Foundation in Science

Mathematics 1
Polynomial and Rational Functions
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

➢use the factor theorem and the remainder theorem;
➢solve polynomial and rational equations and
inequalities;
➢solve equations and inequalities involving modulus
signs in simple cases;
➢decompose a rational expression into partial fractions
in cases where the denominator has two distinct
linear factors, or a linear factor and a prime quadratic
factor;

2
 Topic and Structure of the lesson

• The polynomial
• Remainder and Factor theorems
• Quadratic polynomial
• Equations and inequalities
• Cubic equation
• Partial fractions

3
 Polynomial Functions
• A polynomial function in 𝑥 is an expression that has the general form
of
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛
where
𝑛 = positive integer (indicates degree of the polynomial) and the
constants 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are the coefficients of the polynomial.

For example:
(a) 𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 5
This is a polynomial of degree 1 (also known as a linear function)

(b) Q 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
This is a polynomial of degree 2 (also known as a quadratic function)

(c) 𝐻 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3
This is a polynomial of degree 3 (also known as a cubic function)

4
 Polynomial Functions
Factors and zeros of a polynomial
• A number 𝑎 ∈ ℝ is the zero of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓 𝑎 = 0.

For example:
If 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2), then the values −2, −1, 2 are the zeros
of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥 + 1 and (𝑥 + 2) are the factors of the polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 , and

the process of finding the linear polynomials is known as factorization.

When 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, or when 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2 = 0, then 𝑥 = −2, −1, 2

are the roots of the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.

5
 Remainder and Factor Theorems
The Remainder Theorem
In general, if a polynomial of degree 𝑛, 𝑃(𝑥), is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎), the quotient,
𝑄(𝑥), is a polynomial of degree (𝑛 − 1), and the remainder, 𝑅, is a constant.
𝑃 𝑥 =𝑄 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥−𝑎 +𝑅
By substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎, we see that 𝑃 𝑎 = 𝑅.
When a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 , the remainder is 𝑃(𝑎).
Similarly,
𝑏
When a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 , the remainder is 𝑃(− 𝑎).

The Factor Theorem

From the remainder theorem, we have shown that when a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is
divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎), its remainder, 𝑅, is 𝑃(𝑎). On the other hand, if (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a
factor of 𝑃(𝑥), then its remainder is zero.

For a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥), (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) if and only if 𝑃 𝑎 = 0.

6
 Example 3.1
(a) Find the remainder when the polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 4 is
divided by (𝑥 + 3).
Remainder = 20
(b) Find the remainder when the polynomial 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 is
divided by (2𝑥 + 1). 1
Remainder = 5 2

7
 Example 3.1
(a) Find the remainder when the polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 4 is
divided by (𝑥 + 3).
Remainder = 20
(b) Find the remainder when the polynomial 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 is
divided by (2𝑥 + 1). 1
Remainder = 5 2

8
 Example 3.2
The polynomial 𝑎𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 1 leaves a remainder of −8 when it
11
is divided by (𝑥 − 1), and a remainder of when divided by (2𝑥 + 1).
2
Determine the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 1

9
 Example 3.3
When the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 1), its remainder is 5. When 𝑃(𝑥)
is divided by (𝑥 − 2), its remainder is 7. Given that 𝑃(𝑥) may be written in the
form of 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 , where 𝑄(𝑥) is a polynomial, 𝐴 and
𝐵 are constants, find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2).
Remainder = 2𝑥 + 3

Note: When a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) of degree 𝑛 ≥ 2 is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑏 , the remainder is a linear function in the form
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑏 ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 + (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)

10
 Example 3.4
Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 − 4. Hence, factorise 𝑓(𝑥)
completely. State the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥).
2 1
The zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) are −2, − 3 and 2

11
 Example 3.5
Given that (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 2,
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
When 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by (𝑥 − 3), its remainder is 16. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 9

