Unit 7

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS DETERMINING ENDURANCE

Endurance is an ability to withstand fatigue.
It is of two types:
1. Aerobic Endurance
2. Anaerobic Endurance

(i) Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO₂ max)

It refers to the highest rate at which oxygen can be taken up and
consumed by body during intense exercise.

(ii) Pulmonary Diffusion

It is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs
and blood.

(iii) Cardiac Output

Ability of heart to pump blood in one minute.

(iv) Lactate Threshold

Ability to tolerate lactic acid in blood during anaerobic activity.

(v) Aerobic Capacity

Aerobic capacity is the ability of a person to perform physical
activity for a long duration at slow or moderate speed using
oxygen. Higher aerobic capacity means the body can supply more
oxygen to working muscles, delaying fatigue. Regular aerobic
exercises like jogging, cycling and swimming improve aerobic
capacity.

(vi) Blood Volume and Flow

During endurance activities, muscles require more oxygen and
nutrients. These are supplied through blood. Regular training
increases:

1. Haemoglobin in red blood cells (for oxygen transport)

2. Plasma volume (for smooth blood flow)
This improves oxygen delivery to muscles and enhances
endurance.
(vii) Hydration
Endurance activities cause heavy sweating, which leads to loss of
water and minerals like sodium and potassium. Proper hydration:
1. Maintains body temperature
2. Prevents dehydration and cramps
3. Improves muscle efficiency
Thus, adequate water intake is essential to sustain endurance
performance.

(viii) Red Muscle Fibres

Red muscle fibres (slow-twitch fibres):
1. Contain more mitochondria
2. Carry more oxygen
3. Work efficiently for long duration

Athletes with a higher percentage of red muscle fibres can

perform endurance activities better, such as long-distance
running and cycling.

Percent of Muscle Fibres Required

Long distance runners: More slow-twitch fibres for endurance
Sprinters: More fast-twitch fibres for explosive power
Non-athletes: Balanced proportion of both fibres

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS DETERMINING STRENGTH

Strength
Strength is the ability of muscles to overcome or resist resistance.
Types of strength:
1. Maximal Strength
2. Explosive Strength
3. Strength Endurance

(i) Muscles Covering Sarcolemma

Sarcolemma is the outer covering of muscle fibres. A thicker
sarcolemma:
1. Helps muscles work together
2. Increases muscle cross-sectional area
3. Improves force production
Thus, strength increases.
(ii) White Muscle Fibres
White muscle fibres (fast-twitch fibres):
1. Contract quickly
2. Produce more forc
3. Fatigue faster
A higher percentage of white fibres improves explosive strength,
useful in sprinting, weightlifting and jumping events.

(iii) Muscular Contraction

Two types of contractions:
Concentric: Muscle shortens
Eccentric: Muscle lengthens

Controlled muscular contractions improve coordination, accuracy

and efficiency of movement, which enhances strength
development.

(iv) Muscle Length

Longer muscles have:
1. More muscle fibres
2. Greater leverage
Hence, they can generate more force compared to shorter
muscles.

(v) Myoglobin
Myoglobin is a protein in muscles that stores oxygen. Higher
myoglobin content:
1. Supplies oxygen during emergencies
2. Delays muscle fatigue
Thus, it improves strength and endurance.

(vi) Nerve Impulses

Nerve impulses are signals sent from brain to muscles. Stronger
and faster impulses:
1. Cause powerful muscle contraction
2. Improve neuromuscular coordination
This results in higher muscular strength.

(vii) Adequate Energy

Muscle contraction requires energy (ATP). Muscles with:

More mitochondria
Higher ATP production
Can contract strongly and for longer duration, improving strength.

(viii) Age
Muscular strength increases till around 20–40 years due to full
muscle development. After this age:
Muscle mass decreases
Strength gradually declines

(ix) Gender
Men generally have:
Larger muscles
Longer muscle fibres
Higher testosterone levels
Therefore, men usually have more strength than women.

