10

Gravitation
___________________________________
10.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
10.2 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
10.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN g AND G
10.4 MASS OF THE EARTH AND OTHER PLANETARY BODIES
10.5 VARIATIONS IN ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
10.6 ESAPE VELOCITY
10.7 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES
EXERCISES
170 Gravitation

Gravity is one of the most common terms used in physics even though our knowledge of it is
small compared to our understanding of sound, heat or light. Gravity is the force responsible for
holding the planets together in their stable orbits. Through scientific studies, it is now known that
there is a gravitational attraction between all objects on account of their masses. Gravity also
affects such things as satellites, used in our high technology communications, and helps in our
understanding of the solar system.

10.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

One of the earliest studies of gravity was carried out by Isaac Newton. In these studies he
observed bodies falling towards the earth. You have probably heard the story of the
garden and the falling apple that led Newton to discover the gravitational force. Newton
formulated that gravitational force exists between any two bodies. He proposed what is
now known as Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, which can be summarised as
follows:

The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to their
masses, inversely proportional to the square of their separation, and acts along the line
joining the two bodies.

In symbols, we can write the gravitational force F between two bodies of masses m1 and
m2 at a separation r as:

m1m2
F  G , (10.1)
r2

where G is a constant of proportionality, known as the universal gravitational constant.

Its numerical value, obtained from highly specialised experiments, is found to be
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2. The negative sign indicates an attractive force. Unlike other
forces (e.g. electric and magnetic forces), the gravitational force is always attractive.
Electric and magnetic forces can be attractive or repulsive, depending on the nature of the
charges or magnetic poles.

The numerical value of G above tells us that the force of gravity is a very weak force for
most bodies that we come across, as the masses of these bodies are too small for the
gravitational force to be perceived. By comparison, the gravitational force is the weakest
of the presently known four fundamental forces, the other three being electromagnetic
and the two (strong and weak) nuclear forces. Nonetheless, the effect of gravitational
force becomes obvious for very massive bodies, e.g. the moon, and the sun.

One of the early successes of the universal gravitation law was the fact that Newton used
the concept to explain what causes ocean tides, a phenomenon that had hitherto baffled
scientists for many years. He argued that the gravitational attraction of the moon causes
the tides. The water in the oceans is pulled towards the moon, resulting in a high tide on
the side of the earth facing the moon. At the same time there is another high tide on the
opposite side farther from the moon. Since the moon moves relative to the earth and it
 Gravitation 171

returns to the same position after every 24 hours and 50 minutes, there are two high and
two low tides at every point everyday. Other factors such as the position of the sun,
frictional force between the solid earth and the moving water, the rotation of the earth,
also contribute to the formation of high and low tides.

10.2 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Using data gathered by the Dutch astronomer, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler put forward
three laws which later became known as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, summarised
as follows:

Law 1: Planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.

Law 2: The line joining a planet to the Sun (called the radius vector) sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.

Law 3: The squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are directly proportional
to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.

Although Kepler’s laws were first formulated from existing data on planet motions, with
the benefit of Newton’s law of gravitation, we can now prove the validity of these laws.
The following analyses give the proofs of Kepler’s second and third laws.
Unfortunately, proof of the first law lie outside our present scope.

10.2.1 Proof of Kepler’s second law

Consider a planet going round the sun in an orbit, as depicted in Fig. (10.1). We take two
positions of the planet in its orbit: the first, the planet goes from P to Q in a given time,
on one side of the sun. In the second, the planet takes the same time as before, in going
between the points P’ and Q’.

P’
s2
planet v1
Q’
v2 A2
planet Q
r2 A1
1 s1
2 P
r1

sun

Fig. (10.1) Proof of Kepler’s second law

172 Gravitation

The sun-planet system has no external forces or couples acting on it. Thus the angular
momentum of the planet remains constant. Hence the angular momentum in the first
position is equal to its angular momentum in the second position. Thus, we write

mr1v 1  mr2v 2 (10.2)

where m1 and m2 are the moments of inertia of the planet about the sun in the two
positions, and v1 and v2 are the corresponding average speeds. We can write the average
speeds in terms of the distances along the arcs and the time of travel. Thus,

s1 s
mr1  mr2 2 , (10.3)
t t
or
r1s 1  r2s 2 (10.4)

Over small periods of time, the shaded areas approximate to right-angled triangles, with
areas A1 and A2, as shown. Using these areas, equation (10.4) is transformed to give

A1  A2 (10.5)

This proves Kepler’s second law.

