THE SOCIOCULTURAL LIFE OF THE MISING COMMUNITY OF ASSAM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts in History, Gauhati University 2025

Courses: HIS 4046

Roll No.: PA2318210049

Submitted To
Department of History
Gauhati University
Year: 2025
TABLE OF CONTENT

 DECLARATION FROM THE CANDIDATE

 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1Background of the study
1.2 Objective
1.3 Scope and Methodology

 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL ORIGIN AND MIGATION

2.1Ethnogenesis and migration theory,
2.2 Settlement patterns in Assam
2.3 Integration with the Assamese society

 CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INSTITUTION

3.1 Clan system
3.2 Marriage and inheritance
3.3 Role of village council (kebang)

 CHAPTER 4: CULTURAL PRACTICES AND BELIEF

4.1 Religious belief
4.2 Rituals, Festivals and their significance

 CHAPTER 5: ORAL TRADITION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

5.1 The Language as a Cultural Vessel
5.2 The Modern Challenges

 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The Mising community—also spelled Mishing—is one of Assam’s major Scheduled Tribes,
traditionally inhabiting regions along the banks of the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries.
Historical accounts suggest that the Misings migrated over time from the highlands of present-
day Arunachal Pradesh to the fertile plains of Assam. As part of the Tani group of tribes, they
maintain close ethnolinguistic and cultural ties with neighbouring groups such as the Adis and
Nyishis.

This migration, which likely began between the 13th and 14th centuries CE, was shaped by a
range of ecological, political, and economic influences. Since then, the Misings have developed a
unique identity rooted in their riverine environment, agrarian lifestyle, and rich oral traditions.

Despite increasing contact with the wider Assamese society and exposure to external forces like
education, modernisation, and state policies, the community has preserved key aspects of its
heritage. These include the use of their native language—Mising Agom—distinct clan-based
social systems, vibrant festivals like Ali-Aye-Ligang, and religious practices steeped in animism and
reverence for nature.

However, the pressures of contemporary life have also brought about profound changes.
Economic development, urbanisation, and technological advancements are reshaping the
traditional way of life, raising concerns about cultural erosion, declining use of the native
language, and weakening of social bonds. In this context, the present study seeks to examine
how the Mising people navigate the crossroads between continuity and change.

Literature Review

Over the years, scholars from anthropology, sociology, and history have contributed to the
understanding of the Mising community. One of the foundational works is Tribes of Assam by
B.N. Bordoloi, G.C. Sharma Thakur, and M.C. Goswami, which offers a comprehensive
ethnographic overview of the community. Though broader in scope, Verrier Elwin’s The Loss of
the Tribal Soul provides important commentary on the impact of modernisation on tribal
cultures, themes relevant to the Mising experience.

P.C. Pegu’s The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley is a significant contribution that documents
village organisation, customary laws, and religious practices. Similarly, Jadav Doley’s work
addresses migration and the influence of education and media on riverine livelihoods.

Objectives of the Study

This dissertation aims to explore the sociocultural fabric of the Mising community by pursuing
the following key objectives:
 1. To trace the historical roots and migration patterns of the Mising people.
2. To understand the structure of their traditional society, including family, clan, religious,
and cultural institutions.
3. To analyse the influence of modern education, governance policies, and technology on
Mising identity and social practices.
4. To examine the ways in which the community adapts to socio-economic changes while
seeking to preserve its cultural heritage.

Scope of the Study

This research adopts both a historical and ethnographic lens. Geographically, the focus is on
Mising-populated areas in the districts of Dhemaji, Lakhimpur, Majuli, and parts of Tinsukia,
Sibsagar, and Jorhat. Thematically, it spans a wide range of topics including migration history,
kinship, festivals, language, religious beliefs, traditional governance, and contemporary
challenges related to development, migration, and cultural revival.

Methodology

The study is grounded in qualitative research methods and draws from both primary and
secondary sources. Fieldwork included visits to Mising villages, informal conversations with
elders and youth, and participation in cultural celebrations such as Ali-Aye-Ligang. These
interactions provided insights into everyday experiences and community values.