(x) Body Weight

Body weight affects strength because heavier individuals often
have:
More muscle mass
Greater force-producing capacity
However, excess fat does not contribute to strength.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS DETERMINING SPEED

Speed
Speed is the ability to perform movement in the shortest possible
time.
Components of speed:
1. Reaction Time
2. Acceleration
3. Speed of Movement

(i) Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres

Fast-twitch fibres contract rapidly and powerfully. A higher
percentage of these fibres enables quick movements, improving
speed performance.

(ii) Neuromuscular Responses

Faster nerve impulses result in:
Quick muscle activation
Faster contraction
This improves reaction time and movement speed.

(iii) ATP Energy Store

ATP is the immediate source of energy. Greater ATP stores allow:
Quick energy release
Faster movements
Essential for sprinting and anaerobic activities.

(iv) Flexibility
Greater flexibility allows:
Larger range of motion
Efficient movement mechanics
This helps in performing movements faster.

(v) Anaerobic Capacity

Anaerobic capacity helps the body perform high-intensity
activities without oxygen for short duration. Improved anaerobic
capacity enhances sprinting speed.

(vi) Coordinative Ability

Coordination between muscles and nervous system helps:
1. Smooth execution of movements
2. Efficient technique
Thus, speed improves.

(vii) Strength
Stronger muscles can apply greater force in less time. Therefore,
strength directly contributes to higher speed.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS DETERMINING FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability of joints to move through their full range of
motion.

(i) Joint Articulation

The structure of joints determines:
Direction of movement
Range of motion
Healthy joint articulation increases flexibility.
(ii) Ligament Elasticity
Elastic ligaments allow joints to stretch more. Greater elasticity
means higher flexibility.

(iii) Muscle Stretch Ability

Muscles that stretch easily allow wider joint movements,
improving flexibility.

(iv) Disease or Injury

Diseases like arthritis and injuries reduce joint mobility and
muscle elasticity, decreasing flexibility.

(v) Age
Children are more flexible due to softer tissues. Flexibility
decreases with age as tissues become stiff.

(vi) Gender
Females generally have more flexible bodies due to differences in
anatomical structure and hormones.

(vii) Warming-Up
Warm muscles stretch easily. Proper warm-up increases blood flow
and elasticity, improving flexibility.

(viii) Heredity
Genetic factors influence joint structure and muscle elasticity,
affecting flexibility.

Effects of Exercise on Cardio Respiratory System

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON CARDIO-
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

(i) Increased Cardiac Output

Exercise increases heart rate and stroke volume, resulting in more
blood being pumped to working muscles.

(ii) Quick Return of Normal Pulse

Trained individuals recover faster after exercise due to efficient
heart function.
(iii) Faster Adaptation to Work Load
The heart of a trained person adjusts quickly to increased physical
demand.

(iv) Increased Maximal Oxygen Uptake

Improved oxygen utilization capacity allows muscles to work
harder and longer.

(v) Increase in Vital and Tidal Volume

Regular exercise increases lung capacity, allowing more oxygen
intake.

(vi) Faster Removal of Waste

Metabolic waste like carbon dioxide and lactic acid is removed
quickly, reducing fatigue.

(vii) Hydro-Balance
Exercise improves water balance and delays dehydration.

(viii) Decreased Blood Viscosity

Blood becomes thinner, improving circulation.

(ix) Increased Respiratory Rate

Breathing rate increases to meet higher oxygen demand.

(x) Increased Blood Pressure

During exercise, systolic blood pressure increases to supply blood
to muscles.

(xi) Increased Gas Exchange

Efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in lungs.

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

(i) Hypertrophy of Heart & Increased Stroke Volume
Heart becomes larger and pumps more blood per beat.

(ii) Resting Pulse Decreases

Heart works efficiently with fewer beats at rest.

(iii) Lactate Threshold Increases

Delayed fatigue during endurance activities.
(iv) New Capillaries Form
Better blood supply to muscles.

(v) Increase in Alveoli & Pulmonary Diffusion

Improves oxygen exchange efficiency.

(vi) Increased Lung Volume

Vital capacity increases significantly.

(vii) Increase in Aerobic Endurance

Fatigue is delayed.

(viii) Improved Metabolic System

Energy production becomes faster and efficient.

