make 500cm3 solution
Standard Volumetric Flasks with marked volumes are used to prepare standard
(Na = 23, O = 16, H=1)
solutions.
II. Amount of potassiumtrioxocarbonate (IV) in 800 cm3 of solution of
HOW TO PREPARD A STADARD SOLUTION concentration 2 mol dm-3
3.
STEPS
1. Weigh the solid accurately (i) Calculate the amount of trioxonitrate (V) acid in 25 ml of its solution of
mass concentration 12. 6g L-1. {L = Litre and mL = milli-
2. Transfer the solid in the volumetric flask and rinse the beaker and the funnel Litre)
used well.
(ii) Calculate the mass of sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) which has to be weighed
3. Shake well to dissolve all the solute in the solvent
to prepare 500 cm3 of its aqueous solution of concentration 0.1 mol dm-3.
4. Accurately top up the liquid level of the solution to the mark. [H = 1,0 = 16, C = 12, N = 14]

39
 4. In an experiment involving the hydrate salt Na2CO3 . xH2O where x is the 1. A quantitative test is done to find out the different types of element present.
number of molecules of crystallization the mass concentration of its solution is 2. A quantitative test is done to determine the percentage by mass of the different
5.72 g dm-3, and from the experiment the concentration was found to be 0.02 elements present. This is followed by the calculation of the Empirical formula
3. The molecule mass in determined.
mol dm-3.
4. The formula is worked out using all the collected information.
i. Calculate the molar mass Na2CO3 . xH2O (from the experiment).
ii. Determine formula of the hydrated salt. LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
1. The law of conservation of matter
CHEMICAL FORMULAE This law states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed during
chemical reactions.
There are three main types of chemical formula. 2. The law of constant proportion
1. Empirical formula This law states that the proportion by mass of each element in a pure
This shows the whole number ratio of different types of atoms in the simplest compound however the compound was prepared is always the same.
3. The law of multiple proportion
form.
This states that if two elements combine to form more than one
2. Molecular Formula: This shows the actual number of different atoms in the compound, the different masses of one element which combine with a
molecule. fixed mass of the other are in a simple ratio.
3. Structural Formula: This shows how the atoms in the molecule or unit are Examples
bonded to each other in the molecule 1. Name the following ions state the atomicity of each:
Example Mg+ , O H- , SCN- , CN- , NH+4 , SO2-4 , PO3-4 , S2-, CO2-3 , HCO-
-
3 , HSO 4 .
H H
2. One mole of the compound M (OH)2 has mass 58g. what is the R.M.M.
Ethane
(H = 1 , O = 16)
H C C H Structure or CH3CH3 3. Consider the equation below
Formula 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
i. Write down the equation in words, giving the state of the
H H compounds.
C 2 H6 molecular formula ii. Determine the mass of (NH4)2SO4 that would be produced from
C H3 empirical formula 58g of NH3 (g).
4. If 2.4g of carbon is burnt completely in air.
Example
i. Write down a balanced equation for the reaction.
Hydrogen peroxide ii. Calculate the volume of carbon (IV) oxide produced at s.t.p.
H 5. What volume is occupied by 0.4g of hydrogen gas at s.t.p?
O O structural formula (H = 1.00 , Vm = 22.4 dm3)
H 6. The number of Sulphur atoms in 3.2g of SO2 (g) is?
H2O2 molecular formula [O = 16 , S = 32 , NA = 6.02 x 1023]
HO empirical formula 7. In the reaction represented by the equation
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O(L) + CO2
(g)
What mass of CaCl2 (s) would be obtained when 25.0g of CaCO3 (s) reacts
How To determine The Molecular Formula From Compounds
with excess HCl(aq). [CaCO3 = 100]

40
8. The oxidation number of Fe in [Fe (CN)6]3- is? (ix) lithium hydride
9. Give the IUPAC names of the following (x) zinc bromide
Mg (NO3)2 , Fe2O3 , K2SO4 , CuCl2 , ZnCO3 , HgNO3 , 16. Give the oxidation number for the elements underlined in the following
Hg2(NO3)2.
species
10. The following information was on a label of a stock solution of HNO3 (aq).
Molar mass = 63 (i) Mn2+ (vi) Al2S3
density = 1.42 gcm-3 (ii) NaH (vii) NaCN
2−¿¿
70 % of w/w = percentage purity (iii) AlF3 (viii) Cr2O 7
Calculate the (iv) Fe2O3 (ix) Cu2O
i. Concentration of the HNO3 in moldm-3.
(v) FeO (x) O2
ii. Volume of the stock solution required to prepared 100cm3 of
0.10 mol dm-3 solution. 17.
11. Calculate the number of molecules in 3.2g of oxygen gas. (a) Write the empirical formula for the following substances, if any.
12. Calculate the number of chloride ions present in 50g of magnesium (i) H2O2 (v) NaCl
chloride. (Mg = 24 , Cl = 35.5 ,NA = 6.02 x 1023) (ii) C4H10 (vi) Cu2Cl2
13. How many molecules of hydrogen are contained in 0.224 dm3 of the gas (iii) CH3COOH (viii) Na2CO3
at s.t.p? (Vm = 22.4 dm3 , NA = 6.02 x 1023) (iv) Al2Cl3 (ix) Al(NO3)3
14. How many moles of HNO3 are there in 200cm3 of 2.5 mol dm-3 of the
(b) A compound has the elements C and H only. The percentage
solution?
15. What volume of CO2 (g) would be produced at s.t.p if 25g of CaCO3 composition of carbon is 83.3 and hydrogen, 16.7. The relative
decomposes completed according to the following reaction. molecular mass has been determined to be 72. What is
(a) What does the word nomenclature means? (i) the empirical formula,
(b) Explain briefly what is a systematic naming of substances. (ii) the molecular formula of the compound?
(c) Give the IUPAC names of the following species: (Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)
(i) K2O (vi) 2−¿ ¿
SO 3 18.
2−¿ ¿ (a) State the laws of chemical combination.
(ii) SO 4 (vii) Fe3+
(b)
(iii) Na2SO3 (viii) HCl
(i) Write the formula for iron (II) chloride.
(iv) CO (ix) aq HCl
(ii) What is the mass of iron in 4g of iron (II) chloride?
(v) SO3 (x) FeSO4 . 7H2O
(c) Two chlorides of iron were prepared: one by addition of dry
(d) Give the formula for each of the following:
chloride gas; the other by addition of dry hydrogen chloride gas.
(i) zinc hydroxide
4.5g of iron reacted with chlorine gas to form 13.01g of the
(ii) copper (II) trioxonitrate (V) – 3 – water
chloride. 2.8g of iron reacted with the hydrogen chloride to give
(iii) calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
6.35g of the other chloride.
(iv) nitride ion
(i) Calculate the mass of chlorine which combined with
(v) dioxonitrate (II) ion
2.8g of iron in each compound.
(vi) potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
(ii) Find the ratio of the different masses of chlorine that
(vii) manganese (IV) chloride
combined with the 2.8g of iron.
(viii) sodium peroxide

