**UNIT – I
FUNDAMENTALS OF SENSORS
(Option–C: 4–5 Page Professional Exam Notes)**
1. INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
A sensor is a device that detects physical, chemical, or biological
quantities and converts them into a measurable electrical signal.
Sensors form the heart of modern electronic and automation
systems. Almost every modern application—smartphones,
automobiles, biomedical instruments, industrial machines,
aerospace systems—uses sensors to monitor and control physical
processes.
Sensors improve:
Precision
Safety
Automation
Energy efficiency
Intelligent decision-making
A complete sensing system includes the sensor, signal
conditioning, data acquisition, and processing unit.
2. DEFINITION OF SENSOR
A sensor is defined as:
“A transducer that senses a physical parameter and converts it
into an electrical signal proportional to the measured quantity.”
Example conversions:
Temperature → Resistance change (RTD, Thermistor)
Light → Current (Photodiode)
Pressure → Capacitance change (Pressure sensor)
Displacement → Induced voltage (LVDT)
3. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Sensors can be categorized in several ways depending on
function, output, energy requirement, and working principle.
3.1 Based on the Type of Input Quantity
1. Mechanical Sensors
Measure displacement, speed, force, vibration.
Examples: Potentiometer, Strain gauge, LVDT.
2. Thermal Sensors
Measure temperature.
Examples: Thermistor, RTD, Thermocouple.
3. Optical Sensors
Measure light intensity or color.
Examples: Photodiode, LDR.
4. Magnetic Sensors
Measure magnetic field strength.
Examples: Hall-effect sensor, Magnetoresistive sensor.
5. Chemical Sensors
Measure gas concentration, pH, humidity.
Examples: Gas sensors, Electrochemical sensors.
3.2 Based on Output Signal
1. Analog Sensors
Produce continuous output proportional to input.
Example: Thermistor, LDR.
2. Digital Sensors
Produce discrete ON/OFF or pulse signals.
Example: Proximity sensor, Encoder.
3.3 Based on Energy Requirement
1. Active Sensors
Need external power excitation.
Examples: RTD, Strain gauge.
2. Passive Sensors
Generate their own output.
Examples: Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell.
3.4 Based on Working Principle
Resistive sensors (Potentiometer, Thermistor)
Capacitive sensors (Level sensors)
Inductive sensors (LVDT)
Piezoelectric sensors (Force/vibration sensors)
Optical sensors (Photodiode)
4. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORS
Static characteristics describe sensor behavior when the input
changes slowly or remains constant. They are essential to
evaluate the accuracy and reliability of sensors.
1. Accuracy
Accuracy is the closeness of the measured value to the true
value.
High accuracy means less error and better performance.
2. Precision (Repeatability)
Precision indicates the ability of the sensor to produce the same
output repeatedly under the same conditions.
3. Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of output change to input change.
A highly sensitive sensor can detect very small variations in the
input parameter.
4. Linearity
Indicates how closely the sensor’s output follows a straight-line
relationship with the input.
Perfect linearity is desired for easy calibration.
5. Resolution
Smallest change in input that the sensor can detect. Higher
resolution = better quality.
6. Threshold
Minimum input value that produces a detectable output.
7. Drift
Unwanted change in output over time, even when input is
constant.
Caused by aging, temperature, or environmental factors.
5. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORS
Dynamic characteristics describe behavior when the input varies
rapidly.
1. Response Time
Time taken by the sensor to respond to a sudden change in input.
2. Rise Time
Time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady-
state value.
3. Settling Time
Time taken for output to reach and remain within the final value’s
tolerance band.
4. Bandwidth
Frequency range over which sensor accurately responds.
Higher bandwidth → suitable for fast-changing signals.
6. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Measurements are not always perfect. Understanding errors
helps improve accuracy.
1. Gross Errors
Due to human mistakes—wrong reading, incorrect units, improper
handling.
2. Systematic Errors
Caused by the instrument, environmental conditions, or
calibration faults:
Zero error
Parallax error
Temperature drift
Aging effect
3. Random Errors
Unpredictable variations due to electrical noise or environmental
fluctuations.
4. Environmental Errors
Caused by temperature, humidity, dust, vibration,
electromagnetic interference.
5. Loading Error
Occurs when the sensor itself affects the system being measured.
7. CALIBRATION AND STANDARDS
Calibration ensures that the sensor's output corresponds
accurately to the input quantity.
Purpose of Calibration
Maintain accuracy
Reduce errors
Increase reliability
Standardize sensor performance
Calibration Procedure
1. Apply a known standard input value.
2. Measure and record the sensor output.
3. Compare with expected value.
4. Adjust the sensor (gain/offset) if required.
5. Plot calibration curve (input vs output).
6. Verify again after adjustment.
Calibration Curve
Graphically represents sensor behavior
Used to correct output readings
Helps identify non-linearity and drift
International Standards Used
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
NIST (National Institute of Standards & Technology)
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
8. PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL TRANSDUCTION PRINCIPLES
Sensors rely on physical effects to convert input energy into
electrical signals.
1. Piezoelectric Effect
Mechanical stress → Electric charge
Used in force sensors, microphones, accelerometers.
2. Photoelectric Effect
Light → Electron emission → Current
Used in photodiodes, solar cells.
3. Thermoelectric Effect
Temperature difference → Voltage
Working principle of thermocouples.
4. Hall Effect
Magnetic field → Voltage across semiconductor
Used in speed sensors, current sensors.
5. Magnetoresistive Effect
Changes resistance in the presence of magnetic field.
6. Electrochemical Transduction
Chemical concentration → Electrical output
Used in gas sensors, pH sensors.
9. SENSOR RELIABILITY AND STABILITY
Reliability
Ability of sensor to perform accurately for a long period without
failure.
Factors:
Material quality
Environmental protection
Manufacturing tolerance
Stability
Ability to maintain constant output over time.
Two types:
1. Zero stability – stability of zero-output condition
2. Span stability – stability of full-scale output
Improving Reliability & Stability
Proper calibration
Shielding from environmental disturbances
Using high-quality materials
Regular maintenance
10. CONCLUSION OF UNIT–I
Unit–I forms the fundamental base for understanding all
advanced sensors studied in later units. It explains various types
of sensors, their classifications, measurement characteristics,
error sources, calibration processes, and the physical principles
behind sensor operation. This knowledge is essential for selecting
and applying sensors in industrial control, automation systems,
robotics, biomedical equipment, and modern intelligent devices.