(ix) Strong Respiratory Muscles

Diaphragm and intercostal muscles become strong.

(x) Improved Blood Composition

Increase in RBCs, WBCs and haemoglobin.

(xi) Blood Pressure Regulation

Maintains normal blood pressure.

(xii) Reduction in Cardiac Problems

Lower risk of heart diseases.

(xiii) Faster Healing

Improved circulation speeds up recovery.

(xiv) Increased Resistance Power

Immune system becomes stronger.

Effects of exercise on muscular System

SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON MUSCULAR SYSTEM

(i) Efficiency Improvement
More capillaries increase blood flow and muscle efficiency.

(ii) Increased Muscle Temperature

Muscle temperature rises, improving elasticity.

(iii) Accumulation of Lactic Acid

Causes muscle pain and fatigue during intense exercise.

(iv) Increased Muscle Flexibility

Blood flow and temperature increase elasticity of muscles.

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON MUSCULAR SYSTEM

(i) Hypertrophy of Muscles
Regular exercise increases muscle size due to increase in muscle
fibres and myoglobin content.

(ii) Gain in Strength

Strength improves due to thickening of sarcolemma and stronger
ligaments and tendons.

(iii) Lactate Threshold Increases

Muscles tolerate lactic acid for longer duration, delaying fatigue.

(iv) Increase in Glycogen Storage

Muscles store more glycogen, providing continuous energy.

(v) Increase in Aerobic and Anaerobic Endurance

Muscles perform activities longer without fatigue.

(vi) Increase in Size and Number of Mitochondria

More mitochondria produce more ATP, increasing energy supply.

(vii) Proper Shape of Body

Exercise reduces excess fat and improves body posture.

(viii) Faster Recovery from Injury

Trained muscles heal faster and reduce injury risk.

(ix) Emergency Energy Stores Improve

ATP-ADP system becomes stronger for sudden energy needs.

(x) Desired Strength Development

Scientific training develops specific strength as required.

(xi) Faster Responses

Nerve impulses travel faster, improving reflex actions.

(xii) Efficient Use of Diet

Muscles utilize carbohydrates, fats and proteins efficiently.

(xiii) Better Neuromuscular Coordination

Improved coordination results in accurate and economical
movements.

4. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DUE TO AGEING

Ageing is a natural biological process. With increasing age, the
functional capacity of the body gradually decreases. Most
physiological functions reach their peak performance between 20–
30 years, after which they start declining.
Regular exercise can slow down the ageing process and reduce its
negative effects.

Physiological Changes Due to Ageing and Effect of Regular

Exercise

(i) Muscle Size

Age Effect: Muscle size decreases due to loss of muscle fibres.
Exercise Effect: Regular exercise maintains muscle mass and
delays muscle loss.

(ii) Muscle Strength

Age Effect: Muscle strength decreases because of reduced muscle
mass and nerve efficiency.
Exercise Effect: Strength training helps maintain muscular
strength.

(iii) Body Weight

Age Effect: Body weight increases due to fat accumulation and
reduced activity.
Exercise Effect: Exercise helps control body weight by burning
calories.

(iv) Output and Stroke Volume

Age Effect: Cardiac output and stroke volume decrease with age.
Exercise Effect: Regular exercise maintains heart efficiency.
(v) Heart Rate
Age Effect: Resting heart rate increases due to reduced cardiac
efficiency.
Exercise Effect: Exercise lowers resting heart rate.

(vi) Cardiac Muscle Strength

Age Effect: Heart muscles weaken with age.
Exercise Effect: Aerobic exercise strengthens cardiac muscles.

(vii) Elasticity of Blood Vessels

Age Effect: Blood vessels lose elasticity and become stiff.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves vessel elasticity.

(viii) Maximal Blood Flow

Age Effect: Blood circulation becomes slower.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves circulation.

(ix) Maximal Oxygen Intake (VO₂ Max)

Age Effect: Oxygen uptake capacity decreases.
Exercise Effect: Regular training improves oxygen utilization.

(x) Basal Metabolic Rate

Age Effect: Metabolic rate decreases, leading to weight gain.
Exercise Effect: Exercise boosts metabolism.

