UNIT 3

1. CONTROL STATEMENTS

1.1 Definition – Control Statements

Control statements are the instructions in a program that control the
flow of execution.
They decide which statements will execute, how many times, and
under what conditions.

They are of three types:

1. Conditional statements
2. Looping statements
3. Jumping statements

2. LOOPING STATEMENTS

2.1 While Loop

Definition:
The while loop repeats a block of code as long as a condition is true.

Syntax:
while(condition) {
// statements
}

Example:
int i = 1;
while(i <= 5) {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
}

2.2 Do-While Loop

Definition:

do-while loop executes the block at least once, then checks condition.

Syntax:
do {
// code
} while(condition);

Example:

int i = 1;
do {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
} while(i <= 5);

2.3 For Loop

Definition:

for loop is used when we know the number of iterations in advance.

Syntax:

for(initialization; condition; increment) {

// statements
}

Example:

for(int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

printf("%d ", i);
}
2.4 Nested Loops

Definition:

A loop inside another loop is called a nested loop.

Example: Print 3×3 matrix

for(int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
for(int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
}
printf("\n");
}

3. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

3.1 If-Else Statement

Definition:

if-else executes one block if a condition is true and another block if

false.

Example:
int age = 18;
if(age >= 18)
printf("Adult");
else
printf("Minor");

3.2 Switch Statement

Definition:
Switch is used when we want to select one option from multiple
choices.

Syntax & Example:

switch(day) {
case 1: printf("Monday"); break;
case 2: printf("Tuesday"); break;
default: printf("Invalid");
}

4. JUMP STATEMENTS

4.1 Break Statement

Definition:

break is used to exit loop or switch immediately.

Example:
for(int i=1; i<=10; i++) {
if(i==5) break;
printf("%d ", i);
}

4.2 Continue Statement

Definition:
continue skips the current iteration and moves to next iteration.

Example:
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++) {
if(i==3) continue;
printf("%d ", i);
}
4.3 Goto Statement

Definition:

goto jumps the control to a labeled statement.

Example:

goto start;
printf("This will be skipped");

start:
printf("Goto executed");

4.4 Comma Operator

Definition:

Comma operator allows multiple expressions in one line.

The rightmost value is returned.

Example:

int a = (1, 2, 3);

// a = 3

5. STORAGE CLASSES
Storage classes define lifetime, scope, and default value of variables.

5.1 Automatic (auto)

Definition:

Local variables defined inside a function.

Characteristics:
  Scope: inside block
 Lifetime: till function ends
 Default value: garbage

Example:
void f() {
auto int x = 10;
}

5.2 External (extern)

Definition:
Used to access global variables from another file.

Example:

extern int count;

5.3 Register

Definition:
Stores variable in CPU register for fast access.

Example:

register int x = 5;

5.4 Static

Definition:

Static variable preserves value between function calls.

Example:
void test() {
static int x = 0;
x++;
printf("%d", x);
}

6. FUNCTIONS

6.1 Function Definition

Definition:

A function is a block of code written to perform a specific task.

Example:
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

6.2 Accessing (Calling) Functions

Example:**

int result = add(5, 3);

6.3 Passing Arguments

Types:

1. Call by value
2. Call by reference

Example:
add(10, 20);
6.4 Function Prototypes

Definition:

Declaration of a function before use.

Example:

int add(int, int);

6.5 Recursion

Definition:
A function calling itself is recursion.

Example: Factorial
int fact(int n) {
if(n==1) return 1;
return n * fact(n-1);
}

6.6 Library Functions

Examples:

 printf()
 scanf()
 strlen()
 sqrt()

6.7 Static Functions

Definition:
Static functions have file-level scope.
static void hello() {
printf("Hello");
}

7. ARRAYS

7.1 Definition

An array is a collection of elements of same data type stored in

continuous memory.

Example:
int a[5] = {1,2,3,4,5};

7.2 Passing Array to a Function

Example:
void display(int a[]) {
for(int i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);
}

7.3 Multidimensional Arrays

Definition:
Array of arrays.

