Sequences
Inesh Chattopadhyay
May 2024
1 What is a Sequence?
When we come up with a term ‘sequence of real numbers’, the first impression that comes up in our
mind is that: it’s a chain of real numbers separated by commas, say for example:
1, 2, 4, 1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 1, . . .
But there’s something more inbuilt in the term ‘sequence’. When we say the term ‘sequence of real
numbers’, we generally refer to infinite sequences (otherwise we explicitly refer as ‘finite sequences’).
One thing that might come to your mind is that: what distinguishes sequences from infinite sets?
Notice that, sequences can have same number repeated more than once, but in case of sets, we
consider all elements distinct. The set {1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . } is same as {−1, 1}, which is finite, but
the sequence (1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . ) is not same as (−1, 1) [Later is not a sequence, it’s finite!]
Definition. (Sequence) A sequence of real numbers is a function f : N → R, written as
f (1), f (2), . . . or as a1 , a2 , . . . , where an = f (n), n = 1, 2, . . .
Sequences are denoted in multiple different ways, like: {an }∞
n=1 , {an }n≥1 , {an }n , {an } or, (an )n≥1 . If
you’re
thinking
whether there’s any hard and fast rule that a sequence should start from n = 1,
1
or {n}n≥0 are sequences to reshape your thoughts.
n − 1 n≥2
2 Some Terminologies
• A sequence {an } is said to be increasing if an+1 ≥ an ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be strictly increasing if an+1 > an ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be decreasing if an+1 ≤ an ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be strictly decreasing if an+1 < an ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be monotonic if {an } is either increasing or decreasing.
1
• A sequence {an } is said to be bounded above if there exists M ∈ R such that an ≤ M ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be bounded below if there exists m ∈ R such that an ≥ m ∀ n.
• A sequence {an } is said to be bounded if an is both bounded above and bounded below.
3 Warm-up Exercises
1. Can a sequence be both increasing and decreasing?
2. Determine whether the following sequences are monotonic or not:
n 2 n
(a) {2 − n }n≥1 (b) {sin(x + nπ/2)}n , x ∈ R (c)
2n + 3
3. Check whether the following statements are true:
n π o −π
(a) cos and cos are both decreasing sequences.
2n 2n
(b) If {an } is increasing, then so is {c · an + d}, for any choice of c, d ∈ R.
(c) {an } and {bn } are two monotonic sequences, then so is {an + bn }.
(d) If {an } is bounded above, then {−an } is bounded below.
4. Figure out (with proof) which of the sequences below are bounded:
√
−n n n
sin n e 3 2 n n o
(a) √ (b) (c) (d) (e) {n − n2 − 1}n (f)
n n n n! sin n n≥1
a1 + · · · + an
5. Suppose {an }n is a sequence. Define the running average Sn := , for all n ∈ N.
n
(a) Show that, if {an } is bounded, then {Sn } is bounded.
(b) If {Sn } is bounded, does it necessarily imply that {an } is bounded?
(c) Show that if {an } is monotonic, then {Sn } is also monotonic. Is the converse true?
6. Show that {an } is a bounded sequence if and only if there exists M > 0 such that for all n,
|an | < M .
7. Which of the following sequences are bounded?
1 1
(a) an = 1 + + ··· +
1×2 n × (n + 1)
1 1
(b) an = 1 + 2 + · · · + 2
2 n
1 1 1
(c) an = √ +√ √ + ··· + √ √
1+ 2 2+ 3 n+ n+1
1 1
(d) an = √ +√ √ + · · · (upto nth term)
1+ 3 5+ 7
1 1 1
(e) an = 1 + + + · · · + .
2 3 n
2
4 Limit of a Sequence
Consider the sequence {xn }, where xn = 1/n, n ∈ N. A plot of this sequence is shown below.
1
30
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
As n becomes larger and larger, 1/n approaches closer and closer to 0, yet the sequence doesn’t
attain the value 0. We want to encapsulate this intuitive idea into rigorous mathematical statement
involving known mathematical operations and symbols. We’ll call the point the sequence approaches,
in this case, 0, to be the limit of the sequence {xn }, after we have a suitable mathematical
notion to
(−1)n−1
describe the idea of getting ‘arbitrarily close’. The link here animates how the sequence
n
approaches 0 as n approaches +∞.
Our intuitive idea of limits can be shaped mathematically if we notice a common thing (among all
such sequences having the property of approaching a value):
A sequence xn has limit L if every open interval centered around L
engulfs the sequence xn after some stage.