(xi) Chest Expansion

Age Effect: Chest expansion decreases due to stiff muscles.
Exercise Effect: Breathing exercises improve chest expansion.

(xii) Vital Capacity

Age Effect: Lung capacity reduces.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves lung efficiency.

(xiii) Pulmonary Diffusion Capacity

Age Effect: Gas exchange efficiency decreases.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves oxygen exchange.

(xiv) Endurance
Age Effect: Endurance decreases due to fatigue.
Exercise Effect: Endurance improves with training.
(xv) Neuro-Muscular Responses
Age Effect: Slower nerve response.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves coordination and reflexes.

(xvi) Reaction Time

Age Effect: Reaction time increases.
Exercise Effect: Training improves response speed.

(xvii) Speed of Movement

Age Effect: Speed decreases.
Exercise Effect: Speed can be maintained with practice.

(xviii) Flexibility
Age Effect: Joints become stiff.
Exercise Effect: Stretching maintains flexibility.

(xix) Coordinative Ability (Agility)

Age Effect: Coordination decreases.
Exercise Effect: Exercise improves agility.

(xx) Glandular Functioning

Age Effect: Hormonal secretion reduces.
Exercise Effect: Exercise balances hormone secretion.

(xxi) Overall Health

Age Effect: Health problems increase.
Exercise Effect: Improves overall health.

(xxii) Physical Fitness

Age Effect: Fitness decreases.
Exercise Effect: Maintains physical fitness.

(xxiii) Bone Mass

Age Effect: Bone density decreases.
Exercise Effect: Weight-bearing exercises strengthen bones.

(xxiv) Immune System

Age Effect: Immunity weakens.
Exercise Effect: Exercise strengthens immunity.

(xxv) Diet
Age Effect: Poor digestion and appetite.
Exercise Effect: Improves digestion.

(xxvi) Health Problems

Age Effect: Risk of diseases increases.
Exercise Effect: Prevents lifestyle diseases.

(xxvii) Blood Pressure

Age Effect: Blood pressure increases.
Exercise Effect: Maintains normal BP.

(xxviii) Percentage Body Fat

Age Effect: Body fat increases.
Exercise Effect: Exercise reduces body fat.

5 (A) MEANING OF SPORTS INJURIES

Every person is prone to injuries or accidents, irrespective of
physical fitness or safety measures.
Sports injuries are those injuries which occur to an individual
during participation in sports, games, training, competition or
even during daily activities involving movement.

These injuries may affect:

Skin
Muscles
Bones
Or a combination of these

Sports injuries cause:

Pain
Restriction of movement
Physical damage to organs
Impairment of sports performance

Causes of sports injuries:

Incorrect movement
Jumping, throwing, hitting
Collision with players or objects
Faulty equipment
Lack of warming-up
Overtraining
Poor technique

Sports injuries require proper first aid, treatment and

rehabilitation.

Definition by Morris
“An athletic injury is some physical damage to the body that
occurs during athletic practice or competition causing loss of
capacity or impairment of performance.”

Sports Medicine
Sports medicine is also known as exercise medicine.
It deals with:
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention of sports injuries

It also includes rehabilitation, nutrition, biomechanics, exercise

physiology and psychology.

The International Federation of Sports Medicine (FISM) provides

guidelines related to sports injuries.
The main aim of sports medicine is rapid and complete recovery
of the athlete.

According to Thesaurus
“It is the branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of
injuries or illness resulting from athletic activities.”

According to Webster College Dictionary

“It is the branch of medicine concerned with athletic conditioning
and nutrition, the treatment and prevention of athletic injuries
and the improvement of athletic performance.”

5 (B) CLASSIFICATION OF SPORTS INJURIES

Sports injuries can occur during training, competition or games.
They are classified as follows:

I. SOFT TISSUE INJURIES

These injuries affect skin, muscles, tendons and ligaments.
(a) Skin Injuries
Injuries occurring on the skin.