Example:

int matrix[2][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6}};

8. STRINGS

8.1 Definition:
String is a character array ending with '\0'.

Example:

char name[] = "Aman";

Operations on Strings
Strings in C are arrays of characters ending with a null
character ('\0').
To perform operations on strings, we use functions from the
header file:
#include <string.h>

✔ 1. strlen() – String Length

Definition:
strlen() is used to find the length of a string (number of
characters).
It does NOT count the null character '\0'.
Syntax:
int strlen(string);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char name[] = "Computer";
int len = strlen(name);
 printf("Length = %d", len);
return 0;
}
Output:
Length = 8

✔ 2. strcpy() – Copy One String to Another

Definition:
strcpy() copies the contents of one string into another.
Syntax:
strcpy(destination, source);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char s1[] = "Hello";
char s2[20];

strcpy(s2, s1);

printf("Copied String = %s", s2);

return 0;
}
Output:
Copied String = Hello

✔ 3. strcmp() – Compare Two Strings

Definition:
strcmp() compares two strings character by character.
It returns:

Return Value Meaning

0 Both strings are equal
Positive value First string is greater
Negative value Second string is greater

Syntax:
strcmp(string1, string2);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char a[] = "Apple";
char b[] = "Banana";

int result = strcmp(a, b);

if(result == 0)
printf("Strings are equal");
else if(result < 0)
printf("Apple comes before Banana");
 else
printf("Apple comes after Banana");

return 0;
}
Output:
Apple comes before Banana

✔ 4. strcat() – Concatenate (Join) Strings

Definition:
strcat() joins (appends) one string at the end of another.
Syntax:
strcat(destination, source);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char text1[30] = "Hello ";
char text2[] = "World";

strcat(text1, text2);

printf("Joined String = %s", text1);

return 0;
}
Output:
Joined String = Hello World

⭐ Summary Table

Function Purpose Example

strlen(s) Finds length strlen("ABC") → 3
strcpy(d,s) Copy string "Hello" → "Hello"
strcmp(s1,s2) Compare strings "A" < "B"
strcat(d,s) Join strings "Hello " + "World"
 UNIT 4

✅ 1. Definition of Pointer
A pointer is a special variable that stores the memory
address of another variable.
Example
int a = 10;
int *p;
p = &a;
Here:
 a → stores value 10
 &a → memory address of a
 p → stores that address
 *p → gives the value stored at that address (10)

✅ 2. Pointer Declaration
Syntax:
data_type *pointer_name;
Example
float *ptr;
char *name;
int *p;
✅ 3. Address (&) and Value (*) Operators
& Operator (Address Operator)
Returns the memory location of a variable.
* Operator (Value / Dereference Operator)
Returns the value stored at the address.

Example
int x = 20;
int *p = &x;

printf("%d", *p); // Output: 20

✅ 4. Pointer Operations
(a) Pointer Assignment
int *p, *q;
int a = 5;
p = &a;
q = p;
(b) Incrementing Pointer
Pointer increases according to data type size.
int *p;
p++ ; // increases by 2 or 4 bytes (depends on system)
(c) Pointer Comparison
if(p == q) { }

✅ 5. Pointers & Arrays

A pointer can access all array elements easily.
Example
int a[3] = {10,20,30};
int *p = a;

printf("%d", *p); // 10
printf("%d", *(p+1)); // 20
printf("%d", *(p+2)); // 30

✅ 6. Passing Pointer to a Function

Definition
Sending address of a variable to a function so function can
modify original value.
Example
void change(int *x){
*x = 50;
}

int main(){
int a = 10;
change(&a);
printf("%d", a); // Output: 50
}
⭐ PART 2 – STRUCTURES

✅ 1. Definition of Structure
A structure is a collection of different data types grouped
together under one name.
Used to represent a record.
Example
struct student {
int roll;
char name[20];
float marks;
};

✅ 2. Declaring Structure Variable

struct student s1, s2;

✅ 3. Accessing Structure Members

Use dot operator (.)
[Link] = 10;
[Link] = 88.5;

✅ 4. Taking Input in Structure

printf("Enter roll:");
scanf("%d", &[Link]);

printf("Enter marks:");
scanf("%f", &[Link]);

✅ 5. Displaying Structure Output

printf("Roll = %d", [Link]);

⭐ 6. Array of Structures
Definition
A structure array is a collection of multiple structure
variables.
Example
struct student s[3];
You can store 3 students data.