Secondary sources consist of academic literature, government records, and publications by

organisations like the Mising Agom Kebang and the Takam Mising Porin Kebang (TMPK).
Additionally, the study incorporates oral histories, folklore, and archival material to build a
holistic picture of Mising life. Cross-verification of data from multiple sources has been used to
ensure accuracy and depth.

Chapterizatin
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Historical Origin and Migration
Chapter 3: Social Structure and Institution
Chapter 4: Culture Practices and beliefs
Chapter 5: Changing Lifestyle and Contemporary Challenges
Chapter 6: Conclusion

References
 Pegu, P.C. (2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Doley, J. (2012) Migration and Riverine Settlements of the Mising Tribe.
 Dibrugarh University Journal.
 Bordoloi, B.N., Sharma, G.C., & Goswami, M.C. (1987) Tribes of Assam: Part I.
Guwahati: Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.
 Saikia, Y. (2004) Religion and Identity in Assam. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
 Sharma, R. (2019) Education and Cultural Transition in Northeast India.
Shillong: NEHU Press.
 Elwin, Verrier. (1964) The Loss of the Tribal Soul. Oxford University Press.
 CHAPTER 2:
Historical Origin & Migration

The history of the Mising community is a story of movement, adaptation, and cultural resilience.
Though they are now one of the major Scheduled Tribes of Assam, the Misings trace their roots
to the highlands of present-day Arunachal Pradesh. This journey from the hills to the fertile
floodplains of Assam is more than a tale of migration—it is a testament to the community’s
ability to preserve their identity while embracing change.

Tracing the Origins

The Misings are part of the larger Tani group of tribes, which also includes the Adi, Apatani,
Nyishi, Tagin, and Galo people of Arunachal Pradesh. Their language and cultural practices are
closely related to these hill tribes. Linguistic and anthropological studies suggest that the Misings
were once part of the Adi community before gradually branching off and moving towards the
plains.

The term “Miri” was historically used to refer to them. Various theories exist about the origin of
this name. Some believe it signifies the role they played as intermediaries between the hills and
the plains—people who moved between different worlds. Others suggest that the name may be
linked to ritual figures among the Adi tribes. Today, however, they identify as “Mising”, a term
that reflects a sense of kinship and purity within the community.

The Migration Journey

The Mising migration to Assam was not a singular event but a slow and steady process spanning
several centuries, likely starting from the 13th or 14th century. This movement was driven by
multiple factors—search for arable land, ecological shifts, conflicts in the hills, and opportunities
in the plains.

Historical narratives suggest that some Mising subgroups like the Pagro integrated into the
Chutiya kingdom, while others, such as the Samoguriya Misings, have fascinating origin stories
involving rafting down the Dibang River after a tragic misunderstanding in their homeland. One
popular legend tells of these migrants slaying a monstrous python to win the favour of an Ahom
king, who rewarded them with land.

These migration stories are not merely historical anecdotes—they form a crucial part of Mising
identity, carried forward through oral history and folklore.

Settlement Patterns

Once they reached the plains, the Misings settled along the banks of the Brahmaputra River and
its tributaries. These riverine environments mirrored the landscapes of their hill origins and
provided fertile land for agriculture and easy access to water. This deep connection with rivers
earned them the nickname “riverine tribe.”

Initially, they concentrated in districts like Dhemaji, Lakhimpur, and Tinsukia, later spreading into
Majuli, Sivasagar, Jorhat, and Golaghat. Even today, the majority of Mising villages remain close
to water bodies, indicating a strong preference for traditional settlement patterns.

Cultural Integration with Assamese Society

Over the centuries, the Misings have experienced a gradual integration into the broader
Assamese society. This integration, however, has been selective and layered. While the
community has adopted the Assamese language in public life, their own language remains vital in
domestic and cultural contexts.

Religious practices have also evolved. Traditional animistic and ancestor worship practices
continue, but many Misings have incorporated elements of Assamese Hinduism, creating a blend
that is unique to their identity. Festivals like Bihu are now celebrated alongside Ali-Aye-Ligang and
Dobur Uie.