1. Contusion
Caused by a severe blow
Skin is not broken
Blood collects under the skin (hematoma)

2. Abrasion
Skin is scraped or rubbed due to friction
Not a deep injury

3. Laceration
Cut or tear in the skin caused by sharp objects

4. Incision
Deep cut caused by sharp or blunt objects

(b) Muscle Injuries

Injuries affecting muscles, tendons and ligaments.

1. Cramp
Neuro-muscular injury
Muscles cannot contract properly
Caused by fatigue or dehydration

2. Sprain / Muscle Pull

Damage to tendon
Caused by overstretching or sudden force

3. Strain
Injury to ligament
Occurs around joints due to overstretching

II. HARD TISSUE INJURIES

These injuries affect bones of the skeletal system.

Bone Injuries
Fracture
It is the damage or breakage of a bone due to external force.

Types of Fractures:
Hairline fracture
Greenstick fracture
Impacted fracture
Stress fracture
Transverse fracture
Oblique fracture
Linear fracture
Incomplete fracture
Complete fracture
Open Fracture

Bone breaks and comes out through the skin

Also called complicated fracture

Dislocation
It is an injury in which adjoining bones are displaced from their
original position.

Common Dislocations:
Shoulder dislocation
Hip dislocation
Knee dislocation
Elbow dislocation

MINOR INJURIES
Do not affect fitness much
Less painful
Pain disappears after some time
Localized inflammation
Mostly affect skin and muscles
Caused due to overuse
Relief through rest and simple treatment

SERIOUS (MAJOR) INJURIES

Cause severe pain and inflammation
Affect health and performance of the player
Damage skin, muscles, tendons, ligaments and bones
Blood vessels and nerves may rupture
Require proper medical treatment and rehabilitation
5 (C) SOFT TISSUE INJURIES: PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
(A) CONTUSION
A contusion is the crushing of soft tissues due to violent external
force without breaking the skin.

Characteristics:
Collection of blood under the skin
Causes swelling, pain and sometimes loss of function
Occurs due to impact by blunt object

Example:
Bruise caused by collision or fall.
There may be pain, swelling and discolouration of skin (red or
bluish mark).
It is caused by a hit or blow from an extreme object.

Treatment:
1. Wear proper safety guards while playing (gloves, guards,
helmets, shoes etc.) as per activity.
2. Treat contusion immediately with ice application (cold
compression) for short intervals; repeat after every six hours.
3. Apply non-steroidal anti-inflammatory creams or ointments
after one day to reduce pain and swelling.
4. After two days, gentle massage should be done over the
affected part to reduce swelling.

(B) ABRASION
Abrasion is an injury on the surface of the skin. In this injury, skin
is scraped or rubbed by friction. It causes severe pain and
sometimes bleeding over the affected part. It rubs the upper layer
of skin (epidermis). Blood vessels are exposed and the superficial
layer of skin is scraped off.

Common causes: sliding, slipping over surface, friction, etc.

Commonly occurs on knee, elbow, palm, etc.
It may be external or internal.

Prevention, First Aid and Treatment of Abrasion

1. Wear proper safety guards while playing according to the
activity.
2. Avoid further friction.
3. Clean the part with antiseptic cream and wash properly with
soap to prevent infection.
4. Anti-tetanus injection should be given.

(C) LACERATION AND INCISION

Laceration
Laceration is a type of wound that happens when soft tissues
(skin and muscles) are torn.
It is often caused by a blunt object.
It is deep and results in the outlet of internal organs.
Bleeding occurs from the affected part.

Incision
Incision is a type of wound caused by sharp-edged objects such as
knife, razor, etc.
Arteries or veins may be cut.
Blood usually comes out freely from incision.
Laceration and incision injuries are considered open wounds.

Prevention, First Aid and Treatment of Laceration and Incision

1. Wear proper safety guards while playing.
2. Stop bleeding at the earliest by compression or pressing.
3. Clean the surface of the affected part with antiseptic (e.g.,
Neosporin).
4. Cover the affected part with medical cotton bandage or band-
aid.
5. Repeat dressing or padding over the wound.
6. If injury is deep, go for stitches at the earliest.
7. Avoid infection by applying medicinal cream.
8. Care should be taken until the injury is completely healed.