12
 The Quadratic Polynomial
The quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 2. In general, a quadratic
polynomial is a function in the form
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
with 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
The general form of the graph 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 are as follows:
(i) 𝑎>0 (ii) 𝑎<0

13
 The Quadratic Polynomial
Completing the square, maximum and minimum values
Consider the quadratic polynomial
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 14
we can rewrite this as
2 2
6 6
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + − + 14
2 2
= 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 − 9 + 14 In general, for a quadratic polynomial in the
= 𝑥−3 2+5 form 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0
we can express it in the form
Similarly, the quadratic polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑎 𝑥−𝑝 2+𝑞
𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 11 by completing the square.
can be written as
𝑔 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 11
2 2
4 4
= 2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + − + 11
2 2
= 2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 4 + 11
= 2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 8 + 11
=2 𝑥+2 2+3
14
 The Quadratic Polynomial𝑓 𝑥 =𝑎 𝑥−𝑝 2 +𝑞
Case (i)
If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 𝑞 and 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum value 𝑞 when 𝑥 = 𝑝, the minimum point is (𝑝, 𝑞).

2 3 2
For 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 − 3, For 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 + + 2,
2
minimum value is −3. minimum value is 2.
Minimum point is (2, −3) 3
Minimum point is (− , 2)
2

Case (ii)
If 𝑎 < 0, 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑞 and 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum value 𝑞 when 𝑥 = 𝑝, the maximum point is (𝑝, 𝑞).

For 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 2 2 + 4,
maximum value is 4. For 𝑦 = −2 𝑥 + 4 2 − 1,
Maximum point is (2, 4) maximum value is −1.
Maximum point is (−4, −1)

15
 Example 3.6
1) Complete the square for each of the following quadratic functions and state
the maximum or minimum value of the function.
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 (b) 𝑔 𝑥 = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5

2) By completing the square for 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , find the maximum value of

𝑓(𝑥) and the value of 𝑥 at which this maximum occurs. Sketch the graph of
𝑦 = 5 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

16
 Equations
The quadratic equation
An equation in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0, is called a
quadratic equation and the roots of the equation are
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 ± 𝐷
𝑥= =
2𝑎 2𝑎
2
where 𝐷 = 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 is the discriminant

Nature of the roots

(a) If the discriminant 𝐷 = 0, the quadratic equation has two real roots that are the
same.
(b) If the discriminant 𝐷 > 0, the quadratic equation has two real and distinct roots.
(c) If the discriminant 𝐷 < 0, the quadratic equation has two complex roots.

𝑎>0 𝑎<0
17
 Example 3.7
Determine the nature of the roots of each of the following quadratic equations.
(a) 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1 = 0
(b) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑝𝑥 + 4𝑝2 = 0
(c) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎2 = 0

18
 Equations
The cubic equation
• An equation in the form 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0, with 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠
0, is known as a cubic equation.
For 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , For 𝑦 = −𝑥 3 ,
Leading coefficient: 𝑎 > 0 Leading coefficient: 𝑎 < 0
End behavior: End behavior:
As 𝑥 → −∞; 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞ As 𝑥 → −∞; 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞
As 𝑥 → +∞; 𝑓 𝑥 → +∞ As 𝑥 → +∞; 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞
• The type of roots of the cubic equation actually depends on the way the graph
of the cubic polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 intersects the 𝑥 – axis, as
shown in the graphs below for the case where 𝑎 > 0.