41
 Sulphide is treated as in the equations.
(iii) Which of the laws stated is illustrated by the data (Relative molecular mass CuS = 95.6)
obtained from the experiment. 23. Ammonium trioxonitrate (V) and ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI) are
19. Balance the following chemical equations: two fertilizers which replace nitrogen element used up in the soil.
(a) CaO(s) + NH4Cl(s) CaCl2(s) + NH3(g) + H2O(l) (i) Write the formula for each fertilizer.
(b) N2O4(g) NO2(g)
(ii) For the same mass of each fertilizer, show by calculations,
(c) NO(g) + O2(g) NO2(g)
which one will supply more nitrogen to the soil?
(d) Na2CO3 + HCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14, H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)
(e) Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + H2O(l)
24. A mixture of hydrogen gas and chlorine gas react in bright sunlight to
(f) Pb(NO3)2(s) PbO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
give hydrogen chloride. 50 cm3of hydrogen gas was mixed with 40 cm3
(g) Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
of chlorine in a glass tube. Water was allowed into the tube without any
(h) C4H10(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
escape of gas. Hydrogen chloride is very soluble in water. It dissolved
(i) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + KI(aq) PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)
leaving other gas (es).
20. Write down the ionic equations for the following
(a) Ag(NO3)(aq) + KI(aq) AgI(s) + KNO3(aq) (i) Write a balanced chemical reaction for the reaction.
(b) NaOH(aq) + CuCl2(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + NaCl(aq) (ii) What is the volume of hydrogen chloride gas formed?
(c) Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g) (iii) What is the composition of the gas(es) left in the glass
(d) K2CrO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCrO4(s) + KNO3(aq) container.
(e) NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4aq + H2O(l) 25. You are given the following balanced equations. Write the mole ratio
21. Sulphur exists as SX solid. The Sulphur in that form is vapourized and between the two substances listed under each equation:
allowed to combine with oxygen gas to form Sulphur (IV) oxide gas. 10 (a) 2KClO3(s) catalyst 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
cm3 of the Sulphur vapour reacted with 80 cm3 of Sulphur (IV) oxide.
(i) KClO3(s) and O2(g)
(a) Using this information only determine
(i) the ratio of combining volumes of the three substances
(ii) KCl(s) and O2(g)
2−¿¿
in the reaction; (b) CO 3 (aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2−¿¿
(ii) the number of atoms in one molecule of the Sulphur (i) CO 3 and H+(aq)
(aq)

element. (ii) CO 2−¿¿

3 (aq) and CO2(g)
(b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction. (c) 5Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
22. The following reactions occur in the production of copper (II) Sulphide.
3 (i) Fe2+(aq) and Fe3+(aq)
CuS + 2O 2 CuO + SO2
(ii) Fe2+(aq) and MnO4-(aq)
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Calculate (iii) H+(aq) and Fe2+(aq)
(i) the mass of copper produced; (d) C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

(ii) the volume of hydrogen gas used when 50 kg of copper (II) (i) O2(g) and C3H6 (g)
(ii) CO2 (g) and O2 (g)
42
 1 3 (v) concentration of the hydrochloric acid left after reaction.
(e) 2 H 2(g ) + Cl HCl(g)
2 2(g) (vi) the number of atoms in the hydrogen produced.
(i) H2 (g) and HCl (g) Molar volume of gas at room temperature = 24.0 dm3
(ii) H2 (g) and Cl2 (g) (Ar Mg = 24.0, L = 6.02 x 1023)
26. 30.
(a) Calculate the percentage of chloride ion present in 5.0g sample (a) State the following laws of chemical combination:
of drain water from a factory if 10.10 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 silver (i) Law of constant composition;
(ii) Law of multiple proportion.
trioxonitrate (V) is required to react with all the chloride in the
(b) Copper reacts with oxygen to form two oxides X and Y. on analysis,
sample. 1.535g of X yielded 1.365g copper and 1.450g of Y yielded 1.160g
AgNO3 (aq) + Cl – (aq) AgCl(s) + NO3 – (aq) of copper.
(b) Which of the species in the reaction is a spectator ion and why? (i) Determine the chemical formula of X and Y.
(Relative atomic mass of Cl = 35.5) (ii) Calculate the mass of copper which can react with 0.500g of
27. In the manufacture of trioxonitrate (V) acid the order of reactions is as oxygen to yield
follows I. X,
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) II. Y.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l) (iii) Which of the laws of chemical combination is illustrated by
2NO(g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g) the result in (b)(i) above.
3NO2 (g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3 (l) + NO(g) {O = 16, Cu = 63.5} June 2006
Disregarding the by-product NO (which is recycled into the plant 31. The following table shows the masses of two oxides of lead and the
again to be changed in HNO3) calculate the volume of trioxonitrate corresponding mass of lead in each oxide.
(V) acid, 60% w/v that would be produced by 2 kg of nitrogen as raw
material. Oxide 1 (in g) Oxide 2 (in g)
28. What is the maximum volume of chlorine at s.t.p that can be collected Mass of oxide 5.78 5.22
Mass of Lead 5.44 4.64
from 200g of MnO2 (s) from the reaction
MnO2 (s) + 4HCl(aq) MnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2 (g) (i) Calculate the mass of lead which combines with 1.0g of oxygen in:
(Relative atomic masses: Mn = 55.0, O = 16.0) I. oxide 1;
29. 5.4g magnesium metal is reacted with 100cm3 of 8M concentrated II. oxide 2.
aqueous hydrochloric acid at room temperature. Calculate the following: (ii) Calculate the ratio of the different masses of lead which
(i) volume of hydrogen gas produced at room temperature. combined with 1.0g of oxygen in the two oxides.
(ii) the number of chloride ions formed in the reaction. (iii) Which law is being demonstrated?