In terms of lifestyle, clothing, food, and even marriage customs have seen influences from
Assamese norms, especially in urban and semi-urban settings. Despite these shifts, the Misings
have preserved key aspects of their heritage, such as the Kebang (village council) and clan-based
marriage rules.

References
 Barua, B.K. (1969) A Cultural History of Assam. Guwahati: Lawyer’s Book
Stall.
 Bordoloi, B.N., Sharma, G.C., & Goswami, M.C. (1987) Tribes of Assam:
Part I. Guwahati: Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.
 Pegu, P.C. (2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Doley, J.(2012) Traditional Institutions of the Mising Society: Continuity and
Change. Dibrugarh University Journal.
 CHAPTER 3:
Social Structure and Institutions

The social structure of the Mising community is both distinctive and dynamic. It is shaped by age-
old customs, community values, and a deep sense of collective identity. The basic unit of Mising
society is the family, often extended and closely knit, reflecting their agrarian lifestyle and need
for mutual support.

Mising families typically follow a patriarchal structure, although women play crucial roles in both
the household and the community. Social life is organised around the Kebang, the traditional
village council. The Kebang is more than just a governing body—it is a symbol of Mising
democracy and collective decision-making. Issues ranging from land disputes to community
rituals are resolved through this institution, which operates on principles of consensus and
customary law.

The Mising society is relatively egalitarian compared to many other ethnic groups. There is no
rigid caste system, although certain social hierarchies exist based on age, experience, and
knowledge of customs. Elders are held in high esteem, and their guidance is considered essential
in decision-making processes.

Marriage is a significant social institution among the Misings. It is usually exogamous, meaning
individuals are expected to marry outside their clan. Traditional marriage ceremonies are
elaborate and reflect the community’s emphasis on ritual and celebration. While arranged
marriages are common, love marriages are increasingly accepted, especially among the younger
generation.

Religion and belief systems also shape the social structure. Although many Misings have adopted
Hindu practices, especially Vaishnavism, indigenous religious beliefs centred on nature and
ancestral worship remain strong. Shamans, known as Mibus, continue to play important roles in
religious ceremonies, healing practices, and community rituals.

Education, though historically limited, is gaining prominence. Modern schools and increased
access to higher education are gradually transforming the social fabric, opening up new
opportunities while also posing challenges to traditional norms and values.

References
 Bordoloi, B.N., Sharma, G.C., & Goswami, M.C. (1987) Tribes of Assam: Part I.
Guwahati: Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.
 Doley, J.(2010) Social Institutions among the Misings. Dibrugarh University
Journal.
 Pegu, P.C. (2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Elwin, Verrier.. (1957) A Philosophy for NEFA. Shillong: North-East Frontier
 Agency.
 Gogoi, N. (2012) Women in Mising Society: Tradition and Change. Tezpur
University Journal.
 Barua, B.K. (1969) A Cultural History of Assam. Guwahati: Lawyer’s Book Stall.
 CHAPTER 4:
Cultural Practices and Beliefs

Culture among the Mising people is more than a collection of customs and rituals—it is the living
expression of their relationship with nature, the divine, and each other. Rooted in ancient
animistic traditions, their belief system has been shaped by centuries of interaction with their
natural environment, as well as with the broader Assamese society. This chapter explores the
spiritual worldview, festivals, and rituals that define the Mising way of life.

A Spiritual Bond with Nature

At the heart of Mising religious life lies a deep respect for nature. Trees, rivers, the sun, the moon
—these are not just elements of the environment but sacred beings. The Mising people believe in
a supreme cosmic force represented by Donyi (the Sun) and Polo (the Moon). Though more
institutionalised among the hill-dwelling Tani tribes, among the plains-dwelling Misings, Donyi-
Polo belief remains a spiritual philosophy rather than an organised religion.

Spirits, known as Uii, are also central to their worldview. Some are benevolent, protecting
families and villages; others are malevolent and must be appeased through ritual. Ancestor
worship is deeply embedded in daily life, as the deceased are believed to continue influencing
the lives of the living.