10.2.2 Proof of Kepler’s third law

For a planet orbiting the Sun the centripetal acceleration in its orbit is provided by the
gravitational force between the planet and the Sun. If  is the mean angular speed of the
planet, we write
2
mM s 2  2 
G  m r  mr  
r2 T 

where m, Ms are the masses of the planet and the Sun, respectively, and r is the mean
radius of the planet’s orbit about the sun, and T is the period of the planet’s orbital
motion. This gives
 4 2  3
T2  .r   r 3 (10.6)
 GM s 
 
 4 2 
where     is a constant. Thus T 2 r 3 - Kepler’s third law.
 GM s 
 

10.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN g and G

In Kinematics, we came across the acceleration due to gravity, denoted by the symbol g.
From Newton’s law of universal gravitation, we have yet another constant related to
gravity – the universal gravitational constant G. How are the two constants related?
 Gravitation 173

Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the earth, the latter having a mass ME and
radius RE. The body will experience a gravitational attraction towards the centre of the
earth, of magnitude F given by the universal gravitational law as

ME m
F G . (10.7)
RE2

This force is the weight mg of the body. Hence we have

ME m
G  mg ,
RE2
from which,
GM E  gRE2 . (10.8)

It is important to note that the universal gravitational constant G is truly a constant,

having the same value for all pairs of bodies. Thus it is the same for all planets. By
contrast, the acceleration due to gravity g has different values on different planets. For
instance, while it is 9.81 m/s2 at sea level on the equator, its value on the moon has been
found to be about 1.6 m/s2. Other variations in the value of g are covered in later sections
of the chapter.

10.4 MASS OF THE EARTH AND OTHER PLANETARY BODIES

Using equation (10.8), we can find the mass of the earth from the radius of the earth RE,
the acceleration due to gravity g and the universal gravitational constant G , since
GM E  gRE2
or
gRE2
ME  .
G
Substituting the known numerical values, we get

ME 

9.81 x 6.40 x 106  kg  6.024 x 10
2
24
kg .
-11
6.67 x 10

A combination of the gravitational law and the period of orbital motion of the earth’s
moon will also enable calculation of the mass of the earth. If M is the mass of the moon,
R the radius of the moon’s orbit, and T the period of the moon around the earth, then
2
ME M  2 
G  MR  2  MR   , (10.9)
R2 T 
giving
2
R 3  2 
ME    , (10.10)
G  T 
174 Gravitation

from which we find the mass of the earth, knowing the values of the other parameters.
The method is also used to find the mass of other planets from the motion of their moons.
Thus, while it is not possible to put a planet, or the sun, on a balance and measure the
mass, the use of the universal law of gravitation will enable us estimate their masses.

We note that in these calculations, small discrepancies are normally accepted since the
quantities (e.g. radius of the orbit) are not known precisely even to the nearest km. We
hence accept values within the same order of magnitude.

10.5 VARIATIONS IN THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

10.5.1 Variation with height above earth’s surface
Fig. (10.2) shows a body of mass m at a height h above the surface of the earth. The
weight of the body is equal to the gravitational force between the body and the earth.

Mass, m
h

Surface of the earth,

mass of earth=M E
RE

O
Centre of earth

Fig. (10.2) Variation of g above the earth’s surface

If g1 is the acceleration due to gravity at the height, and g that on the earth’s surface,
then, by Newtons’ law of gravitation,

ME m 1
mg1  G  gRE2 m .
RE  h 2
RE  h 2

Assuming h<<RE,
 2h 
g1  g 1  . (10.11)
 R  E 

10.5.2 Variation with depth below earth’s surface

Consider a mass m inside the Earth at distance r from its center, and depth h below the
earth’s surface, as in Fig. (10.3). The gravitational force on the mass is due only to that
part of the sphere of radius r, part of which is shown shaded in the figure.
 Gravitation 175

h
Surface of earth
Mass, m

RE r

O
Centre of earth
Fig. (10.3) Variation of g with depth below the earth’s surface

If this portion has mass M we equate the force due to gravity to the weight mg2, where g2
is the acceleration due to gravity at the point.

