University of Technology, Jamaica
School of Computing & Information Technology
Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Handout #2
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
OSI is a reference model for how applications communicate over a network. This model focuses
on providing a visual design of how each communications layer is built on top of the other,
starting with the physical cabling, all the way to the application that's trying to communicate
with other devices on a network.
A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose of the
OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the digital
communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to promote a
clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunications system
that's in use.
Most vendors involved in telecommunications try to describe their products and services in
relation to the OSI model. This helps them differentiate among the various transport protocols,
addressing schemes and communications packaging methods. And, although it's useful for
guiding discussion and evaluation, the OSI model is theoretical in nature and should be used only
as a general guide. That's because few network products or standard tools keep related functions
together in well-defined layers, as is the case in the OSI model. The Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite, for example, is the most widely used network
protocol, but even it doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model.
History of the OSI Model
In the 1970s, technology researchers began examining how computer systems could best
communicate with each other. Over the next few years, several competing models were created
and published to the community. However, it wasn't until 1984 when the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) took the best parts of competing networking reference
models to propose OSI as a way to finally create a framework that technology companies around
the world could use as the basis of their networking technologies.
From ISO's perspective, the easiest way to create a conceptual model was to organize the models
into different abstraction layers required to organize and send data between computing systems.
Looking inside each abstracted layer to see the details shows one part of this network
communication process. Each layer can be thought of as a separate communication module or
piece of the puzzle. But, to actually accomplish the goal of sending data from one device to
another, each module must work together.
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Layers of the OSI Model
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It
provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful
data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should
encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation
layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the
session layer.
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is
responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer
from the last checkpoint.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on
the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning
it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow
control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and
error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets,
and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering
the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically
Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected
nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination.
This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network
protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC)
which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive
data.
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1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the
devices, and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s,
while taking care of bit rate control.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:
Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a
network.
Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing
efforts on that layer.
The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:
Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor,
allowing open interoperability
Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at
the application layer, or across the stack.
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Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model and was
created by the US Department of Defense (DoD). A key difference between the models is that
TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing several OSI layers into one:
OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP
OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP – however TCP/IP
does not take responsibility for sequencing and acknowledgement functions, leaving these to
the underlying transport layer.
Other important differences:
TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication problems, and which
is based on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-independent model
intended to describe all forms of network communication.
In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications do not use
all seven layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any data communication.