This spiritual landscape reflects a worldview where the sacred and the everyday are intertwined.
Harvests, health, and even social harmony are thought to depend on maintaining balance with
the spirit world.

The Role of the Mibu: Mediator Between Worlds

A key figure in Mising religious practices is the Mibu, or village priest. Far more than a ritual
performer, the Mibu is seen as a spiritual guide and healer. He communicates with spirits through
chants and trances, interprets dreams, and presides over major ceremonies. His role is hereditary
or spiritually ordained, and the knowledge passed down to him is largely oral, making him a living
archive of cultural memory.

The Mibu is essential to rituals like Dobur Uie, a ceremony meant to protect the village from
misfortune. Without his presence and guidance, no important religious function is considered
complete.

Festivals: Seasons of Faith and Joy

Among the many festivals celebrated by the Misings, Ali-Aye-Ligang stands out as the most iconic.
Held in the month of Phagun (February–March), it marks the beginning of the sowing season.
The name itself—Ali (roots), Aye (fruits), and Ligang (planting)—reflects its agricultural
significance.

The festival is not only a prayer for a good harvest but also a vibrant celebration of community
life. Traditional dances like the Gumrag, accompanied by flutes, drums, and singing, fill the air
with joy. Young and old alike participate, wearing colourful woven garments, sharing food, and
consuming homemade Apong (rice beer).

Dobur Uie, on the other hand, is a more solemn affair. It is a communal ritual to cleanse the
village of illness or misfortune and to seek blessings for the months ahead. The Mibu leads the
ceremony, which often includes animal sacrifices, especially pigs and chickens. These offerings
are seen as essential to appease the spirits and maintain cosmic balance.

Other rituals mark key life events such as birth (Urom Aro), marriage, and death. Each is
conducted with meticulous attention to tradition, ensuring the continuity of spiritual and familial
bonds.

Adapting and Integrating: Hindu Influence and Syncretism

Over time, prolonged contact with Assamese society has led to some degree of religious
syncretism. Many Misings today celebrate Hindu festivals like Bihu and worship Hindu deities
such as Lakshmi and Vishnu. These practices often coexist with traditional rituals, creating a
unique blend of belief systems.

However, this blending has not erased indigenous spirituality. Even in households that observe
Hindu customs, rituals for the ancestors and nature spirits are maintained, often in parallel. The
result is a layered identity—one that adapts without losing its essence.

Modern Pressures and Cultural Revival

In the modern era, the forces of urbanisation, education, and religious conversion—particularly
through Christian missionary activity—have challenged traditional practices. Some young
Misings, especially in urban areas, have grown distant from rituals they see as outdated.

Yet, in response, cultural organisations have emerged to protect and revive these traditions. The
Mising Agom Kebang and other grassroots bodies have played a vital role in educating the
community, organising cultural festivals, and publishing literature in the Mising language. These
efforts are helping to rekindle pride in Mising identity, especially among the youth.

References
 Elwin, Verrier. (1957) A Philosophy for NEFA. Shillong: North-East Frontier
 Agency.
 Pegu, P.C. (2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Bordoloi, B.N., Sharma, G.C., & Goswami, M.C. Tribes of Assam: (1987) Part I.
Guwahati: Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.
 Doley, J. (2010) The Role of Mibu in Mising Society. Dibrugarh University
Journal.
 Doley, J.(2013) Festivals and Agriculture in Mising Society. Dibrugarh
University Journal.
 Gogoi, N.(2012) Ritual Practices of the Mising Community: A Study. Tezpur
University Journal.
 Barua, B.K. (1969) A Cultural History of Assam. Guwahati: Lawyer’s Book Stall.
 Mising Agom Kebang. Annual Report. Majuli, 2020.
 CHAPTER:5
Oral Traditions and Cultural Identity of the Mising Community

For the Mising community, oral traditions are not just a means of storytelling—they are the living
threads that weave together memory, identity, and cultural continuity. Passed down from one
generation to the next through stories, songs, and rituals, these oral forms serve as powerful
tools to preserve their heritage in the absence of a written script.

The Language as a Cultural Vessel

The Mising language, part of the Tibeto-Burman family and closely related to Adi and Nyishi
languages, forms the foundation of their oral traditions. It is tonal and rich in metaphor, well-
suited for expressive storytelling and lyrical folk songs. Although the language does not have a
native script, the Roman script has been widely adopted, especially in educational settings and
literary efforts spearheaded by organisations like the Mising Agom Kebang.

In recent years, community-based initiatives have attempted to standardise the grammar and
vocabulary of the Mising language. These efforts are vital, as younger generations increasingly
shift toward Assamese or English, influenced by schooling, social media, and urban migration.

Myths and Legends: The Roots of Collective Memory

Among the Mising people, myths explain not just how the world works, but who they are. One of
the central myths involves their descent from Tani, the mythical ancestor of all Tani tribes. Stories
speak of Tani as the child of the Sun (Donyi) and Moon (Polo), symbolising the community’s
spiritual connection to natural elements. These myths are often recounted during community
gatherings, ceremonies, or even casual conversations, forming an invisible but deeply felt
connection to the past.

Legends about the migration of Mising subgroups, like the Pagro and Samuguriya clans, are also
preserved through oral narration. One widely known tale recounts how a group of Misings fled
their homeland after mistakenly killing members of their own tribe in the dark. Haunted by grief,
they floated downriver on a raft, eventually settling in Assam. Such stories do more than
entertain—they offer moral lessons, explain historical shifts, and foster a sense of belonging.

Folktales: Entertainment with Purpose

Mising folktales are a delightful blend of fantasy, morality, and practical wisdom. Many stories
feature clever animals, tricksters, and mysterious forest spirits. These narratives are typically
shared by elders, especially grandmothers, during evenings or festivals. While light-hearted in
tone, folktales are used to teach children about community values such as honesty, bravery, and
respect for nature.

Tales are often structured around the familiar rhythms of village life—planting seasons, hunting
expeditions, or journeys across rivers—making them immediately relatable and relevant to daily
experiences.

Songs and Music: The Emotional Soul of the Community

Music and song are central to Mising oral culture, accompanying every major life event—be it
birth, marriage, or death. Among the various forms, the Oi-Nitom stands out as the most
celebrated genre of folk song. These lyrical pieces express themes of love, longing, nature, and
separation. Often performed in call-and-response style during festivals or evening gatherings,
they carry an emotional depth that resonates across generations.

An example of a popular Oi-Nitom lyric is:

“Aro omiyo kirika, ngoge mikam ro…”

(“O dear moonlight girl, your gaze makes me tremble…”)

Such songs are not only poetic but also act as oral diaries of personal and communal experiences.

Accompanied by traditional instruments like the doba (drum) and takar (cymbals), music provides
a communal space for expression, healing, and connection. The Gumrag dance, performed during
the sowing festival Ali-Aye-Ligang, is usually paired with such songs and represents the harmony
between agricultural cycles and cultural celebration.

Proverbs and Riddles: Everyday Philosophy

Mising proverbs and riddles—known as Yoksum—are part of everyday conversation. These short,
sharp sayings encapsulate life wisdom, often delivered with humour or irony. For example:

“Tani inam yamin, konying ape-ase.”

(“A good tree’s shade is always shared by many.”)

This particular proverb speaks to values of generosity and communal sharing—qualities that are
central to the Mising way of life. Riddles, on the other hand, serve both as mental exercises and
social games, especially enjoyed by children and youth during leisure time.

The Modern Challenge: Preservation Amidst Change

In today’s fast-changing world, the survival of Mising oral traditions is under threat. Formal
education, migration to cities, and the dominance of Assamese and English in public life have led
to a gradual decline in the use of Mising language and folklore. Many young people are more
familiar with Bollywood songs than with Oi-Nitom, and prefer watching videos online to listening
to village elders.

However, this shift has sparked a revivalist response. Cultural organisations, particularly the
Mising Agom Kebang and the Takam Mising Porin Kebang, are working actively to document oral
narratives, publish collections of folktales, and organise cultural festivals where traditional
performances are showcased.