(iii) the mass of magnesium ions produced. Compare its (iv) State the law. Nov. 2013
mass with the mass of magnesium metal used. Comment on
the difference if any.
(iv) amount of hydrochloric left in moles after reaction.

43
 CHAPTER SEVEN
STATES OF MATTER
There are at least four states of matter these are the:
1. Solid state
2. Liquid state
3. Gaseous state
4. Plasma state
Plasma is an ionized gas. It is formed when a gas is heated at a very high Examples of substances that sublime
temperature. The electrons then acquire sufficient energy to escape from the 1. Camphor
nuclei and leave behind positive ions. Over 99% of the matter in the universe 2. Ammonium salts, NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4
appears to exist as plasma. The sun and stars are believed to be in the plasma
3. Iodine crystals
state.
THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
1. Matter is made up of tiny particles (ions, atoms or molecules) which are in THE LIQUID STATE
constant motion. The particles of a liquid have more kinetic energy than those of solid and are not
2. The participles possess kinetic energy held in fixed positions. They are in constant random motion bouncing off on
3. The difference between the solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter are due to colliding with each other. They are still closely parked together but less closely
the ways in which the individual particles move. packed than in a solid and the forces of attraction between them are weaker than
THE SOLID STATE those in a solid.
Particles in the solid state are closely packed and firmly held together by binding A liquid therefore posses a constant volume but its shape is irregular (indefinite).
forces or forces of cohesion A liquid takes the shape of its container.
These forces many be weak van der Waal forces or strong covalent or ionic or
metallic forces. The stronger the cohesive force the higher the melting or boiling THE GASEOUS STATE
points of the solid. The forces of cohesion between the solid particles are such In gases there are almost no cohesive forces between the particles of the gas and
that the particles are in fixed positions and they only make vibrational so they are completely free to move about in all direction at very high speeds.
movements The movement of the particles of a gas is restricted by the walls of their
Solids cannot flow they have a definite shape and a definite size due to the fixed container.
positions of the particles Therefore a gas has no definite shape and volume it occupies the whole volume
A solid changes it state when it is sufficiently heated. The change comes of its container
about because the particles acquire more kinetic energy and vibrate with greater It may be readily compressed since the gas particles are far apart when compared
amplitudes to those of solids and liquids.
Melting point: this is the temperature at which the energy supplied is sufficient to Class work
overcome the bonding forces. In a tabular form write down the differences between solid, liquid and
At the melting point the regular structure of the solid begins to break down. gas under these specific properties movement, closeness, cohesive forces, order
Some solids when heated they by-pass the liquid state and change directly to the and kinetic energy.
vapour this process is known as sublimation.

44
 t = temperature on
GAS LAWS the celcius scale
1. Graham's Law of diffusion: - This law states that at constant
temperature and pressure the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely 0K 273.150C
proportional to the square root of its density. Standard temperature = 273 (00C)
1 2. Boyle’s law: - This states that the volume of a given mass of gas is
rate (r) ∝ inversely proportional to the pressure provided the temperature remains
√ density ( ρ) constant.
1
r∝ 1
√ρ volume (v) ∝
pressure( p)
K
Relatively V = , K= constant

√ √
P
r1 ρ r M1
= 2 or 1 = P v = constant
r2 ρ1 r2 M2 P1 V1= P2V2
ρ1=density o f gas ( 1 )
ρ2=density of gas (2)
Note:
The vapour density of a gas
density of gas
¿
density of hydrogen
molecular mass of gas M ( gas)
¿
molecular mass of hydrogen
M (gas )
Vapour density =
2
∴ M ( gas )=2(vapour density )
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) = Nm-2
Pressure is also measured based on the height of the mercury column.
Standard Pressure = 1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg.
1 standard atmosphere = 101.325 Pa.
UNITS OF TEMPERATURE
Absolute (K) Celcius (0C)
Kelvin scale scale
373.15K 1000C
Where
P1 = initial pressure V1 = initial volume
0 P2 = new pressure V2 = new volume
273.15K 0C

T = (t + 273)K

45
 V1 P1 V2 P2

Examples: 350 cm3 of a gas has pressure 80 KPa what volume of the gas in cm3
gas pressure 70 KPa at constant temperature?
3. Charles law
Charles's law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Volume (V) ∝ temperature (T)
V∝ T
V=KT
V
T
V1 V2
= V1 = initial volume
T 1 T2
V2 = new volume
T1 = initial temperature
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES T2 = new temperature
The kinetic molecular theory of gases postulates that
1. Gases consist of many molecules which are in constant rapid random motion
in all directions.
2. The molecules collide with each other and walls of container, the collisions are
perfectly elastic (no kinetic energy is lost)
3. The distance between the molecules very much greater than diameters.
Boyles Law Explained kinetic theory
The pressure on the walls of the containing vessel is directly proportional of the
number of collisions the gas molecules makes with the walls of the container.
Decreasing the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature increases
the number of collision per unit time hence increases in pressure, because the
increase in the rate of collision increases pressure.

There are two features of the graph that should be noted:

(i) The extrapolation (produced backwards to touch the negative axis of
the temperature.
(ii) The point of intersection of the lines on the temperature axis is the
volume of gases reach zero at – 273.150C.
This is the temperature at which the volume of the hypothetical
(imaginary) gas would become zero. This temperature is known as
the Absolute Zero Temperature.