3 real roots 3 real roots, 1 real root, 2

with 2 roots equal complex roots
19
 Example 3.8
Solve the following cubic equations, giving your answers in surd form.
(a) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
(b) 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 = 0

20
 Inequalities
Polynomial Inequalities
• They can be written in the forms:
𝑓 𝑥 >0 𝑓 𝑥 ≥0 𝑓 𝑥 <0 𝑓 𝑥 ≤0
• To solve the inequality 𝑓 𝑥 > 0 is to find the values of 𝑥 that make 𝑓(𝑥)
positive. To solve the inequality 𝑓 𝑥 < 0 is to find the values of 𝑥 that make
𝑓(𝑥) negative.
• If the expression 𝑓(𝑥) is a product, we can find its sign by looking at the sign of
each of its factors.
• Inequalities can be used to describe subsets of real numbers called intervals.
➢ In bounded intervals below, the real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are endpoints of each
interval.
Inequality 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏 𝑎≤𝑥<𝑏 𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
Notation [𝑎, 𝑏] (𝑎, 𝑏) [𝑎, 𝑏) (𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ Unbounded intervals are also written in this notation.
Inequality 𝑥≥𝑎 𝑥>𝑎 𝑥≤𝑏 𝑥<𝑏
Notation [𝑎, +∞) (𝑎, +∞) (−∞, 𝑏] (−∞, 𝑏)

21
 Representing inequalities on number lines
Suppose x > 2. There are infinitely many values that x could
have.
3
x could be equal to 3, 7.3, 54 11 , 18463.431 …
It would be impossible to write every solution down.
We can therefore represent the solution set on a number line:

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A hollow circle, , at 2 means that this number is not included and the
arrow at the end of the line means that the solution set extends in the
direction shown.
A solid circle, , at 3 means that this number is included and the arrow
at the end of the line means that the solution set extends in the
direction shown.
 Solving linear inequalities
Look at the following inequality,
x+3≥7

What values of x would make this inequality true?

Any value of x greater or equal to 4 would solve this inequality.

We could have solved this inequality as follows,
x+3≥7
subtract 3 from both sides: x + 3 – 3 ≥ 7 – 3
x≥4
The solution has one letter on one side of the inequality
sign and a number on the other.
 Solving linear inequalities
Like an equation, we can solve an inequality by adding or
subtracting the same value to both sides of the inequality sign.
We can also multiply or divide both sides of the inequality by
a positive value. For example,

Solve 4x – 7 > 11 – 2x
 Multiplying or dividing by negatives
Remember, when both sides of an inequality are multiplied or
divided by a negative number the inequality is reversed.

For example, 4 – 3x ≤ 10
subtract 4 from both sides: – 3x ≤ 6
divide both side by –3: x ≥ –2 The inequality sign is reversed.
We could also solve this type of inequality by collecting x terms
on the right and reversing the inequality sign at the end.
4 – 3x ≤ 10
add 3x to both sides: 4 ≤ 10 + 3x
subtract 10 from both sides: –6 ≤ 3x
divide both sides by 3: –2 ≤ x
x ≥ –2
 Inequalities
Solution of inequalities
An inequality may be solved according to the type of function given, using test
value method or graphical methods, or by drawing the real number line.

Modulus Notation
• The absolute value of the modulus of 𝑘 is written as |𝑘| and is defined as:
𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 ≥ 0
𝑘 =ቊ
−𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑘 < 0
• For example: 5 = 5 and −3 = 3
• Properties of absolute value:
✓ If 𝑥 < 𝑎, then −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
✓ If 𝑥 > 𝑎, then 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎
✓ If 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑏, then
−𝑏 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑏
−𝑏 + 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 + 𝑎
✓ If 𝑥 − 𝑎 > 𝑏, then
𝑥−𝑎 >𝑏 or 𝑥 − 𝑎 < −𝑏
𝑥 >𝑏+𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑏 + 𝑎
26
 Example 3.9
1) If 𝑥 > 0, find the range of values of 𝑥 which satisfy the following
inequalities. 3
3 5
0 < 𝑥 < 1
4
(a) 5𝑥 − 2 < 𝑥 + (b) 3𝑥 ≥ 2 + 𝑥≥1
2 8 𝑥
2) Find the set of values of 𝑥 which satisfy the inequality
2 3
a) 2𝑥 + 𝑥 > 3. 𝑥 < − 2
or 𝑥 > 1
b) 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 < 3
3) Find the solution set of the inequality −3 ≤ 4𝑥 − 5 < 7.
Represent your solution set on the real number line.
1
≤𝑥<3
2