Mm M
mg 2  G , or g2  G . (10.12)
2
r r2

Assuming that the Earth has uniform density , then

4 4 r3
M   r 3  , and M E   RE3  , giving M  ME .
3 3 RE3

We thus have
r  h 
g 2  GM E  g 1  .
 (10.13)
3 R
RE  E 

Fig. (10.4) is a plot of these variations, showing that the acceleration falls off faster for
points above the earth’s surface than for points below.
10.000
acceleration due to gravity

9.800

9.600

9.400
(b)
9.200

9.000
(a)
8.800
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
height or depth (km)

Fig. (10.4) g (calculated for points above (a), and below (b) the earth's surface.
176 Gravitation

10.5.3 Other variations

Variations in the value of g also occur with latitude – i.e. with place on earth. This is due
to the fact that the earth is not perfectly spherical, but a little flattened at the poles. Thus
the radius of the earth, and hence the gravitational force between any body and the earth
would depend on the position. The earth has its maximum radius at the equator, where
the earth’s pull (and hence g ) is greatest.

The acceleration due to gravity also varies with altitude above sea level. The values of g
at mountainous places on earth are less than those for places at sea level. The reference
value of g normally quoted is that at sea level along the equator.

10.6 ESCAPE VELOCITY

For an object thrown vertically upward, the maximum height attained depends on the
speed with which the object is projected. The greater the speed the greater the height. It
follows that a situation will arise when some vertical speed will be sufficient to ensure
that a body projected at that speed will be infinitely far away (r = ) before coming to
instantaneous rest. The minimum speed that achieves this is known as the escape
velocity. It can be shown that the escape velocity ve from any planetary body is given by

2GM
ve  (10.14)
R

where G is the universal gravitational constant, M and R are the mass and radius,
respectively, of the attracting body. The escape velocity in the earth’s gravitational field
is about 11 km/s. Note that escape velocity does not depend upon the mass of the
projectile, nor on the direction of projection, but depends on the mass of the planet.

10.7 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES

Artificial satellites are now part of everyday communication. A satellite is put into orbit
by accelerating it to a sufficiently high tangential speed with the use of rockets. It is
possible to keep a satellite in a stable circular orbit if a steady force of the right value can
be always directed towards the center of the circle. For a satellite orbiting the earth, the
centripetal acceleration is provided by the gravitational attraction of the earth. Hence, for
a satellite of mass m, orbiting the earth at height h with speed v, we have

mv 2 mM E
G ,
r r2

where r (= RE + h) is the distance of the satellite from the centre of the earth.
 Gravitation 177

Substitution gives

GM E GM E
v   (10.15)
r RE  h 

The orbital period T (time for one revolution) for a satellite can be calculated from the
circumference C  2 RE  h  , and the speed v. This gives

T  2
RE  h 3
(10.16)
GM E

Equations (10.15) and (10.16) show that there are unique values for v and T for a given
radius of orbit. This makes it possible to predetermine the period of a satellite by
selecting the right height above the earth’s surface. To ‘view’ a particular point on the
earth for a considerable length of time (e.g. one day, or more), the height of the satellite
above the earth is determined such that the period of the satellite is the same as that of the
rotation of the earth - i.e. 24 hours. Such a satellite is stationary with respect to the earth,
and hence is referred to as a geostationary satellite.

The following are worked examples based on all the principles studied so far on
gravitation., to assist the student in tacking problems. Where necessary, the constants
listed below are used: These constants can also be used in the exercises that follow.

Acceleration due to gravity at sea level along the Equator = 9.81 m/s2
Universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
Radius of the earth, RE = 6.40 x 106 m

Example 10.1
A geostationary satellite, used in communication to relay television signals and telephone
messages, is situated above the Equator. Calculate
(i) the height of the satellite above the earth,
(ii) the tangential speed of the satellite.

Solution
(i) Given that the satellite appears stationary above the earth, it means that the period
of its motion, T  24 hrs  8.46 x 104 s . From equation (10.16), the period T of
the satellite is given in terms of its height above the earth by the expression

T  2
RE  h 3
.
GM E
Thus,

2
RE  h 3
 8.64 x 104 s
GM E

On substituting the values of RE and g, we get h  5.656 x 10 4 km .

178 Gravitation

(ii) The tangential speed v is given by

2 RE  h  2 x 5.563 x 107

v  =  4,045 m/s
T 86400

Example 10.2
Calculate the speed of a satellite in a circular orbit 200 km above the earth’s surface.