(D) CRAMP
Cramp is the inability of muscles to contract properly, causing
severe pain over the affected part.
It is an imbalanced contraction of muscles.

Causes
Over-straining or over-working muscles
Loss of body water due to sweating
Lack of body salts or minerals
Physical activity during sickness
Extreme hot or cold climate
Not performing proper warm-up

Prevention, First Aid and Treatment of Cramp

1. Wear proper safety guards while playing.
2. Prevent over-exertion of muscles in excessive hot or cold
climate.
3. Give complete rest to the affected individual.
4. Drink sufficient water (preferably salty lemon water or juices).
5. Massage the affected part after some time.
6. If pain is severe, apply ice or cold compression.

(E) STRAIN
Strain injury is also known as muscle pull.
In this injury, muscles or tendons are overused, overstressed or
overstretched due to violent pull.
Muscle fibres may get damaged or ruptured.
Causes acute pain, loss of function, inflammation and swelling.
Mild strain is also known as cramp.
It can be prevented by proper warming-up and avoiding jerky
movements.

RICE / RICER / PRICER TREATMENT

The treatment and management steps of strain injury are referred
to as:
R – Rest
I – Ice
C – Compression
E – Elevation
R – Referral & Rehabilitation

(PRICER includes P – Protection)

Steps
1. Give complete rest and restrict movement of affected part.
2. Apply ice or cold compression immediately to stop internal
bleeding.
3. Apply compression bandage to reduce swelling.
4. Elevate the affected part above heart level.
5. After two days, apply anti-inflammatory cream and gentle
massage.
6. Complete recovery is gained through rehabilitation and
physiotherapy exercises

(F) SPRAIN
Sprain is the injury of ligament. In this injury, ligaments around
the joint are torn, twisted or overstretched.
It is very painful.
Movement of joint is restricted.
There is swelling due to internal bleeding.
Common in knee, ankle, wrist and elbow joints.
It can be prevented by proper warm-up and avoiding jerky
movements.

RICE / RICER / PRICER TREATMENT FOR SPRAIN

Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation
Rehabilitation
(P stands for Protection)

Prevention, First Aid and Treatment of Sprain Injury

1. Wear proper safety guards while playing according to the
activity.
2. Give complete rest and restrict movement of affected part.
3. Apply ice or cold compression immediately to stop internal
bleeding.
4. Apply compression bandage to reduce swelling.
5. Elevate the affected part above heart level.
6. After two days, apply anti-inflammatory cream and gentle
massage.
7. Complete recovery is gained through rehabilitation and
physiotherapy exercises
5(D) HARD TISSUE INJURIES (BONE INJURIES) & THEIR MANAGEMENT
Bone injuries are serious and painful. Improper handling may
cause permanent disability.

First Aid:
Immobilize the affected part
Stop bleeding
Apply ice (cryotherapy)
Avoid further damage
Seek expert medical help

(A) DISLOCATION
Dislocation is an injury of joint in which adjoining bones are
displaced from their original position.
It is also called subluxation.

Causes of Dislocation
Fall or accident
Direct or indirect impact
Weak muscles and tendons
Common in throwing, jumping and contact games

Symptoms of Dislocation
Pain
Swelling
Bruising
Instability of joint
Loss of movement
Deformed joint

Prevention of Dislocation
Strengthening muscles
Proper warm-up
Controlling excessive joint movement
Avoiding jerky movements

Dislocation can be treated by medication, manipulation, rest or

surgery.

(B) FRACTURE
Fracture is an injury in which bone breaks due to external
pressure.
It may be partial or complete. Improper treatment can be
dangerous.

Symptoms of Fracture
1. Severe pain around fractured bone
2. Swelling and deformity
3. No movement possible
4. Increase in local temperature
5. Deformed appearance of fractured part

TYPES OF FRACTURES
(i) Stress Fracture
Also known as hairline fracture. Caused by repeated stress.
Treatment: Rest, cold therapy, ice packs, anti-inflammatory
medicines.
Healing time: 6–8 weeks.

(ii) Greenstick (Hairline) Fracture

Bone bends with mild cracking but does not break completely.
Treatment: Removable splints give better results than casting.