Schools in Mising-dominated areas have also started introducing the Mising language at the
primary level, offering children a chance to connect with their roots from an early age. Digital
platforms and social media are increasingly being used to share Oi-Nitom songs and oral stories,
giving ancient voices a new medium of expression.

Conclusion: Oral Tradition as a Living Legacy

For the Misings, oral tradition is more than a cultural relic—it is a living, breathing legacy that
shapes how they see themselves and their place in the world. It is through stories, songs, and
shared wisdom that they have survived historical migration, social change, and cultural
assimilation.

Preserving these oral traditions is not merely about nostalgia—it is about sustaining identity,
building intergenerational bridges, and ensuring that the unique voice of the Mising people
continues to be heard in the chorus of modern India.

References
 Dutta, B. (1995) The Languages of Assam. Guwahati: Gauhati University Press.
 Pegu, P.C.(2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Mising Agom Kebang. Language Development Report.(2020) Majuli.
 Elwin, Verrier.(1957) A Philosophy for NEFA. Shillong: North-East Frontier
Agency.
 Doley, J.(2011)Myth and Memory in Mising Culture. Dibrugarh University
Journal.
 Gogoi, N. (2012) Musical Traditions of the Mising Community. Tezpur
University Journal.
 Doley, J. (2013) Oi-Nitom: A Literary Treasure of the Mising People. Dibrugarh
University Journal.
 CHAPTER 6
Conclusion

The story of the Mising community is one of resilience, transformation, and deep cultural pride.
As we have seen throughout this study, their journey from the hills of Arunachal Pradesh to the
floodplains of Assam is not just a physical migration but a powerful narrative of survival and
adaptation.

A Journey of Continuity and Change

Historically, the Misings came down from the hills in search of better prospects—fertile land,
more temperate climate, and fewer inter-tribal conflicts. This migration laid the foundation for a
new phase in their history. In the plains of Assam, they created settlements along rivers,
cultivated the land, and built communities rooted in their own values.

Over time, this riverine lifestyle shaped their economy, religion, and rituals. Their festivals like Ali-
Aye-Ligang reflect not only the agricultural cycle but also the spiritual connection they maintain
with nature and their ancestors. Similarly, their social systems—clans, kinship networks, and the
Kebang council—have provided the community with both identity and structure.

However, the Misings have not remained isolated. Their encounter with Assamese society,
especially through language, religion, education, and state policies, has brought both
opportunities and challenges. While integration has allowed access to formal education, jobs,
and governance, it has also posed threats to the preservation of their language, customs, and
rituals.

Negotiating Identity in Modern Times

Today, the Mising identity is shaped by both the past and the present. While younger generations
are increasingly drawn to urban life and mainstream culture, many still return to their roots
during festivals or family events. This balancing act between tradition and modernity is a defining
feature of contemporary Mising life.

Revivalist efforts are a beacon of hope in this context. Organisations like the Mising Agom Kebang
(MAK) and Takam Mising Porin Kebang (TMPK) are playing crucial roles in documenting language,
promoting cultural education, and organising community events. These grassroots movements,
often driven by the educated youth, show that heritage and modernity can go hand in hand.
The Misings are a vibrant, living community whose story echoes the larger experience of many
indigenous groups in India. Their ability to hold onto core traditions while engaging with the
modern world speaks volumes about their strength and adaptability. In telling their story, we not
only understand a community—we also reflect on what it means to belong, to remember, and to
move forward without losing oneself.

References
 Pegu, P.C. (2008) The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Guwahati: Mising
Agom Kebang Publication.
 Doley, J. (2012) Migration and Riverine Settlements of the Mising Tribe.
Dibrugarh University Journal.
 Bordoloi, B.N., Sharma, G.C., & Goswami, M.C.(1987) Tribes of Assam: Part I.
Guwahati: Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.
 Mising Agom Kebang. Annual Cultural Report(2021) Majuli.
 Sharma, R. (2019) Education and Cultural Transition in Northeast India.
Shillong: NEHU Press.
 Elwin, Verrier. (1964) The Loss of the Tribal Soul. Oxford University Press.
 Xaxa, Virginius. (2008) Tribes and the Indian State. New Delhi: Routledge India.