⭐ PART 3 – POINTER TO STRUCTURE

✔ Definition
A pointer that stores address of a structure variable.
Syntax
struct student *ptr;
ptr = &s1;
Access using -> operator
ptr->roll = 5;
ptr->marks = 90;

⭐ PART 4 – UNIONS

✔ Definition of Union
A union is similar to structure but all members share same
memory location.
Example
union item {
int x;
float y;
char z;
};
Only one member can store value at a time.
Difference Between Structure & Union

Structure Union
Each member has separate All members share same
memory memory
Can store only one value at a
Can store multiple values
time
Memory usage more Memory usage less

⭐ PART 5 – TYPEDEF

✔ Definition
Used to give new name (alias) to a data type.
Example
typedef unsigned long int uli;

uli x = 2000;
You created a short name.

⭐ PART 6 – FILE HANDLING IN C

✔ 1. Definition of File
A file is a collection of data stored permanently in the
computer.

✔ 2. File Operations in C
1. Creating a file
2. Opening a file
3. Reading from a file
4. Writing to a file
5. Closing a file

✔ 3. File Pointer
FILE *fp;

✔ 4. Opening a File
(a) Write Mode
fp = fopen("[Link]","w");
(b) Read Mode
fp = fopen("[Link]","r");
(c) Append Mode
fp = fopen("[Link]","a");
✔ 5. Writing to a File
fprintf(fp, "Hello Students");

✔ 6. Reading from a File

fscanf(fp, "%s", str);

✔ 7. Closing a File
fclose(fp);

Difference between Call by Value and Call by Reference

Call by Value Call by Reference

1. The actual address (reference)

1. A copy of the actual value
of the variable is passed to the
is passed to the function.
function.
2. Changes made inside the 2. Changes made inside the
function do NOT affect the function directly affect the
original variable. original variable.
3. Safe method – original data 3. Risky – original data may
remains unchanged. change unintentionally.
4. Uses more memory because 4. Uses less memory because no
copies are created. copies are created.
5. Syntax uses normal 5. Syntax uses pointers.
variables. Example: func(a); Example: func(&a);
📘 Example of Call by Value
void change(int x) {
x = 50;
}

int main() {
int a = 10;
change(a);
printf("%d", a); // Output: 10 (no change)
}

📘 Example of Call by Reference

void change(int *x) {
*x = 50;
}

int main() {
int a = 10;
change(&a);
printf("%d", a); // Output: 50 (value changed)
}
 UNIT 5

🔵 1. Introduction to Cyber Security

⭐ Definition of Cyber Security

Cyber Security is the practice of protecting computers,
networks, data, and digital systems from attacks, damage,
unauthorized access, and misuse.
Detailed Explanation:
Cyber security protects all digital information from
cybercriminals.
It includes:
 Protecting computers
 Protecting mobiles
 Protecting networks (Wi-Fi, internet)
 Protecting websites
 Protecting personal data (passwords, bank details)
Cyber security ensures that our information remains safe,
accurate, and available.

🔵 2. Information Security Concepts (CIA Triad)

The CIA triad is the foundation of cyber security.

⭐ A) Confidentiality
Definition:
Confidentiality means only authorized people can access the
information.
Explanation:
Your personal data (passwords, bank details) must be kept
private.
Unauthorized users should not see or use it.
Examples:
 Using a password so no one can open your email
 Locking your phone
 Encrypting data

⭐ B) Integrity
Definition:
Integrity means the data must remain accurate, complete,
and unchanged.
Explanation:
Nobody should modify, delete, or update data without
permission.
Examples:
 Marks database must not be changed by students
 Bank balance must always remain correct
 Files should not be corrupted by viruses
⭐ C) Availability
Definition:
Information must be available at the right time for
authorized users.
Explanation:
If systems go down (server down, network failure), work
stops.
Availability ensures system works whenever needed.
Examples:
 Online banking 24/7
 Website working always
 Hospital system available in emergencies

🔵 3. Cyber Threats

⭐ Definition of Threat
Threat is any potential danger that can damage a computer,
network, or data.

⭐ Types of Cyber Threats

🔶 1. Malware
Definition:
Malware = Malicious (bad) + Software
It is harmful software designed to damage systems.
Types of Malware:
A) Virus
Replicates (copies itself) and attaches to other programs.
Example: File-infecting virus.
B) Worm
Spreads automatically using the network.
Faster and more dangerous than virus.
C) Trojan Horse
Looks like a normal file/app but contains a hidden virus.
D) Ransomware
Locks your data and asks for money to unlock it.
Example: WannaCry attack.
E) Spyware
Secretly monitors your activities.
Example: Keylogger.

🔶 2. Phishing
Definition:
Cybercriminals send fake emails/messages to steal personal
information.
Example:
 Fake bank email asking for OTP or password
 Fake job messages
 Fake lottery messages

🔶 3. Social Engineering
Definition:
Tricking people using psychology to steal information.
Examples:
 Fake phone call pretending to be a bank officer
 Fake customer care
 Asking OTP for “verification”

🔶 4. Denial of Service (DoS) Attack

Definition:
Making a server or website unavailable by sending too many
requests.
Example:
Website gets so much traffic that it crashes.

🔶 5. Man-in-the-Middle Attack (MITM)

Definition:
Attacker secretly intercepts communication between two
people.
Example:
Hacking public Wi-Fi and stealing data.

🔶 6. Password Attacks
 Brute force (trying all combinations)
 Dictionary attack (using common passwords)

🔵 4. Vulnerability

⭐ Definition:
A vulnerability is a weakness in software, system, or network
that attackers can exploit.

⭐ Types of Vulnerabilities

🔸 Weak Passwords
Example: 12345, password, admin

🔸 Outdated Software
Hackers exploit old versions.

🔸 Unsecured Wi-Fi
Public Wi-Fi can be hacked easily.
🔸 Poor Configuration
Incorrect settings allow attackers inside.

🔵 5. Cybercrimes

⭐ Definition:
Cybercrime is any illegal activity done using computers or the
internet.

⭐ Types of Cybercrimes

🔴 Hacking
Unauthorized access to a system.

🔴 Identity Theft
Stealing someone’s identity (Aadhaar, PAN, bank details).

🔴 Cyber Bullying
Harassing someone on social media.

🔴 Online Fraud
 Fake shopping websites
 UPI fraud
 KYC scam

🔴 Data Theft
Stealing private or organizational data.

🔵 6. Cyber Security Measures (How to Protect Yourself)

These are steps used to protect computers and data.

⭐ 1. Antivirus Software
Scans, detects, and removes viruses.
Examples:
 Quick Heal
 McAfee
 Kaspersky

⭐ 2. Firewall
Definition:
A firewall is a security system that monitors and controls
incoming/outgoing network traffic.
It acts like a security guard for your computer.

⭐ 3. Strong Passwords
Characteristics of Strong Password:
 Minimum 8–12 characters
  Contains A-Z, a-z, 0-9, symbols
 No personal info (DOB, name)
 Should change regularly

⭐ 4. Encryption
Definition:
Encryption converts data into unreadable form to protect it.
Example:
HELLO → @#$%&123
Only authorized users with decryption key can read the data.

⭐ 5. Regular Software Updates

Fix security weaknesses.

⭐ 6. Backup
Creating a copy of data to avoid loss.

⭐ 7. Secure Wi-Fi
Use strong router password and WPA2/WPA3 security.
🔵 7. Authentication & Authorization

⭐ Authentication – Definition
Process of verifying who you are.
Examples:
 Password
 PIN
 OTP
 Fingerprint

⭐ Authorization – Definition
Process of verifying what you are allowed to do.
Examples:
 Student login → can only see their marks
 Teacher login → can upload marks
 Admin login → can control system

🔵 8. Cryptography

⭐ Definition:
Cryptography is the science of securing information using
mathematical techniques.

⭐ Types of Cryptography
🔸 Symmetric Key Cryptography
 One single key is used for both encryption and
decryption
 Very fast
Example Algorithms:
AES, DES

🔸 Asymmetric Key Cryptography

 Uses two keys: Public Key + Private Key
Example Algorithms:
RSA, ECC

🔵 9. Cyber Laws (IT Act 2000)

⭐ Definition:
Cyber law deals with crimes related to computers and digital
devices.
Important Sections:
 Section 66C – Identity theft
 Section 66D – Online cheating
 Section 67 – Publishing obscene content
 Section 43 – Data theft
🔵 10. Computer Viruses, Spyware & Remedies

⭐ Computer Virus – Definition

A program that can replicate itself and infect other files.

⭐ Spyware – Definition
A program that secretly records your activities.

⭐ Remedies
 Install antivirus
 Avoid downloading pirated apps
 Don't open unknown email attachments
 Use firewall
 Do not click strange links