(iii) Comminuted Fracture

Bone breaks into many small pieces.
Treatment: X-ray diagnosis and surgical fixation using nails or
plates.

(iv) Transverse Fracture

Bone breaks at right angle to its axis.
Treatment: Rest, medicine, back brace or abdominal binder.

(v) Oblique Fracture

Bone breaks diagonally, mostly in long bones.
Treatment depends on severity; reduction and medication may
help.

(vi) Impacted Fracture

Broken bone is driven into another bone due to sudden impact.
Treatment: Sling or splint to keep bones in position and prevent
damage.
Classification of Fracture
(a) Closed Fracture
Broken bone remains inside the skin; no open wound.

(b) Open Fracture

Broken bone pierces the skin, causing an open wound.

In this fracture, there is a cut over the skin by the sharp edges of
broken bone/bones along with the broken bone.

First Aid and Management of Hard or Bone Injuries

(Dislocation or Fracture)
1. Do not move the joint. The victim should be kept in a
comfortable position.
2. Apply cold pack or ice packs to reduce pain, swelling and
internal bleeding.
3. Provide support by using string or splint bandage or sling to
prevent further movement and give relief to the victim.
4. The patient should be handled by an expert doctor. X-ray and
other diagnosis should be done properly.
5. The expert should manage immobility by applying plaster so as
to enable the joint to take its real position.
6. This immobility should be for 3 to 6 weeks as per expert advice.
7. After full treatment, progressive rehabilitation exercises or
physiotherapy should be done to regain strength of the joint or
bone under expert observation.

FIRST AID AND ITS OBJECTIVES

First Aid is the immediate and temporary care given to the victim.
The main objective of first aid is to save life and prevent further
injury or damage.
First aid was first used by St. John Ambulance Association in 1879.

Objectives of First Aid

(i) Immediate Aid
First aid should be provided immediately. Time is very precious;
quick decisions help save life.

(ii) Think about ABC

ABC stands for:
A – Airway
B – Breathing
C – Circulation

Steps:
Check airway by loosening clothes.
Check breathing; if not normal, give Artificial Breathing (AB).
Check pulse for blood circulation.
If pulse is not felt, perform CPR (Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation)
immediately.
CPR should be repeated at least 15 times.

(iii) Stop Bleeding

Stop bleeding immediately to avoid excessive blood loss.
Raise bleeding hand or leg above heart level.
In case of artery cut, press with thumb or apply bandage until
doctor arrives.

(iv) Crowd Should Be Kept Away

Crowd restricts fresh air. The first aider should keep people away
from the injured person.

(v) Wrap the Injured in Cloth or Blanket

Victim should be kept warm by wrapping in a cloth or blanket.

(vi) Sympathetic Attitude

The first aider should be polite, calm and reassuring. He should
not be rash.

(vii) Fluids Should Not Be Given to an Unconscious Person

Liquids may enter the windpipe and cause further problems.

(viii) Medical Aid

Doctor or expert should be called immediately.

CAUSES OF SPORTS INJURIES

1. Lack of Fitness
2. Poor Concentration
3. Overstress or Tension
4. Not Performing Proper Warming-up
5. Equipment Failure
6. Faulty Skill Actions
7. Not Following Rules
8. Aggression or Violence
9. Poor Playfield
10. Not Considering Safety Means
11. Not Wearing Protective Guards
12. Wrong Training Methods
13. Wrong Treatment of Injury

PREVENTIVE STEPS FROM SPORTS INJURIES

1. Proper Warming-up (general and specific)
2. Medical Check before Activity
3. Proper Concentration
4. Safety Guards and Checking Equipment
5. Regular Conditioning and Proper Skill
6. Sufficient Physical Fitness
7. Considering Safety Means
8. Proper and Safe Environment
9. Activity under Expert’s Observation
10. Good Coaching Skills
11. Following Rules and Regulations
12. Sports Ethics and Sportsmanship
13. Controlling Aggression and Violence
14. Proper Training Methods
15. Following Training Principles
16. Balanced Diet and Good Posture
17. Knowledge of Health Education and First Aid
18. Training Regarding Safe Escape (disaster management, fire
safety, etc.)