Solution
At the height of 200 km above the surface, the centripetal acceleration of the satellite of
mass m is provided by the gravitational force between the satellite and the earth.
Thus,
mM E v2
G m ,
r2 r
giving
GM E
v  ,
r

where ME is the mass of the earth, and r is the radius of the satellite’s orbit. Substituting
for r (= 6400 km + 200 km = 6600 km), we find the speed v of the satellite as

v 

9.81 m/s2 x 6.40 x 106 m2 
2
 7.802 x 103 m/s
6
6.60 x 10 m

Example 10.3
Calculate the height above the earth’s surface of a point at which the acceleration due to
1
gravity is th of its value on the earth’s surface along the Equator.
25

Solution
The gravitational force F between the body of mass m and the earth is given by

mME
F G ,
r2

where ME is the mass of the earth, and r is the distance of the body from the centre of the
earth. If g’ is the acceleration due to gravity at the point, we can write

mME ME RE2
mg '  G , or g '  G g
r2 r2 r2
Thus,
g ' RE2 1

2
 , or r  5RE  3.20 x 107 m
g r 25
 Gravitation 179

Example 10.4
At the surface of the Moon, the gravitational acceleration is found to have a magnitude of
1.6 m/s2. A 4.0 kg brass ball is transported to the Moon. Give
(i) the mass of the brass ball on the moon,
(ii) the weight of the brass ball on the moon.

Solution
(i) Since the mass of an object is the quantity of matter the body contains, it does not
change when taken from one planet to another. Thus the mass of the ball on the
moon is the same as that which it had on earth, i.e. 4.0 kg

(ii) Weight of ball on the moon = mass of ball x acceleration due to gravity on moon.
Thus, we write
Weight of ball on moon = 4.0 kg x 1.6 m/s2 = 6.4 kgm/s2 (or 6.4 N)

Example 10.5

One of the moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo has a rotational period of 1.44 x 106 s,
and it is an average distance of 1.10 x 1010 m from Jupiter. From these data, determine
the mass of Jupiter.

Solution
Let MJ represent the mass of Jupiter, and m the mass of the moon in question. The
gravitational force of attraction F between Jupiter and the moon, can be written as
M m
F G J
r2
where r is the radius of the moon’s orbit (  1.10 x 1010 m). This force provides the
centripetal acceleration for the moon. We hence have
2
MJ m 2  2 
G  mr  mr   (1)
r2 T 
where T is the period of the moon. From equation (1) above, we get an expression for the
mass of Jupiter MJ as

MJ 
r 3  2 
2
  

1.9 x 109 m 
3

2 
2
  4.487 x 1032 kg.
G T  6.67 x 10 Nm /kg  1.44 x 106
-11 2 2
s

EXERCISES
1. Calculate the angular velocity of the earth
(a) in its orbit around the sun,
(b) about its axis.

2. Calculate the force of gravity between two bowling balls each with mass 7.0 kg, when
their centres are 0.50 m apart.
180 Gravitation

3. Calculate the force of gravity on a spacecraft 12,800 km above the earth’s surface, if its
mass is 700 kg.

4. Given that the moon’s radius is about 1.70 x 106 m and that its mass is 7.40 x 1022 kg,
estimate the acceleration due to gravity on the moon.

5. Calculate the velocity of a satellite moving in a stable circular orbit about the earth at a
height of 3200 km.

6. How far above the earth’s surface will the acceleration due to gravity be half what its
value is at sea level on the surface?

7. A space traveller weighs 580 N on earth. What will the traveller weigh on another planet
whose radius is three times that of earth and whose mass is twice that of earth?

8. Mount Everest has an altitude of 8850 m approximately above sea level. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on the top of the mountain.

9. The earth revolves once in 365.25 days round the sun in an orbit of radius 1.49 x 108 km.
Calculate the mass of the sun.

10. Use the method in solving Exercise 9 above to find the mass of the earth from the moon’s
orbital radius of 3.84 x 105 km from the earth’s surface, and period 24 hours.

11. A space station of diameter 20 m is to be constructed in space. To avoid possible

physiological effects on the astronauts due to prolonged weightlessness, the station is
rotated at constant angular speed. If the centripetal force so generated is equal to the
weight of the station at a height of 200 km above the earth’s surface, determine the
angular speed required.

12. It is desired to launch a geostationary satellite into orbit above the earth. Calculate
(i) minimum speed with which the satellite should be projected,
(ii) the height the satellite would be above the ground.

13. A sphere of mass 50.0 kg is 1.0 m from another sphere of mass 100.0 kg. A small object
is placed between the two spheres a distance 0.60 m from the heavier body and on the
line joining the centres of the two spheres. If the mass of the object is 1.0 kg, calculate
(i) the magnitude and direction of the net gravitational force on the small object,
(ii) the position at which the object must be placed so as to experience zero net
gravitational force.