46
 5. Avogadro’s law
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
In other words, the volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure
Charles law and the Kinetic Theory is directly proportional to the amount of gas or the number of molecule of the
gas.
The temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules of the gas, when a given mass of a gas is heated the molecules V ∝ n or V=Cn where C = constant
acquire energy and moves faster. This increases the rate of collision with the n = amount of substance
walls of the container. For the pressure to remain constant, more space must be Summary
provided so that the faster moving molecules are travelling over longer distances 1
before colliding with the walls. With the increase in volume of the container the Boyle’s Law V∝ (n, T constant)
P
rate of collision is held constant Therefore the volume of a given mass of gas is
Charles’ Law V ∝T , (n, P constant)
directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure.
Avogadro’s V ∝n , (P, T constant)
THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION
This is an equation that relates pressure, temperature and volume of a
perfect gas. An ideal or perfect gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws.
Real gases such as helium hydrogen and nitrogen obey the equation closely only
at high temperature and low pressure (i.e. when the particles are far apart).
at constant
V1 T1 pressure The equation is a combination of Charles’, Boyle’s and Avogadro’s laws.
V2 T2 The ideal gas equation states
Example PV = nRT
At 340C a sample of a gas occupies 250 cm3. Find the new volume at m
1000C if the pressure remains constant. n=
M
4. The general gas law
This is a combination of Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law. Where R = gas constant = 8.314 Jk-1mol-1
The general (combined) gas equation is given by
6. GAY LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES
P1V 1 P2V 2 PV
= or =constant At the same temperature and pressure the volumes of gases reacting and
T1 T2 T their products if gaseous are in the ratio of simple whole numbers. The volume
P1, V1, T1 are the initial values
ratios are actually the same as mole ratios since equal volumes of gases contain
P2 , V2 , T2 are the final values
Example equal amount of gases.
1. A fixed mass of a gas has volume 76 cm3 at 270C and 850 mmHg. Find Example
the volume of the gas at s.t.p. 1. 30 cm3 of Nitrogen gas is mixed with 60 cm3 of hydrogen gas under
2. Hydrogen gas is contained in 360 cm3 glass bulb at s.t.p. calculate the suitable condition to produce ammonia gas.
new pressure if it is carefully transferred into a glass bulb of volume 340 (a) Write the balance chemical equation for the reaction.
cm3 at 400C. (b) Assuming that the reaction gives a maximum yield of ammonia. Calculate

47
 (i) the volume of ammonia former (ii) Some solids when heated change directly to the gaseous
(ii) the excess of any reaction gas state.
(iii) the total volumes of the gaseous mixture after reaction.
I. What name is given to this phenomenon?
II. Name two substances which exhibit the
PARTIAL PRESSURE phenomenon referred to in 1(b)(ii)I.
In a mixture of gases which do not react each gas exerts its own pressure (c) If 80 cm3 of methane (CH4) diffuses through a porous
on the walls of the vessel as though it were alone in the vessel. This pressure is membrane in 20 seconds while 50 cm3 of gas Q
known as partial pressure. diffuses through the same membrane in 25 seconds;
7. Dalton’s Law of partial pressure calculate the molecular mass of gas Q.
This states that for a mixture of gases which do not react together the
{ CH4 = 16.0 }
total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases present. That is
Nov. 2012
each gas in a gaseous mixture has the same pressure as it would exert if it were
present alone in the volume occupied by the mixture. 2. (a) (i) State Graham’s law of diffusion.
PT = PA + PB + PC + …… (ii) A gas B at 25 0C and 1.013 x 105 Nm-5 is in a 5 dm3
Example in air vessel. Another gas C at 25 0C and 3.039 x 105
PT =PN + P O + P
2 2 Nm-2 is similarly placed in 5 dm3 vessel. What will be
Dalton’s law is used to calculate the volume of gases collected over water. The the total pressure at 25 0C, if gases B and C are both
gas collected contains water vapour. together in a I. 5 dm3 vessel?
PT = Pgas + Pwater vapour II. 10 dm3 vessel?

(b) Consider the following equation for the combustion of

Questions on state of matter
methane:
1. (a) (i) State Boyle’s law.
(ii) Give the mathematical expression of Boyle’s law. CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)
(iii) Give two reasons why real gases deviate from ideal gas
behaviour. If 0.50 mol of the methane is completely burnt in 1.5 mol of
(iv) State: oxygen,
I. three postulates of the kinetic theory of gases;
II. Dalton’s law of partial pressures. (i) which of the two reactants is in excess and by how
(b) (i) Consider the figure as illustrated below: much?
Liquid (ii) how many moles of steam are produced?
P Q
(iii) how many molecules of oxygen are used up
Gas Solid during the process? Nov. 2013
R
{Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 10 mol-1}
23

State the process represented by P, Q and R respectively. 3. (a) (i) Mention the various states of matter.

48
 (ii) Arrange the states of matter in decreasing order of: I. calculate the volume of carbon (IV) oxide produced?
I. kinetic energy of particles; II. which reactant is in excess and by how much?
II. disorderliness between particles; III. what was the total volume of the gaseous mixture at
III. forces of cohesion between particles. the end of the reaction? June 2009
Nov. 8.
2010 (a) (i) State Boyle’s law.
(ii) Give the mathematical expression of Boyle’s law.
4. (iii) Sketch the graphical representation of Boyle’s law.
(a) State Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes. (b) A given mass of gas occupies 500 cm3 at 30 0C and 6.5 x 104 Nm-2.
(b) Calculate the volume of CO and O2 which will combine to give Calculate the volume of the gas at s.t.p.
4dm3 of CO2 at constant temperature and pressure. Nov. 2005 {Standard pressure = 1.01 x 105 Nm-2} June 2009
5. (c) Explain why an inflated balloon expands in warm water.
(a) (i) What is diffusion? 9.
(ii) State Charles’ law. (a) (i) State two differences between the properties of solids and
(iii) Sketch a graph to illustrate Charles’ law. gases.
(iv) A given mass of gas occupied 150 cm3 at 27 0C and a (ii) What process does each of X, Y and Z represent in the
pressure of 1.013 x 105 Nm-2. Calculate the changes shown below?
temperature at which its volume will be doubled at Gas
the same pressure. Y Z
(v) Arrange the three states of matter in order of increasing:
I. kinetic energy; Solid Liquid
II. forces of cohesion. June 2012 X
6.
(a) (i) State Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure. (b) (i) State Charles’ Law.
(ii) If 200 cm3 of carbon (IV) oxide were collected over water at (ii) Draw a sketch to graphically illustrate Charles’ law.
18 0C and 700 mmHg, determine the volume of the dry gas at (c) 60 cm3 of hydrogen diffused through a porous membrane in 10
s.t.p. {Standard vapour pressure of water at 18 0C = 15 mmHg} minutes. The same volume of a gas G diffused through the same
June membrane in 37.4 minutes. Determine the relative molecular mass of
2010 G. [H = 1]
7. (d) (i) State two assumptions of the kinetic theory.
(a) State Gay Lussac’s Law. (ii) Consider the reaction represented by the following equation:
(b) Carbon (II) oxide reacted with oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide in a H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl(g)
sealed tube. Use the kinetic theory to explain how the rate of formation of
(i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction. HCl(g) would be affected by
(ii) If 40 cm3 of the carbon (II) oxide were mixed with 30 cm3 of I. increase in temperature;
oxygen, II. decrease in pressure. June 2006

49
 Below are the procedures for folding the filter paper.

a. First fold the filter paper into two halves along the dotted lined
shown.
b. Then fold the halves into another half i.e. folded into quarters.
c. Open up one of its two compartments to form a cone as shown.
CHAPTER EIGHT d. The cone is now put in the funnel by making it to touch the sides of
SEPERATION TECHNIQUES the funnel by pressing it.

If the mixtures are not chemically combined, it is possible to separate

them through physical methods. Some of the physical methods used for
separating mixtures into their components are as follows:

1. Filtration 6. Sublimation
2. Decantation 7. precipitation
3. Distillation 8. Crystallization and re-crystallization
4. Fractional distillation 9. Chromatography
5. Evapouration 10. Separation of immiscible liquids

1. FILTRATION 2. DECANTATION
This is a method used in separating insoluble solid from a liquid This is the method of careful running off of top liquid portion
in which it is suspended using filter paper and filter funnel. The from bottom solid or liquid portion. The solid portion may then
insoluble solid can be removed from the filter funnel and dried. be heated to dryness over a bunsen flame; example is the mixture
The liquid component is called the filtrate. of sand and water.
Examples are insoluble salts in water and sand in water.

50
3. EVAPORATION
This is a method of separating dissolved solid from solution.
When the solution is heated in a water bath, the solvent is lost to
the atmosphere as vapour, leaving the solid solute behind in the
evaporating flask or dish. Examples include the mixtures of salt
and water or aluminum hydroxide in solution.

5. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

This is a method used for separating liquid mixture with close boiling points.
A fractionating column is employed to effect the separation. Examples are
ethanol – water and petroleum.

4. DISTILLATION
This is a method used for separating liquid from solids or liquids
that have widely different boiling points. This procedure
involves boiling and condensing the vapour as a distillate.
Example is the mixture of sea water.

51
 6. SUBLIMATION and boiling to get a saturated solution of the salt. Then the saturated solution is
This is a method that is used to separate substances that change cooled under the tap until the crystallization by introducing a few crystals of the
directly from solid to vapour (gaseous state), on heating without same salt into the solution to serve as seeds. The impurities do not crystallize as
passing through the liquid state. Examples of these substances they are still well within their limit of solubility. Example copper (ii)
are ammonium chloride, iodine, aluminum chloride, naphthalene tetraoxosulphate (VI) and water.
etc.

7. PRECIPITATION
This is the method of separation that is based on the difference in
solubility of a solid in two different miscible liquids. For
example adding an aqueous solution of iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate
(VI) to ethanol will precipitate the pure solid of FeSO4 which can
be recovered by filtration. In this example water and ethanol are
two miscible liquids while FeSO4 is soluble in water, but
insoluble in ethanol.
8. CRYSTALLIZATION AND RE-CRYSTALLIZATION
a. CRYSTALLIZATION

This is the method of separating pure salts that is dissolved in a suitable solvent
taking advantage of higher solubility of impurities. The process involves heating

52
 9. CHROMATOGRAPHY
This is a method of separating soluble complex mixtures into their
different components by taking advantage of their rate of movement in
a solvent over an adsorbent medium. Examples are ink, green leaves,
and dyes.

b. RE-CRYSTALLIZATION OR FRACTIONAL CRYSTILLIZATION

Re-crystallization on other hand is a method of crystallization whereby
two solids are separated based on their different solubilities at different
temperatures, in the solutes are selectively crystallized. For example a
mixture of potassium trioxonitrate (V) and potassium trioxochlorate
(V).

10. SEPARATION OF IMMISIBLE LIQUIDS

53
 This is the method of separating two immiscible liquid by tapping off 1. Which of the following electronic configurations correctly represents an
the lower dense liquid leaving the upper less dense liquid in separating inert element?
funnel. Examples are petrol and water, palm oil and water, benzene and A. 1s2 2s2 2p4
water etc. B. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
C. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
D. 1s2 2s2 2p6
2. Which of the following ions has the electron configuration 2, 8, 8?
−¿¿ −¿¿
A. Na+ B. Mg2+ C. F D. Cl
3. An element with the electron configuration of 1s2 2s22p6 would have a
combining power (valency) of
A. 0 B. 2 C. 6 D. 8
4. Rare gases are stable because they
A. contain equal number of protons and neutrons
B. contain more electrons than protons
C. are chemically active
EXERCISES
D. have octet structure
1. Draw and label a diagram of the apparatus used for separation of water and 5. Which of the following elements would produce coloured ions in
petrol. aqueous solution?
2. Draw and label a diagram for a set up that can be used for the separation of two A. Calcium C. Magnesium
immiscible liquids. B. Iron D. Sodium
3. A student who was asked to separate a mixture of iron filings and Sulphur 6. The energy change that accompanies the addition of an electron to an
mistakenly heated the mixture.
isolated gaseous atom is
i. How would you have separated the mixture?
A. bond energy C. electronegativity
ii. Describe what was observed.
B. electron affinity D. ionization energy
4. Briefly explain how you will separate the following mixture.
7. Which of the following arrangements is in order of increasing metallic
(a) A mixture of sand, iodine and sodium chloride salt.
property?
(b) Chalk powder and sodium chloride.
A. Li < Na < K C. K < Na < Li
(c) Sodium chloride, ammonium chloride and starch powder.
B. Na < Li < K D. K < Li < Na
8. Chlorine, bromine and iodine belong to the same group and
A. are gaseous at room temperature
B. forms white precipitate with AgNO3 (aq)
C. react violently with hydrogen without heating
D. react with alkali
9. Which of the following elements can conveniently be placed in two
PAST OBJECTIVES QUESTIONS groups in the periodic table?
A. Carbon C. Hydrogen

54
 B. Copper D. Oxygen A. a cation C. an alpha particle
10. The bond formed when two electrons that are shared between two atoms B. an anion D. a beta particle
are donated by one of the atoms is 18. An element R with atomic number 3 reacts with an element Q with
A. covalent C. ionic atomic number 8. The formula of the compound formed is
B. dative D. metallic A. R3Q8 C. R2Q
11. when element 20A combines with element 8Y, B. R2Q3 D. RQ2
A. a covalent compound, AY is formed. 19. Copper (II) ions can participate in co-ordinate covalent bonding because
B. an ionic compound, AY is formed. they
C. an ionic compound, A2Y is formed. A. are coloured
D. a covalent compound, AY2 is formed. B. have unpaired electrons
12. In metallic solids, the forces of attraction are between the mobile valence C. have vacant d-orbital
electrons and D. are positively charged
A. atoms C. the negative ions
B. neutrons D. positively charged nuclei 20. Which of the following orbitals has the least energy?
13. Which of the following periodic properties increases down the group? A. 3d B. 4p C. 4d D. 4s
A. Electronegativity C. Ionization energy 21. When nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form ammonia each atom
B. Electron affinity D. Ionic radius A. exists independently
14. The electronic configuration of an element X is 1s2 2s2 2p5. How many B. becomes highly charged
C. has a larger mass
electrons and shells are in the atom?
D. attains a noble gas structure
Electrons Electronic shells 22. Which of the following elements belong to the transition series?
A. 9 2 A. Neon C. Sulphur
B. 14 3 B. Manganese D. Chlorine
C. 14 2 23. Which of the following elements exhibits variable oxidation states and
D. 9 5 forms complex ions?
15. The following can be determined from the atomic number of an element A. 13Al B. 15P C. 20Ca D. 24Cr
24. The correct order of increasing ionization energy among the alkali
except
metals is
A. combining power of the element A. K < Na < Li C. Na < Li < K
B. number of neutrons in the nucleus B. Li < K < Na D. Li < Na < K
C. position in the periodic table 25. Metals can be stretched into wires because they are
D. number of electrons in the outermost shell A. ductile C. lustrous
16. Which type of orbitals are present in
14
X? B. good conductors D. malleable
7
26. An element, W forms oxides with the formulae WO and W2O. W is
A. s only C. s and p only likely to be
B. p only D. s, p and d only A. an alkali C. a transition element
17. A nucleus consisting of 4 neutrons and 4 protons and surrounded by 2 B. an alkali earth metal D. a halogen
orbiting electrons is 27. the type of bond formed when 6X and 17Y combine is
A. metallic C. ionic

55
 B. hydrogen D. covalent 36. Which of the following statements about the elements, Na, Mg, Al and Si
28. The mass number of an element whose atom contains 13 electrons, 13 is/are true?
protons and 14 neutrons is I. They are all in period 3 of the periodic table.
A. 13 B. 26 C. 27 D. 40
II. Mg is more electropositive than Si.
29. The halogen that is liquid at room temperature is
A. fluorine C. chlorine III. Eletropositivity decreases from Na to Si.
B. bromine D. iodine IV. Si is the most electropositive element.
30. How many orbitals are in the d-shell? A. I only C. I, II and III only
A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7 B. I and IV only D. I, II, III and IV
31. The element with electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 is 37. Which of the following factors favorite formation of ionic bond?
A. a metal C. a halogen A. Metals with high ionization energy and non-metals with low
B. a non-metal D. an inert gas ionization energy
32. Lithium and sodium show similar chemical properties. Which of the B. Low electronegativity difference between bonding atoms.
following statements is not true about the two elements? C. Metals with low ionization energy and non-metals with high electron
A. They have equal number of electrons in their outermost shells. affinity
B. Both exist in the +1 oxidation state in their compounds. D. The bonding atoms must belong to different periods of the periodic
C. They belong to the same group in the periodic table. table.
D. They are in the same period in the periodic table. 38. Which of the following substances contains the largest number of
33. The electronic configurations of elements X, Y and Z are as follows: chlorine atoms per molecule?
X: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 A. Tetrachloromethane
Y: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 B. 1, 2-dichloroethane
Z: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 C. Calcium chloride
To which period do X, Y and Z belong? D. Hydrogen chloride.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 39. The bond formed between H2O and H+ to form the hydroxonium ion
34. Which of the following statements is not correct about atomic and ionic H3O+ is
radii? A. covalent B. dative C. electrovalent D. ionic
A. In any period there is an increase in atomic radius from left to right. 40. A brand of ink containing cobalt (II), copper (II) and iron (II) ions can be
B. The atomic radius increases down a group. separated into its components by
C. Cations have smaller radii than their corresponding atoms. A. chromatography C. evaporation
D. Anions have radii than their corresponding atoms. B. crystallization D. fractional distillation
35. Which of the following ions have the same number of electrons as neon? 41. Which of the following compounds have the same molar mass?
[ 9F , 10Ne, 11Na, 12Mg, 13Al ] {H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, S = 32, K = 39, Ca = 40, Cu = 63}
I. Na+ III. Al3+ I. CaCO3 III. (NH4)2SO4
II. Mg2+ IV. F – II. KHCO3 IV. CuSO4
A. I and II only C. I, II and III only
B. II, III and IV only D. I, II, III and IV A. I and II only C. I, II and III only
B. II and III only D. I, II, III and IV

56
42. What volume of 0.05 mol dm-3 HCl will neutralize 10 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm- 50. Which of the following acid is dibasic?
3
NaOH? A. HNO3 C. CH3COOH
A. 5 cm3 B. 10 cm3 C. 20 cm3 D. 50 cm3 B. H2SO4 D. CH3CH2COOH
43. Which of the following compounds NH3, HF, SiH4 and CH4 is arranged 51. What is the oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7?
in increasing order of boiling point? A. +2 B. +6 C. +9 D. +12
A. NH3, HF, SiH4, CH4 52. When sodium atom forms the ion Na+,
B. HF, SiH4, CH4, NH3 A. it gains one electron.
C. CH4, SiH4, NH3, HF B. it gains one proton.
D. HF, NH3, SiH4, CH4 C. it achieves a noble gas configuration.
44. Which of the following statements about solids is correct? D. its atomic number increases.
−¿¿
A. Solid particles are less orderly than those of a liquid. 53. How many electrons are in the ion F ?
B. Solids have lower densities than liquids. |199 F|
C. Particles of solids have more kinetic energies than liquids.
A. 8 B. 9 C. 10 D. 19
D. Solids maintain their volume under pressure.
54. Which of the following properties are characteristics of the halogens?
45. The boiling point of a liquid increases
A. Ability to accept electrons readily
A. with increase in its volume.
B. Ability to donate electrons readily
B. in the presence of dissolved impurities.
C. Ability to form basic oxides
C. with decrease in atmospheric pressure.
D. Formation of coloured compounds
D. with decrease in its vapour pressure.
55. Which of the following properties of atoms generally increases down a
46. Which of the following gas is produced when ammonia reacts with
group in the periodic table?
heated copper (II) oxide?
A. Electron affinity C. Ionic radius
A. Hydrogen C. Nitrogen (IV) oxide
B. Electronegativity D. Ionization energy
B. Nitrogen D. Oxygen
56. If the difference between the electronegativities of two elements is large,
47. If 20 cm3 of H2 was liberated at the cathode during the electrolysis of
dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, what volume of O2 would be liberated the type of bond that can be formed between them is
at the anode? A. covalent C. ionic
A. 5 cm3 B. 10 cm3 C. 20 cm3 D. 40 cm3 B. dative D. metallic
48. Which of the following is not an acid anhydride? 57. 14.8 g of a salt (z) dissolved in 250 cm3 of distilled water gives a
A. Carbon (II) oxide concentration of 0.80 mol dm-3. Calculate the molar mass of
B. Nitrogen (IV) oxide the salt (z).
C. Sulphur (IV) oxide A. 13.5 g mol-1 C. 47.4 g mol-1
D. Phosphorus (V) oxide B. 18.5 g mol-1 D. 74.0 g mol-1
49. Which of the following laws cannot be explained using the kinetic 58. What is the IUPAC name of the compound represented by the molecular
theory of gases? formula NaClO4?
A. Boyle’s law C. Graham’s law A. Sodium tetraoxochlorate (I)
B. Gay-Lussac’s law D. Charles’ law B. Sodium tetraoxochlorate (IV)

57
 C. Sodium tetraoxochlorate (VI) 66. Consider the following reaction equation:
D. Sodium tetraoxochlorate (VII) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
59. Which of the following statements is true of the molecules of a gas The volume of CO2(g) produced at s.t.p. when 0.05 moles of C2H4(g) was
under ideal conditions? burnt in O2(g) is
The molecules [Molar volume of gas = 22.4 dm3]
A. move at random. A. 1.12 dm3 C. 2.24 dm3
B. undergo inelastic collisions. B. 3.72 dm3 D. 4.48 dm3
C. attract each other. 67. The dyes in ink can be separated by
D. occupy a large volume A. Filtration C. Sublimation
60. 25 cm3 of 0.80 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid neutralized 20 cm3 of sodium B. Chromatography D. Sedimentation
hydroxide solution. What is the concentration of sodium hydroxide in 68. Chalk suspension can be separated by
mol dm-3? A. Chromatography C. Magnetism
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) B. Filtration D. Sublimation
A. 0.08 C. 0.10 69. A mixture of chalk powder and common salt can be separated by the
B. 0.80 D. 1.00 following three steps.
61. Which of the following ions has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 8? I. Evapouration
A. Na+ B. Mg2+ C. F - D. Cl – II. Filtration
62. What is the amount of magnesium that would contain 1.20 x 1024 III. Dissolved in water and stir.
particles? The correct order of the steps is
[Mg = 24, Avogadro’s constant 6.02 x 1023] A. III, II and I C. II, I and III
A. 0.5 moles C. 2.0 moles B. I, II and III D. III, I and II
3 +¿
B. 12.0 moles D. 24.0 moles 70. The ion 27
13 Al ¿ has
63. The volume occupied by 17g of H2S at s.t.p. is A. 10 protons and 13 electrons
[H = 1.00, S = 32.0, Molar volume = 22.4 dm3] B. 13 protons and 10 electrons
A. 11.2 dm3 C. 34.0 dm3 C. 3 protons and 13 electrons
B. 17.0 dm3 D. 44.8 dm3 D. 27 protons and 13 electrons
64. The initial volume of a gas at 300 K was 220 cm3. Determine its 71. The ion 168O2- has
temperature if the volume became 250 cm3. A. 8 neutrons and 16 protons
A. 183 K C. 300 K B. 8 neutrons and 2 electrons
B. 264 K D. 341 K C. 16 neutrons and 8 protons
65. If the volume of a gas is 63.0 cm3 at a temperature of 312K, what would D. 8 neutrons and 8 protons
be its temperature when the volume is increased to 84.0 cm3 at constant 72. The S – orbital is
pressure? A. round
B. spherical
A. 1470C C. 1430C C. cylindrical
B. 1450C D. 1410C

58
 D. conical 83. Which of the following particles have the least mass
73. which of the following pairs are isotopes A. a proton C. an electron
A. 1810T and 1811T B. neutron D. hydrogen
B. 116X and 127X 84. The atomic mass of an element whose atom contains 13 electrons, 13
C. 199Z and 189Z protons and 14 neutrons is
D. 106Q and 115Q A. 13 B. 26 C. 27 D. 40
85. The process when a solid changes straight to the gaseous state without
Use the information to answer questions 74 and 75. going through liquid state is
The electronic configuration of X is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 A. Dilution C. Sublimation
74. What is the atomic number of X. B. Filtration D. Evaporation
A. 7 B. 11 C. 10 D. 8 86. Which of the following particles has electronic configuration 2, 8, 8
75. How many shells are in X. A. 11Na+ C. Mg2+
A. 2 B. 5 C. 3 D. 4 B. 20Ca D. 17Cl-
76. Cathode rays are 87. Copper (II) ions participate in co-ordinate covalent bonding because they
A. fast moving electrons A. are coloured.
B. fast moving protons B. have unpaired electrons.
C. fast moving molecules C. have vacant d-orbital.
D. fast moving positive particles D. are positively charged.
77. The number of electrons in the 3d orbitals of chromium (24Cr) is 88. When nitrogen combines with hydrogen to form ammonia each atom
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 A. exists independently.
78. Gases conduct electricity under B. Becomes highly charged.
A. High pressure and low potential difference C. has a larger mass.
B. Low pressure and high potential difference D. attains a noble gas structure.
C. High pressure and high potential difference 89. Which of the following elements belong to the transition series?
D. Low pressure and low potential difference A. Neon C. Manganese
The electronic configuration of X is 1s2 2s2 2p3 B. Sulphur D. Chlorine
79. How many orbitals are in X. 90. Which of the following laws cannot be explained using the kinetic
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2 energy of gases?
80. The orbital with the lowest energy is A. Boyle’s law C. Graham’s law
A. 2s B. 2p C. 1s D. 3s B. Charles’ law D. Gay-Lussac’s law
81. The negatively charge particle in an atom is the 91. What is the number of molecules in 6.4 g of Sulphur (IV) oxide?
A. Proton C. electron [SO2 = 64 g mol-1, Avogadro constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1]
B. Neutron D. position A. 1.00 x 1022 C. 3.01 x 1023
B. 6.02 x 1022 D. 3.85 x 1024
82. How many orbitals are in the d – subshell 92. The volume occupied by 17g of H2S at s.t.p is [H = 1.00, S = 32.0,
A. 7 B. 3 C. 1 D. 5 Molar volume = 22.4 dm3]

59
 A. 11.2 dm3 C. 34.0 dm3 A. Allotropy C. Isomerism
3
B. 17.0 dm D. 44.8 dm3 B. Isotopy D. Resonance
93. Consider the reaction represented by the following equation: 102. Which of the following is not an acid anhydride?
x KMnO4(aq) +¿ y SO2(g) +¿ z H2O(l) A. Carbon (II) oxide
K2SO4(aq) +¿ 2MnSO4(aq) +¿ 2H2SO4(aq) . B. Nitrogen (IV) oxide
x , y ∧zare respectively C. Sulphur (IV) oxide
A. 2, 5 and 2 C. 5, 1 and 2 D. Phosphorus (V) oxide
B. 2, 2 and 5 D. 1, 5 and 2 103. What is the oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7?
94. What is the amount of magnesium that contain 1.20 × 1024 particles? A. +2 C. +6
[Mg = 24, Avogadro’s constant = 6.02× 1023] B. +9 D. +1
A. 0.5 moles C. 12.0 moles 104. The type of bond formed when 6X and 17Y combine is
B. 2.0 moles D. 24.0 moles A. metallic C. ionic
95. The number of atoms in one mole of a substance is equal to the B. hydrogen D. covalent
A. mass number C. Avogadronumber 105. The halogen that is liquid at room temperature is
A. fluorine C. chlorine
B. oxidation number D. atomic number B. bromine D. iodine
96. Which of the following statements about a molar solution is correct? It 106. The mass number of an element whose atom contains 13
A. is a supersaturated solution electrons, 13 protons and 14 neutrons is
B. cannot dissolve more of the solute at that temperature A. 13 B. 26 C. 27 D. 4
C. contains any amount of solute in a given volume of solution 107. Which of the following compounds is covalent?
D. contains one mole of the solute in 1 dm3 of solution A. Calcium chloride
K B. Hydrogen chloride
97. The equation P= illustrates
V C. Potassium chloride
A. Boyle’s law C. Dalton’s law D. Magnesium chloride
B. Charles’ law D. Gay Lussac’s law 108. H3O+ is formed from H2O and H+ by
98. The initial volume of a gas at 300 K was 220 cm3. Determine its
A. dative bonding C. ionic bonding
temperature if the volume became 250 cm3.
A. 183 K C. 264 K B. covalent bonding D. hydrogen bonding
B. 300 K D. 341 K 109. Calculate the volume of steam produced when 4.00 g of methane
99. What is the number of molecules in 6.4 g of Sulphur (IV) oxide? burns in excess oxygen according to the equation
[SO2 = 64 gmol-1, Avogadro constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1] CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
A. 1.00 x 1022 C. 3.01 x 1023 [H = 1; C = 12; volume of one mole of gas at s.t.p = 22.4 dm3]
B. 6.02 x 1022 D. 3.85 x 1024 A. 11.2 dm3 C. 5.60 dm3
100. Which of the following acids is dibasic? B. 2.24 dm3 D. 1.12 dm3
A. HNO3 C. CH3COOH 110. If the molar mass of X(HCO3)2 is 162 g, calculate the relative
B. H2SO4 D. CH3CH2COOH atomic mass of X [H = 1; C = 12; O = 16]
101. What phenomenon is exhibited by an element X which can be A. 40 C. 48
represented as B. 61 D. 101
b c
aX or a X ?

60
61