This idea motivates us to the following definition.
Definition. (Limit of a Sequence)
A sequence {an } of real numbers is said to have a limit L if
∀ε > 0 ∃N ∈ N such that ∀ n > N, an ∈ (L − ε, L + ε) or |an − L| < ε.
We then say, the sequence {an } converges to L, and denote the limit as lim an = L.
n→∞
The statement an → L as n → ∞ bears the same meaning.
We say a sequence {xn } diverges if the
sequence does
not converge to any real number. Now it’s
n−1
(−1)
time to revisit the examples {1/n} and how to arrive at the limits of these sequences
n
using the definition.
Example. Consider the sequence {1/n}n . We aim to show that the limit of the sequence is 0.
1 1
Proof. Pick any ε > 0. Take N ∈ N such that N > 1/ε. Then ∀ n > N , −0 < < ε. Hence 0
n N
is the limit of the sequence {1/n}n which directly follows from the definition.
(−1)n−1
Example. Consider the sequence . We saw in the animation that the sequence ap-
n
proaches 0 as n → ∞. Now we are going to formally prove it.
3
(−1)n−1 1
Proof. Take any ε > 0. Take N ∈ N such that N > 1/ε. Then ∀ n > N , −0 < < ε.
n N
Thus, 0 is the limit of this sequence too.
5 Properties of Limit of a Sequence
Uniqueness: Limit of a sequence, if it exists, is unique.
l2 − l1
Idea: Let {an } be a sequence which converges to limits l1 and l2 , where l1 < l2 . Take ε = , so
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that (l1 − ε, l1 + ε) and (l2 − ε, l2 + ε) are disjoint. So, after some stage (i.e. for some N ∈ N ) xn
must belong to both these intervals for all n > N , which is impossible.
l2 − l1
Proof. Take ε = .
3
∃ N1 ∈ N such that ∀ n > N1 , |xn − l1 | < ε/2.
∃ N2 ∈ N such that ∀ n > N2 , |xn − l2 | < ε/2.
Take N = max{N1 , N2 }. Therefore, ∀n > N ,
l2 − l1
l2 − l1 = |(xn − l1 ) − (xn − l2 )| ≤ |xn − l1 | + |xn − l2 | < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε =
3
which is a contradiction, thereby implying uniqueness of limit (if it exists).
Boundedness: Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Proof. Let {an } be a sequence which converges to l. Take ε = 1. There exists N ∈ N such that
for every n > N , |an − l| < 1. So, |an | ≤ |l| + |an − l| < |l| + 1 holds for all n > N . Take
M = max {|a1 |, |a2 |, . . . |aN |, |l| + 1}. This implies, for every n ∈ N, |an | < M , which completes the
proof.
Algebraic Properties: Let {xn } and {yn } be two sequences such that lim xn = x and
n→∞
lim yn = y. Then:
n→∞
(a) lim (xn ± yn ) = x ± y (b) lim c · xn = c · x, where c ∈ R is a constant.
n→∞ n→∞
(c) lim (xn · yn ) = x · y
n→∞
1 1
(d) If yn ̸= 0 for all n ∈ N and y ̸= 0, then lim = .
n→∞ yn y
Proof. Part (a): Take any ε > 0. There exists N1 ∈ N such that ∀ n > N1 , |xn − x| < ε/2 and there
4
exists N2 ∈ N such that ∀ n > N2 , |yn − y| < ε/2. Then for every n > N := max {N1 , N2 }, we have
|(xn + yn ) − (x + y)| ≤ |xn − x| + |yn − y| < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε. The proof for (xn − yn ) can be done in
similar fashion.
Part (b): The statement is trivial for c = 0, so assume c ̸= 0. Take any ε > 0. There exists N ∈ N
ε ε
such that ∀ n > N, |xn − x| < . Then ∀ n > N, |c · xn − c · x| < |c| · = ε.
|c| |c|
Part (c): Rough work: |xn yn − xy| = |(xn yn − xn y) + (xn y − xy)| ≤ |xn | |yn − y| +|y| |xn − x|
|{z} | {z } | {z }
<M ε ε
< <
2M 2|y|
If both the limits x and y are zero, the case is trivial. So assume, without loss of generality, y ̸= 0.
Take any ε > 0. Since {xn } is convergent, there exists M > 0, |xn | < M for all n.
ε
∃ N1 such that ∀ n > N1 , |xn − x| <
2|y|
ε
∃ N2 such that ∀ n > N2 , |yn − y| <
2M
ε ε
Then for all n > N := max {N1 , N2 }, |xn yn −xy| ≤ |xn | |yn −y|+|y| |xn −x| < M · +|y|· = ε.
2M 2|y|
1 1 |yn − y| ? |yn − y|
Part (d): Rough work: − ≤ < < ε.
yn y |yn | · |y| m · |y|
For the questioned inequality, we need some m > 0 such that for some N ∈ N, |yn | > m holds for all
n > N . We have encountered such an idea already, figure out where we’ve!!
Since {yn } is convergent, there exists N1 such that for all n > N1 , |y| − |yn | ≤ |yn − y| < |y|/2, where
the first inequality is obtained by rearranging and applying triangle inequality, and the second is by
fixing |y|/2 in place of epsilon. This gives, for all n > N1 , |yn | > |y|/2 = m (say), which was required
to complete the proof.
Take any ε > 0. There exists N2 such that for every n > N2 , |yn − y| < ε |y|2 /2. Take N =
max{N1 , N2 }. So, for all n > N ,
1 1 |yn − y| |yn − y| |yn − y|
− ≤ < = <ε
yn y |yn | · |y| m · |y| |y|2 /2
This completes the proof.
Corollary. Let {xn } and {yn } be two sequences such that lim xn = x and lim yn = y. If
n→∞ n→∞
xn x
yn ̸= 0 for all n ∈ N and y ̸= 0, then lim = .
n→∞ yn y
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6 Exercises (Limit of a sequence)
1. Using the definition of limit of a sequence, find the following limits. Here, all the n’s run over
natural numbers, i.e. n ∈ N.
1 n n2 − 1 n n
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim (e) lim √
n→∞ n2 n→∞ 3n − 2 n→∞ 2n2 + 4 n→∞ 2n2 + 5n + 6 n→∞ 3n2 + 1
1
[Hint: Notice that, in the examples like lim , where we’ve calculated limits from the definition,
n→∞ n
we first guessed from intuition, by plotting or some other means, and then proved that what we
guessed as our limit was indeed the limit.]
2. Suppose {tn } is a sequence of non-negative reals such that lim tn = t. Show that t ≥ 0. Hence,
n→∞
or otherwise, show that:
(i) If {xn } is a sequence such that a ≤ xn ≤ b ∀ n, and xn → x, then prove that a ≤ x ≤ b.
(ii) If {xn } and {yn } are two sequences with limits x and y, such that xn ≥ yn ∀ n ∈ N, then
x ≥ y.
Bonus: relaxing the condition “ xn ≥ yn ∀ n ∈ N ” to “ ∃N ∈ N such that ∀ n > N, xn ≥
yn ” does not affect the conclusion.
3. Suppose {xn } and {yn } are convergent sequences converging to x, y respectively, such that
xn > yn for all n ∈ N. Does that necessarily mean x > y?
√ √
4. Let {xn } be a sequence of non-negative integers converging to x. Show that xn → x.
5. Show that if an → L as n → ∞, then for any polynomial P (x) with real coefficients, as n
approaches ∞, P (an ) → P (L). [Hint: First try to prove that for every m ∈ N, an → L implies
(an )m → Lm as n → ∞.]
6. Let {an }n be a sequence such that a2k = 0 and a2k−1 = 1 for all k ∈ N. Prove that {an } does
not converge to 1.
7. Let an = (−1)n−1 for all n. Show that an does not converge to any a ∈ R. (We call ‘ an
diverges’.)
8. If an → l as n → ∞, then show that |an | → |l|. Is the converse true?
9. Prove or disprove: If {an } be a sequence such that |an | → 0, then n → ∞, an → 0.
If {xn } is a sequence of positive terms such that xn → 1, then find the limit of the sequence
10.
4 + x2n
.
xn
√
n
11. Show that the sequence {e } does not converge to any real t ∈ R. (We say ‘the sequence
diverges to +∞’).
6
12. Suppose {xn }, {yn } are two sequences such that lim (xn +yn ) exists. Is it necessary that lim xn ,
n→∞ n→∞
lim yn exists?
n→∞
13. Suppose that {xn }, {yn } and {zn } be three sequences such that lim (xn + yn ), lim (yn + zn ) and
n→∞ n→∞
lim (zn + xn ) exists. Is it necessary that lim xn , lim yn and lim zn all exist?
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
14. Give an example of a bounded sequence which is not convergent.
15. Can you make a convergent sequence divergent by changing finitely many terms? Can you make
a divergent sequence convergent by changing finitely many terms?