27
 Example 3.10
6
1) Find the set of values of 𝑥 such that 𝑥 > + 1. −2 < 𝑥 < 0 or 𝑥 > 3
𝑥
𝑥 1
2) If ≤ , find the set of values of 𝑥 such that the inequality is
𝑥+8 𝑥−1
valid. −8 < 𝑥 ≤ −2 or 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 4

28
 Example 3.11
Find the values of 𝑥 such that
(a) 2𝑥 + 1 < 3 (b) 2 𝑥 − 1 ≤ |𝑥 + 3|
−2 < 𝑥 < 1 1
− ≤𝑥≤5
3
(c) 2𝑥 + 1 < 𝑥 + 5

Note: Some inequalities involving moduli may be solved by squaring both sides of the inequality. However, it is only valid if both sides of
the inequality are positive or zero for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

29
 Partial Fractions
A rational function is a function of the form
𝑝 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑞 𝑥
where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomials in 𝑥 with 𝑞(𝑥) is not the zero polynomial.
For example:
𝑥+3 𝑥−2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
, ,
𝑥−7 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1

Proper rational functions

A proper rational function is one in which the degree of the numerator is less than
the degree of the denominator. Otherwise, it is called improper.
For example:
𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +1 2
, 3 and are all proper rational functions.
𝑥−1 𝑥+3 2𝑥 +𝑥+1 3𝑥+1

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1 2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1

, 2 and are all improper rational functions.
𝑥+1 𝑥 +4𝑥−5 𝑥+1 𝑥+2

30
 Partial Fractions
The equality
3𝑥 + 4 1 2
= +
𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+1 𝑥+2
expresses a complicated rational function as a sum of simple ones, a partial
fraction.

Important to remember!
Factor in Term in partial fraction decomposition
denominator
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑘 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
+ 2
+ ⋯+ , 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑘
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑘 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘
+ + ⋯ + , 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑘

31
 Example 3.12
Express each of the following functions in partial fractions:
3𝑥−1 𝑥3 5𝑥+7
(a) (b) (c)
𝑥+1 𝑥−3 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2 𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
3𝑥+5 𝑥 2 −17𝑥−8
(d) (e)
𝑥−2 2 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 2

32
 Review Question 1
Using the factor theorem, or otherwise, show that (2𝑥 − 1) is a
factor of 𝑓(𝑥) where
𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑥 3 + 23𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 4
Hence, factorise 𝑓(𝑥) completely and solve the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.

1 1
𝑥 = −4, , −
2 3
 Review Question 2
The polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) gives a remainder of 3 when it is divided by
(𝑥 + 1), a remainder of 1 when divided by (𝑥 − 1). Find the
remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 2 −1).

2−𝑥
 Review Question 3
The polynomial 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 has the factor (𝑥 − 1) and
when divided by (𝑥 + 2), it results in remainder −54. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Then factorise this polynomial. Hence, find all the factors of
(a) 2𝑥 6 − 9𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 4
(b) 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2

𝒂 = 𝟑, 𝒃 = 𝟒 𝒂 (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)

𝒇 𝒙 = (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟒) 𝒃 (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐)
 Review Question 4
The function 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑐 is a constant, has a minimum
7
value of 2 . Find the value of 𝑐.
8

𝑐=4
 Review Question 5
Find the range of values of 𝑘 such that the roots of the equation
𝑥 2 + 3𝑘 − 1 𝑥 + 𝑘 2 = 0
are real.

1
𝑘≤ 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≥ 1
5
 Review Question 6
Prove that if 𝑥 2 > 𝑘(𝑥 + 1) for all the real values of 𝑥, then −4 <
𝑘 < 0.
 Review Question 7
Express the following in partial fractions:
𝑥+2
𝑥3 𝑥 − 1
 Next Session

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions