XI POLITICAL SCIENCE

COMPLETE NOTES IN ENGLISH

PREPARED BY
MATHEW JOSEPH
GHSS KOZHICHAL
KANNUR

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 1. CONSTITUTION : WHY AND HOW?
Constitution is a compact document that comprises a
number of articles about the state, specifying how the state is to be
constituted and what norms it should follow.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. CONSTITUTION ALLOWS COORDINATION AND ASSURANCE
The first function of a constitution is to provide a set of basic
rules that allow minimal coordination and assurance amongst members
of a society. Constitution helps to overcome the problem of diversity and
enable the people to live peacefully. Constitution enforces same rules for
all the members.
2. SPECIFICATION OF DECISION MAKING
The second function of a constitution is to specify who has the
power to make decisions in a society. A constitution is a fundamental
body of principles according to which a state is constituted or governed.
Constitution Specifies the basic allocation of power in a society. Powers
of different organs of the government are clearly defined in the
constitution
3. LIMITATIONS ON THE POWERS OF THE GOVERNMENT
The Third function of the constitution is to to set some limits
on what a government can impose on its citizens. Constitution restrict
the powers of the government to protect the basic rights of
individual.
4. ASPIRATIONS AND GOALS OF A SOCIETY
The fourth function of the constitution is to enable the
government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create conditions for
just society. Modern constitutions contains a number of positive
measures to overcome forms of inequality and to ensure the welfare
of the society.
5. FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITY OF PEOPLE
Constitution expresses the fundamental identity of a people.
Constitution is helpful to sideline regional, linguistic and communal
identities and to create a national identity. The Constitution also helps in
inculcating political and social values among the citizens.

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CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA
Idea of a separate constitution for India was first raised by M
N Roy. Later Indian National Congress and Jawaharlal Nehru also
raised the same demand. Cabinet Mission recommended and British
government accepted the formation of a constituent assembly for India.
The Constituent Assembly had 389 members. 296 members were elected
from the British Indian provinces and 93 members were nominated by
the princely states. Members were assigned to each area in proportion to
the population. The seats were allotted roughly in the ration of
1:10,000,000. Seats in each province were distributed among the three
main communities Muslims, general and Sikhs. Members of the
Constituent Assembly represented different communities in India. 26
members were from Scheduled Castes.
The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was
presided by Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha as he was the eldest
member. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the President of the
Constituent Assembly. Dr. B R Ambedkar is known as the Father
of the Constitution of India and the Chief Architect of the
Constitution. Dr. B R Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee. Following the decision to partition British India, the
membership of the Constituent Assembly was reduced to 299. The first
session of the Constituent Assembly convened on December 9, 1946. The
drafting of the Constitution was completed on November 26, 1949.
However, the Constitution came into force on January 26, which was
celebrated as Purna Swaraj Day. India became a republic on January 26,
1950.

The Authority of a Constitution

(Authenticity of the Constitution of India)
Three factors play an important role in determining the
authenticity of the Constitution.
1. Mode of Promulgation
Makers of the constitutions is a very important
factor in deciding the authenticity of a constitution. Constitutions
prepared by the people's representatives are more acceptable. The
constitutions of countries like India, South Africa and the United States

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are examples of this. It is easy to create the impression among the people
that constitutions written by representatives of the people are for the
welfare of the people. In some countries, referendums are held to verify
the validity of the constitution.
The Constitution of India is recognized as authoritative as
it is written by the people's representatives. The authenticity of the
Constitution is also strengthened by the fact that decisions are taken after
careful discussions in the Constituent Assembly. Most members of Indian
Constituent Assembly were indirectly elected. Different communities were
given due importance in the Constituent Assembly

2. Provisions of the Constitution

It is more acceptable to have constitutions that contain
provisions that are acceptable to all sections of society. The Constitution
should include provisions favourable to the minorities in the society.
Constitutions that protect the rights of only a particular group of people
will not be acceptable to other sections of the population.
The Constitution of India contains provisions that satisfy all
sections of the people in the society. Giving special rights to backward
classes and minorities makes the Constitution of India more authoritative. 3.
Balanced Institutional Design
The best constitutions are those in which the powers are
precisely divided into different organs of the government. Such
constitutions can precisely check dictatorial tendencies. True
constitutions are those that accurately reflect the values that exist in
society. The inclusion of provisions for constitutional amendments is
another hallmark of a better constitution.
The Constitution of India clearly divide the powers to the
Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary. Accurate division of power
makes the Constitution of India more authoritative.

Objective Resolution by Nehru

On December 13 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru
introduced the Objective Resolution in the Constituent Assembly. The
resolution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly, became the basis of the
Indian political system and guided the constitution-making process.
Below are the main ideas put forward in the objective resolution.
- India is an independent and sovereign republic.

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- India shall be a union of states.
- All the power of independent India flow from the people.
- Social, economic and political justice will be guaranteed to all the
people of India.
- The minorities, backward classes, tribal people and other
disadvantaged people shall be provided adequate safeguards.
- The territorial integrity of the republic and its sovereign rights on
land, sea and air shall be maintained in accordance to justice and
law of the civilized nations.
- The land would make full and willing contribution to the
promotion of world peace.

Provisions Borrowed from Other Constitutions

British Constitution
Parliamentary system, FPTP system, Rule of law, Institution and
powers of speaker, Law making procedure.
American Constitution
Fundamental rights, Judicial review, Independence of the judiciary.
Irish Constitution - Directive Principles of State Policy
French Constitution - Principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
Canadian Constitution - Semi-federal system, Residual powers
PREPARED BY
MATHEW JOSEPH
GHSS KOZHICHAL

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 2. Rights in the Indian Constitution
The special rights granted and protected by the government are
enshrined in the constitutions of democracies. These special rights are called
fundamental rights. The demand for fundamental rights for Indians was strongly
raised during the freedom struggle. The Motilal Nehru Committee of 1928
strongly supported this demand. There was no two opinions on inclusion of
fundamental rights should in the Constitution during the drafting of the
Constitution.
Differences between Fundamental Rights and Ordinary Rights
Fundamental Rights Ordinary Rights
Protected by the Constitution. Protected by the ordinary law.
It can only be changed by amending It can be changed through ordinary
the Constitution. legislation.
Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of India
Part 3 contained seven fundamental rights in the original
constitution . In 1978, the number of fundamental rights redused to six.
1. The Right to Equality
In order to eliminate the social inequality that existed in
India, the Constitution enshrined the right to equality before the law, equal
protection of the law, protection from discrimination on the basis of gender,
religion, region, language and gender, abolition of untouchability, equal
educational and employment opportunities.
2. The Right to Freedom
The right to life and liberty are included in the list of
fundamental rights. The Constitution guarantees freedom of expression,
freedom of assembly, freedom of association, freedom of movement, freedom
of residence and freedom of employment. The Constitution sets out the
procedures to be followed at the time of arrest and the rights of the accused.
The government has the power to detain potential criminals in preventive
detention. Those who are likely to engage in anti-social and anti-national
activities can be detained for up to 3 months without trial.
3. The Right against Exploitation
The right against exploitation is enshrined in the Constitution to protect
the weaker sections of the society. This right helps to prevent slavery, human
trafficking, begar or forced labour, child labour and the exploitation of women.
4. The Right to Freedom of Religion
In a secular country like India, all citizens have freedom of
religion. Citizens have the right to profess, follow and propagate their religion.
The Constitution also allows a citizen to live without believing in any religion.
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But religious practices that affect law and order, morality and public health are
not allowed in India. The practice of reserving government posts for any
particular religion does not exist in India. The Constitution also prohibits the
provision of religious education in government institutions.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights of Minorities
The fifth fundamental right is the protection of the cultural
and educational rights of minorities in India. Cultural and linguistic minorities
in India have the right to preserve their language, script and culture.
6. Rights to Constitutional Remedies
The sixth fundamental right is the right of the citizen to
approach the Supreme Court or the High Court in case of denial of fundamental
rights. Dr B R Ambedkar described the right to constitutional remedies as the
‘soul and heart of the Indian Constitution’. Orders issued by a court for the
restoration of fundamental rights are known as writs. Five writs are mentioned
in the Constitution of India.
1. Habeas corpus - The habeas corpus is an order issued to release a
citizen from illegal detention. Habeas corpus literally means "produce the
body".
2. Mandamus - The word mandamus means ‘we command’. Mandamus
is court order to any government office, subordinate court or public
authority to do some specific act which that body is obliged under law to
do.
3. Prohibition - This is an order issued to the lower courts preventing
them from interfering in matters outside their jurisdiction.
4. Quo Warranto - Quo Warranto means ‘by what authority’. Quo
Warranto is a court order issued to restrict a government official from
holding a position he is not entitled to hold.
Certiorari – Certiorari means ‘to be informed’. It is an order to transfer a
case from the lower court to the upper court.
Right to Property
Right to property was removed from the list of fundamental
rights by the 44th Amendment in 1978 and converted to an ordinary right.
Directive Principles of State Policy
Part IV of the Constitution of India contains the Directive
Principles of State Policy which are the guidelines for the Government. The
main principles embodied in the Directive Principles are listed below.
The goals of the society
Ensure the welfare of the people, Raise the living standards of the people,
Equitable distribution of resources ,Promotion of International Peace.

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Non – justicible rights
Adequate livelihood, Equal pay for equal work, Right against
economic exploitation, Right to work and education.
Policies to be adopted by the Government
Uniform Civil Code, Prohibition of liquor, Promotion of cottage
industries, prevention of slaughter of useful cattle, Promotion of village
panchayats.
Implementation of Directive Principles
Citizens have no right to approach the courts for enforcement of the
Directive Principles. However, efforts are being made by the Central and State
Governments to implement the ideas in the Directive Principles. The following
are the major steps taken by various governments to implement the Directive
Principles.
It include Legislation to end zamindari system, bank
nationalisation , enacting various factory rules ,fixing minimum wages,
promotion of small scale industries implementing reservation policy, formation
of Panchayat Raj Institutions and introduction of Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
Differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles
Fundamental Rights Directive Principles
Citizens can approach the court if Can not approach the court if Directive
Fundamental Rights are violated Principles are violated.
Restrain the government from doing Exhort the government to do
something. something.
Protect the rights of the individuals. Ensure the well - being of entire
society.
Fundamental Duties
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1976, added
10 fundamental duties. Respect the Constitution, defend our country, maintain
social harmony and protect the nature etc are included in fundamental duties.
The National Human Rights Commission
National Human Rights Commission was established in 1993
to protect the rights of the poor, illiterate and backward sections of Indian
society. National Human Rights Commission works under the chairmanship of
a former Supreme Court justice. The National Human Rights Commission is
chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge . NHRC inquires human rights
violation in its own initiative or on a petition.
NOTES BY MATHEW JOSEPH

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 3. Election and Representation
Direct democracy
Direct democracy is the democratic process in which citizens are
directly involved in the activities of government. The city-states of ancient
Greece and the gram sabhas of the panchayath system in India are examples of
direct democracy. Direct democracy is not practical in modern nations with
large territories and huge populations.
Indirect democracy
In an indirect democracy, decisions are made and governed by the
people's representatives. Adult voters of the country elect representatives
through the electoral process.

Election System in India

First Past the Post System (FPTP System)
Representatives of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assembly of
India are elected through the FPTP system. The FPTP system is also known as
plurality system.
Features of the FPTP system
- Country is divided into smaller constituencies.
- Every elects one representative.
- Voters votes for a candidate.
- A Party may get more seats than votes tin the legislature.
- Majority of votes is not needed to win the election.
Proportional Representation
The Rajya Sabha MPs, the President and the Vice President are
elected through a system of proportional representation.
Single Transferable Vote system
Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected through a Single
Transferable Vote system, a variant of the proportional representation system.
To win the Rajya Sabha elections, each candidate must get a certain number of
votes. Each voter must record his or her preference for the candidates on the
ballot paper. If required number of representatives cannot be elected after the
first preference votes have been counted, the candidate with the lowest number
of votes is eliminated from the contest and the votes received by him are
transferred to the second preferred candidate on those ballot papers. This
process continues until a fixed number of delegates are elected.

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Features of the Proportional Representation system
- Divides the country into a single constituency or a few large
constituencies.
- More than one representative may be elected from one constituency.
- Voters votes for the party.
- Every party gets seats in the legislature in proportion to the
percentage of votes that it gets.
- Candidates who wins the elections gets majority of votes.
Reasons for adopting FPTP system in India
1. The FPTP system is simple enough to be understood even by the
common people of the country.
2. Voters cast their votes to the candidates. So that the personality of the
candidate also can be analysed during election.
3. The FPTP system is consistent with parliamentary democracy as it
ensures the stability of governments.
4. Different sections of the society work together to win the elections in
FPTP system. It strengthen unity in the society.

Reservation of Constituencies
The reservation in election is provided to ensure the representation
of the backward sections of the Indian society in the Parliament and state
legislative assemblies. During colonial period, British government had
introduced ‘separate electorates’.
In this system, members of a particular community was elected by
the voters who belonged to that community. However, the framers of the Indian
Constitution, who believed that this practice would lead to racial segregation,
implemented the concept of reservation of constituencies in independent India.
In the reserved constituencies, only a person belonging to a particular caste can
be a candidate. But voters from all castes in that constituency vote in the
election. At present, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are reserved in
Parliament and in the State Legislative Assemblies.
Delimitation Commission
The Delimitation Commission is appointed by the President.
The delimitation of constituencies and the determination of reserved
constituencies are done by the Delimitation Commission. Constituencies with
more Scheduled Tribes will be reserved for Scheduled Tribes. When deciding
the Scheduled Caste constituencies, the Commission will take care to allot these
constituencies in different parts of the State with higher proportion of
Scheduled Caste population.

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Free and Fair Elections
Universal Franchise
Adult suffrage refers to the right to vote for all adult citizens
of a country. Until 1989, voting rights in India were restricted to those over 21
years of age. But the 61st Amendment to the Constitution lowered the age limit
to 18 years. Universal suffrage is based on the ideas of equality and non-
discrimination.
The Right to Contest
All citizens over a certain age have the right to contest
elections. The age limit for contesting to Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies
is 25 years and the age limit for the Rajya Sabha is 30 years.
Independent Election Commission
An Election Commission has been set up to conduct free and
fair elections. Sukumar Sen was India's first Election Commissioner. The
Election Commission, which was a single member commission until 1989, is
now a three-member committee.
Functions of the Election Commission
- Prepare and up-to-date voters’ list.
- Determine the election schedule.
- Develop a model code of conduct.
- Postpone the election in case of emergency.
- Take necessary precautions in problematic areas.
- Cancel the election in a particular polling booth or constituency.
- Order re – poll where irregularities have taken place during election
time.
- Order recount if dispute arises.
- Accord recognition to political parties and allots symbols to political
parties.
Electoral Reforms
India has one of the best electoral systems in the world. But
the Indian electoral system is also not perfect. Below are some suggestions that
can be taken to improve the Indian electoral system.
1. Change the electoral system in India to proportional representation.
2. Implement women reservation.
3. Strict provisions to control the role of money in elections.
4. Bar candidates with criminal background.
5. Complete ban on caste and religious appeals in the election
campaigns.
6. Make laws to ensure the functioning of political parties is transparent and
democratic. .
PREPARED BY - MATHEW JOSEPH, GHSS KOZHICHAL

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 4. EXECUTIVE
The powers of the government are divided into three organs: the
Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary.
Executive
The main responsibility of the executive is to implement policies
and laws approved by the legislature.
Different types of executives
The major categories of executives are parliamentary executive and
presidential executive.

PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE PRESIDENTIAL EXECUTIVE

Collective responsibility No collective responsibility
Monarch or president is the head of the state. President is the head of the state and
Prime minister is the head of the government. government
President is elected by the parliament. President is directly elected by the people.
Prime minister is responsible to the President is not responsible to the
parliament. parliament.
Head of the government ,Prime minister, is a Head of the government, President, is not
member of parliament. a member of parliament
Head of the state is only a nominal head. Head of the state is the real head.
Eg: India, UK, Japan, Italy, Portugal, Eg: USA, Brazil
Germany, Canada.
Semi Presidential Executive – In a semi presidential system,
president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government .
The president may possess important powers in a semi presidential system. Eg:
Sri Lanka, France.
PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE IN INDIA
The Constitution of India prescribes a system of parliamentary
executive at Center and State level. The Central Executive comprises the
President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the
Bureaucracy. The State Executive comprises the Governor, the Chief Minister,
ministers and government officials.
Reasons to adopt Parliamentary system
1. Familiar System - During the British period, there was a form of
parliamentary system existed in India.
2. Responsible Government - The parliamentary system is more
responsible to the people and the parliament.

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 3. Prevents Despotism - There is less chance of personal worship and
dictatorship in the parliamentary system.
The President
The President is the Head of the Indian State . He is also known as India's
first citizen. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India. The current
President of India is Ram Nath Kovind.
Election of the President - The President is elected by an Electoral
College which consists of elected Members of Parliament and State
Legislatures. President is elected for a term of 5 years.
Impeachment - The President can be removed from office only through
impeachment. The President can be released only if there is a special majority
in Parliament. The President can only be impeached if he violates the
Constitution.
Powers of the President – President has major powers in a parliamentary
system. These powers are in reality used by the president only on the advise
given by the Cabinet . The following are the major powers that the President
can exercise in accordance with the decision of the ruling party:
- Appointment of Prime Minister and other ministers.
- Summons the Parliament.
- Nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha and 2 members to Lok Sabha.
- Appoints judges of Supreme Court and High Courts.
- Acts as Commander – in- Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
Discretionary Powers of the President
The power of the President of India to take independent
decisions in certain circumstances is known as discretionary powers. The
President can exercise his discretion in three different situations.
1. The advice given by the Cabinet may be returned for reconsideration. The
President is obliged to accept the Cabinet decision if it returns again
without modification.
2. The bills passed by Parliament may be returned for reconsideration. He
can also withhold the bill. President's possession of a without giving
assent is known as pocket veto. The President is obliged to sign the bill if
it is submitted to the President's again with or without change.
3. If no political party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha elections, the
President may use his discretionary power to select the Prime Minister.
The Vice President - The Vice President of India has very limited
powers. The Vice President acts as Head of State in the absence of the
President. The Vice-President is the Ex-Officio chairman of Rajya Sabha. Vice
President is elected by the Electoral College composed of members of both
Houses of Parliament. The term of Vice President is five years.

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The Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and
cabinet . Prime Minister is appointed by the President. The Leader of a majority
party in the Lok Sabha is appointed as Prime Minister. If no political party has a
clear majority in the Lok Sabha elections, the President can use his
discretionary power to choose the Prime Minister. The major powers of the
prime minister is given below :
1. Advise the President
2. Select the Ministers
3. Allocate the rank and portfolio of ministers
4. Act as a link between the President and the Cabinet.
5. Decide the policies of the government.
6. Represent the country in international platforms.
Collective Responsibility -
The Prime Minister and Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha.
All Ministers are bound to accept and implement the decisions taken by the
Cabinet. Ministers who refuse to accept Cabinet decisions should resign from
the Cabinet. All ministers, including the prime minister, must resign if a motion
of no-confidence is passed against any minister.
Coalition Government
When no political party gets a clear majority in the Lok Sabha
elections, multiple political parties form a coalition government. Between 1989
and 2014, several coalition ministries came to power in India. The following are
the major changes that the coalition ministries have made in Indian politics.
1. The power of the Prime Minister has diminished.
2. The President's discretion increased.
3. The Prime Minister's power to select ministers has diminished.
4. Negotiations with allies are inevitable in government policy making.
5. Many coalition ministries failed to complete a five-year term.
6. Regional political parties have become increasingly important in
national politics.
Size of the Cabinet
According to the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, the number
of ministers has been reduced to 15% of the total number of Members of
Parliament / State Legislatures. This provision was made to prevent ministers
from buying into the government.

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Bureaucracy
The bureaucracy is a bureaucracy that helps ministers to formulate
and implement policies. Government officials should not take active political
action. The following are some of the key differences between a political
executive and a permanent executive.

Political executive Permanent executive

Elected by the people Selected on the basis of merit
No specific educational Specific educational qualifications are
qualifications needed
Non permanent. Elected for a term Permanent. Remain in office till their
of five years retirement
Not trained Trained
Types of Civil Services
The Indian Civil Service is divided into three categories.
All India Service - The All India Service is comprised of personnel working
under the Central Government and the State Governments. The existing three
all-India services are the Indian Administrative Service, the Indian Police
Service and the Indian Forest Service.
Central Service - Officers who work only under the Central Government are
part of the Central Service. Indian Foreign Service, Indian Railways and Indian
Revenue Service are examples of central service.
State Service - Officers working only under the State Government, State Sales
Tax Officers and State Civil Service are part of the State Service.
The Union Public Service Commission elects the officers of the All
India Service and the Central Service. The officers of the State Service are also
appointed by the Public Service Commission of the State.

Criticisms against Bureaucracy

- The public is unable to approach many government officials.
- Many government officials are not interested in public issues.
- The needs of the public are often not met on time.
- There are corrupt people in the bureaucracy.
- There are situations where officials cannot function independently
due to political interference.

PREPARED BY MATHEW JOSEPH, GHSS KOZHICHAL, KANNUR

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 [Link]
Legislature is the law making body of the government.
Legislature is the centre of all the democratic process.
Legislature in India
Parliament is the national legislature of India. Indian parliament
has two houses. Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha are the two houses of Indian
Parliament. India adopted bicameral legislature for the following reasons.
1. All sections of the country will be represented.
2. Re -consideration of every matter is possible.
The states of Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh have
bicameral legislatures. In other states, unicameral legislatures exist.
Difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya sabha
Rajya sabha Lok Sabha
Upper house Lower house
Represents the states. Represents the people.
Indirectly elected. Directly elected.
Elected by MLAs Elected by the people.
Permanent house. Not permanent.
Term is six years. Term is five years.
Minimum age for membership is 30 Minimum age of membership is 25.
Maximum strength is 250. At present, the strength of the House is 545.
President nominates 12 persons who have made President nominates 2 Ango - Indian
their mark in arts, sports, science, social service etc. representatives.

Functions of the Parliament

1. Legislative Function - The Parliament enacts rules for the country.
Bureaucracy assists parliament in legislation.
2. Control over the executive - Parliament has the power to evaluate and
criticize the actions of the Government. Parliamentarians have the power to ask
questions to the ministers regarding the functioning of various departments.
3. Financial control - The Parliament approves the budget, which is the
annual statement of income and expenditure of the government. Parliament
controls the taxation.
4. Representation -Members of Parliament are representatives of various
sections of the country.
5. Debating Function - Parliament is the highest forum of debate in the
country. Various national and international matters are discussed in the
Parliament.
6. Constituent Function - Parliament is also given the power to make
necessary changes to the Constitution of India.
7. Electoral Functions -The President of India and the Vice President of India
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are elected by the Parliament.
8. Judicial Functions -Parliament has the power to remove the President of
India, Vice President and judges of High Court and Supreme Court.
Special Powers of the Lok Sabha
1. Money bills are first introduced in the Lok Sabha. Only Lok Sabha has
the power to reject the money bills.
2. No-confidence motion against the central government can be introduced
only in the Lok Sabha. So only Lok Sabha has the power to overthrow the
central government.
Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha
The approval of Rajya Sabha is required to shift an item from State
list to the Union List or to the Concurrent List.
Law Making in the Indian Parliament
Law making is the basic function of the Parliament. Preparation of
bill is the initial stage of law making. Bill is a draft of the proposed law.
Types of Bills
1. Government Bill - Government bill is introduced by the minister.
Usually the bill is prepared by the concerned ministry.
2. Private Members Bill -Private member’s bill is introduced by a non
minister. Opposition parties initiates the preparation and introduction of
private members bill.
Stages of Law Making
1. Debate on the need of new legislation _Political parties, interest groups,
media and citizens’ forums discuss about the need of new legislation
2. Preparation of the Bill _Government bill is prepared by the concerned
ministry. Bureaucrats play an active role in the preparation of bills.
3. First Reading - Bill is introduced either in Lok Sabha and or in Rajya
Sabha by a member. No discussion takes place after the first reading.
3. Committee Stage - Bill is forwarded to the committee for detailed study.
Committee can make needed changes in the bill.
5. Second Reading - Bill, after the modifications done by the committee , is
read in the Parliament.
6. General Discussion -Every provision of the Bill is debated and voted on in
Parliament.
7. Third Reading -The final version of the bill is presented in the House. At
this stage, no changes take place.
8. Bill in the Other House – If a bill is passed by one house , it is sent to the
other House where it goes through exactly the same procedure.
9. Assent of the President - When a bill is passed by both Houses, it is sent
to the President for his assent. The assent of the President results in the
enactment of a bill into a law.
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Joint Sitting of the Parliament – If there is a disagreement between the two
Houses on the proposed bill, attempt is made to resolve it through Joint Session
of both houses of the Parliament.
Parliamentary control over the Executive
Following are the main tools used by the Parliament to
control the executive.
1. Deliberation and Discussion - Parliamentarians get enough chances to
evaluate and crticise the functioning of government. Question hour, zero hour,
half an hour discussion adjournment motion etc are the important instruments
of exercising control. Members can collect information on various social issues
by asking questions. It force the ministers to perform their duties in a more
responsible manner.
2. Approval and ratification of laws - A bill can become law only with the
approval of the Parliament. A government with a clear majority has no difficulty
to get the approval of the Parliament in law making. But a coalition government
or government which is minority in Rajya Sabha will be forced to make
compromises and concessions during law making.
3. Financial Control - Parliament has the power to approve and reject the
budget. Parliament can control the executive by discussing the reasons for
which the government requires money. Parliament can enquire the misuse of
government fund. Government policies are also discussed during budget
session.
4. No confidence Motion - No confidence motion is the most powerful
instrument of parliamentary control over the executive. Opposition parties get a
good chance to discuss the performance of the ruling party. Cabinet has to
resign if the no confidence motion is supported by the majority of Lok Sabha
members.
Parliamentary Committees
Parliament has very limited time at its disposal. So Parliament forms
various committees to perform its duties. More than twenty standing
committees are constituted to supervise the functioning of various departments.
Joint Parliamentary committees are formed to discuss a particular bill. The
committee system has reduced the burden on the Parliament.
Parliamentary control over the members
The Constitution has made certain provisions to retain the dignity of
the Parliament.
1. Presiding officer is the final authority in regulating the functioning of the
legislature. Presiding officer controls the behavior of the members.
2. 52nd amendment (anti defection amendment) made it clear that a defected
member may lose his membership. Changing the political party after the
election victory is termed as defection.

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 6. JUDICIARY
Judiciary is the third organ of government. Main duty of the
judiciary is to resolve disputes and enforce justice.
Indian Judiciary
Judicial system in India consists of the Supreme Court at the
top and the 21 High Courts below the Supreme Court and many District Courts
and other lower Courts at the bottom level. The Supreme Court of India was
inaugurated on the 26th of January,1950.

Independence of the Judiciary

The Constitution of India provides the following provisions for the
judiciary to function independently without the influence of Parliament or the
Cabinet.
1. The President appoints judges of Supreme court and High Courts.
2. Judges can stay in office until retirement age. Judges can only be
dismissed through a difficult process called impeachment on grounds of
violation of constitution or proved misbehavior.
3. Reduce the possibility of corruption among the judges by providing
better pay and other financial incentives.
4. Neither Parliament nor the public has the right to criticize the actions
and verdicts of judges. It helps the judges to work without fearing the
criticism.
5. Retired judges are not allowed to practice as lawyers.

Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

1. Original Jurisdiction -The Supreme Court directly deals with cases between
the Central Government and the State Government and between the State
Governments. Such cases are considered as the Original Jurisdiction because
these cases are originated in the Supreme Court.
2. Appeliate Jurisdiction -Individuals and institutions can appeal to the
Supreme Court against the High Court ruling in civil and criminal cases.
3. Writ Jurisdiction - Individuals can approach the Supreme Court for the
restoration of their fundamental rights. The Supreme Court has the power to
issue five different types of orders, writs , to protect the fundamental rights.
4. Advisory Jurisdiction - The President can seek legal advice from the
Supreme Court on matters relating to the state. The President is not obliged to
accept the legal advice from the Supreme Court.

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Judicial activism
The Indian judiciary has become more active since 1979 when
public interest litigation was allowed. A third party can approach the courts to
protect the rights of the poor, illiterate and backward classes of the society by
filing Public Interest Litigation. Environmental issues and other social issues
also can be resolved through PIL.
Importance of Public Interest Litigation
1. Judiciary has expanded the idea of rights. clean air, unpolluted water,
decent living etc are now considered as rights
2. Judiciary became approachable to the poor section of the Indian society.
Public spirited citizens and social organisations can file cases on behalf
the needy and deprived.
3. It has forced executive accountability
4. It also attempted to make electoral system more free and fair.
Demerits of Public Interest Litigation
1. It overburdened the courts
2. It has blurred the distinction between the executive and
legislature on the one hand the judiciary on the other.
Judiciary and Rights
Two ways in which supreme court can resist the violation of
rights
1. Courts can restore the rights by issuing orders. Supreme court act as the
protector of fundamental rights
2. Supreme court can declare a law unconstitutional if it is against the
basic rights of the citizens. Supreme court act as the interpreter of the
constitution.
Judicial Review
Supreme court has the power to examine the constitutionality
of any law. If a law is found to inconsistent with the provisions of the
constitution, the court can declare such law as unconstitutional. This special
power of supreme court and high courts is known as judicial review. Judiciary
can resist the implementation of laws passed by the parliament which are
against the rights of the citizens or interest of the nation.
Judiciary and Parliament
Judiciary and parliament is related in two different aspects.
1. Court gives directions to CBI to initiate investigations
against politicians and bureaucrats
2. Delicate principle of limited separation of power in the Indian
constitution leads to conflict between judiciary and other organs of
government.
Prepared by ....... MATHEW JOSEPH / HSST POLITICAL SCIENCE/ GHSS KOZHICHAL

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 7. FEDERALISM
India adopted federal system of government. Indian federal
system consists of one central government and several state governments.
Key Features of Indian Federalism
1. Two sets of Polities/Governments – Two types of governments exist
in India - a Central Government and 28 State Governments.
2. Two sets of Identities - Indian citizens have a national identity as an
Indian as well as a regional identity.
3. Written Constitution - There is a written constitution in India that
clearly defines the powers of the central government and the state
government.
4. Independent Judiciary - An independent judiciary exists to resolve
disputes between the Center and the States.
Reasons for adopting federalism in India
1. Large territory and huge population.
2. Diversity in Indian society.
The Division of Powers
The powers of the Central Government and the State
Governments are very clearly described in the Constitution of India. Economic
powers and other major powers are vested with the central government. The
powers of the government are divided into three lists: the Union List consisting
of 99 subjects under the authority of the Central Government, the State List
containing the 61 subjects under the authority of the State Government, and the
Concurrent List containing the 52 subjects under the authority of both the
Central Government and the State Government. Decisions on the subjects in
the Concurrent List can be taken by the Central Government and the State
Government. But if there is a disagreement between the central and state
governments, the decision of the central government will remain.
UNION LIST STATE LIST CONCURRENT LIST
Defense Agriculture Education
Atomic energy Police Forests
Foreign affairs Prison Trade unions
War and Peace Local governments Adulteration
Banking Public health Adoption and succession
Railways Livestock and Animal Transfer of property other
husbandry than agricultural land
Post and Telegraph Liquor
Airways Trade and Commerce

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Ports Land
Foreign trade State public service
Currency and Coinage
The Central Government has been given residual powers
which are not included in all three lists. Example – Cyber Laws.
Federalism with a Strong Central Government
The Indian federal system gives more powers to the central government . The
reasons for giving the central government more power are as follows.
1. To maintain the unity of India.
2. To ensure the socio - economic development of the country.
The major provisions that strengthen the central government are
give below.
1. The central government has the power to create new states
and to change the boundaries and names of the states.
2. The central government has the power to declare an
emergency.
3. The Central Government can dissolve the State Government
and directly control the States by imposing presidential rule.
4. The central government has the authority over financial
matters. It is the central government that passes the budget
and decides the financial allocation of the states.
5. The Governor who is the representative of the Central
Government has the right to interfere in the activities of the
State Government.
6. The major powers of the Government are included in the Union
List which is under the jurisdiction of the Central Government.
7. The Rajya Sabha is empowered to change a subject from
the State List to the Union List.
8. If there is a disagreement between the central and state
governments, the decision of the central government will
remain.
9. All Indian Services are regulated by the Central Government.
Three Stages in Center-State Relationship
1. Since the Congress Party ruled the Union and the states in the 1950s
and 60s, the Center-State relations were friendly.
2. By the mid-1960s, the Congress had lost power in many states and
Congress retained power at center. During this period there were
many conflicts between the Congress ruled central government and the
non- Congress governments.
3. After 1989, coalition governments with the support of regional parties
have been formed at the Center. Subsequently, the influence of local

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 parties increased. The central government could not ignore the state
governments ruled by the local parties.
The Demands for Autonomy
The different local interests and needs were strong among different sections of
India.
1. States such as Tamil Nadu, Punjab and West Bengal have called for more
powers to be delegated to the state governments.
2. Some other states want more economic powers and more control over
officials.
3. The anti -hindi agitation was strong in some southern states like Tamil
Nadu.
Role of the Governor
The governor acts as the representative of the central
government. The governor's interventions create more controversy when the
center and the state are governed by different parties. The Governor has the
power to make a recommendation to dissolve the State Government and to
impose Presidential Rule in the state. Presidential rule is recommended only
when administrators failed to exercise power properly. But many times the
central government misused Article 356 for political gain.
Interstate Conflicts
There are disputes between different states of India. There are two main
reasons for disputes between states .
1. Boundary Disputes - States of India are formed on the basis of language.
There are people who speak different languages at the border. It leads to border
disputes. Examples include the dispute between Maharashtra and Karnataka for
the city of Balgam and the dispute between Punjab and Haryana for the city of
Chandigarh.
2. River Water Disputes - There are disputes between the states regarding the
sharing of river water for drinking and irrigation. Examples include the
Narmada river dispute involving the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh and the Cauvery water dispute betweem Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Special Status for Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir was given special status under Article 370 of
the Constitution. Laws framed by Parliament on Union List can only be
implemented in Kashmir with the approval of the State Legislature. J&K had its
own constitution and national flag. To declare a state of emergency in the state,
permission of the state legislature was required. Central government had no
power to declare economic emergency in Jammu and Kashmir. Article 370 was
repealed in August 2019 and the State of Jammu and Kashmir became two
Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh on 31st October 2019.
PREPARED BY MATHEW JOSEPH, GHSS KOZHICHAL

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 8. LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
Local government systems, including sabhas, samitis and
panchayats, existed in ancient India. In modern India, local boards were created
by Lord Ripon. Government of India Act 1919 and 1935 made reference to the
importance of local governments. Village panchayaths were established in a
number of provinces after Government of India Acts. The Congress Party and
Mahatma Gandhi had played an important role in the growth of local
governments in India. The local governments are mentioned in comparatively
unimportant part of the constitution -Directive Principles of State Policy.
Makers of the constitution feared that extreme localism may endanger the unity
of the country and also felt that the caste ridden nature of rural society would
affect the functioning of local governments.
The Communal Development Program of 1952 was the first
activity in independent India in relation to the formation of local governments.
By the 1960s, some states had formed panchayats, but lack of power and
financial constraints made local governments ineffective.
In 1989, the PK Thungon Committee recommended
constitutional recommendation to local government bodies. Committee also
suggested uniform structure, periodic election and more powers to the local
government. On the basis of this recommendation, the Indian Parliament passed
73rd and 74th constitutional amendments.
73rd Amendment to the Constitution
The 73rd Amendment refers to local governments in rural areas or Panchayati
Raj Institutions. The following are the major changes brought by 73rd
Amendment.
1. Three Tier Structure -A three-tier panchayat system consisting of Gram
Panchayat, Block Panchayat and District Panchayat should be
implemented in all states. It also proposed the formation of a Gram
Sabha consists of all adult members registered as voters in the
Panchayath area.
2. The election - The panchayat members are directly elected by the people.
The term of panchayats is five years.
3. Reservation – 50% of Seats in panchayat institutions are reserved for
women. Reservation for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes are
also provided.
4 .Transfer of Subjects -29 subjects under the jurisdiction of the state
government were transferred to the local governments.
5. State Election Commissioner - Elections to Panchayati Raj institutions are
conducted by the State Election Commission.

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6. State Finance Commission - The State Government is required to appoint a
Finance Commission every five years to check the financial position of
the Local Governments and to transfer necessary funds.

74th Constitutional Amendment

The 74th Constitutional Amendment refers to local governments in
urban areas or Nagarapalikas. The municipal corporation and municipality are
the local governments in urban areas. The 74th Constitutional Amendment
repealed the rules relating to the election, reservation, election commission,
finance commission and transfer of matters referred to in the 73rd Amendment.
Importance of 73rd and 74th Amendments
(Importance of Local Governments)
1. Local governments give emphasis on solving the problems of the
common people.
2. The number of representatives has increased from five thousand to 32
lakhs after the implementation of 73rd and 74th amendments.
3. Local knowledge and energy can be used in the development process.
4. Local governments help to promote democratic awareness among
people.
4. Women reservation paved the way for women empowerment.
5. Representatives are approachable to the common people also.
6. The work load of the Central and State Governments has been reduced.
Limitations of Local Governments
1. The powers of local governments are limited. Many state governments are
reluctant to transfer power to local governments.
2. Local governments are not financially self-sufficient. Local
Governments function with the financial support of Central and State
Governments.
3. Many women representatives are controlled by the male members in the
family or party.
Prepared by
Mathew Joseph / GHSS Kozhichal

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 9. CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT
The laws need to be changed according to the changing
circumstances. Countries such as the Soviet Union and France have changed the
entire constitution many times to meet the changing needs. It is a matter of
pride that the Constitution of India, which came into existence on January 26,
1950, remains in existence for over 70 years. The Constitution of India
continues to be a valid document after 70 years, through periodic renewal and
judicial interpretation.

Constitutional Amendments
Parliament has the power to change the Constitution of India. The
Constitution of India can be changed in three different ways.
1. Amendments with simple majority.
Some of the provisions of the Constitution can be changed with the
support of the majority of members who vote in the Rajya Sabha and Lok
Sabha. The provisions related to the renaming of the states, the formation of the
state, and the matters of citizenship etc can be amended with simple majority.
2. Amendments with special majority
Some of the provisions of the Constitution require a special majority of
Parliament. The special majority means of the support of two-thirds of those
who vote in the House and the majority of members of the House. It is in this
way that fundamental rights and instructional principles are altered.
3. Amendments requiring the a special majority of the parliament and
ratification of half of the states
Some of the provisions can be changed with the special majority of
the parliament and the ratification of half the states are in place.

The contents of the amendments made so far

1. Amendments of technical or administrative nature
These include constitutional amendments that clarify, explain, make
minor modifications to the original provisions. Such amendments made no
substantial differences to the provisions. Eg: Amendment to increase the
salaries of Supreme Court judges, to extend the reservation of ScheduledTribes
and Scheduled Tribes.
2. Different interpretations
These are the amendments that aim to resolve the clash between Supreme
Court and the Parliament. Parliament try to override the interpretations made by
the judiciary by altering the constitution. Most of the amendments made during
the 1970s and 75s fall into this category.

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3. Amendments passed through political consensus
Amendments also occur as a result of the unity of the various political
parties for the purpose of social and political upliftment. The Anti Defection
Act, the Panchayati Raj Amendment and the Right to Education Act are
included in this category.

42nd Amendment
The 42nd Amendment is the most controversial amendment in the history
of Indian Constitution. The amendment was made also to avert the Supreme
Court verdict in the Keshavananda Bharti case. The following are the major
changes to the constitution by the 42nd Amendment.
- The term of the Lok Sabha has been extented to six years.
- Fundamental duties were included.
- Restriction on judical review.
- The preamble to the Constitution was changed.
Many changes to the 42nd Amendment initiated by Indira Gandhi during
the Emergency period were later repealed by the Janata Government through
43rd and 44th amendments.

The basic structure and constitutional amendment

The concept of basic structure is not mentioned anywhere in the
Constitution. The concept of basic structure was first articulated in the Supreme
Court's judgment in the Keshavananda Bharati case. This judgment limited the
power of Parliament to amend the Constitution under Article 368. the judgment
says that no amendment can violate the basic structure of the constitution. The
court did not clearly define the basic structure doctrine in the judgment. The
Supreme Court retained the power to define the basic structure.

Prepared by
Mathew Joseph, GHSS Kozhichal -Kannur

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 10. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION
Constitution is not merely a legal document. It also consists of values
and morality. The following are the key moral values that influenced the making of
Indian constitution.
1. Individual Freedom - The Constituent Assembly was very much concerned about
individual freedom. The right to freedom of expression, the right to life, the right to
travel and the right to work have been given due importance in the constitution.
2. Social Justice - The Constitution contains various policies to ensure social
justice. Reservation and other benefits provided to SCs and STs are important means
of ensuring social justice.
3. Respect for diversity and minority rights -The Constituent Assembly
adopted a policy of recognizing the diversity that exists in Indian society.
Special rights are given to minority groups.
4. Secularism -The Constituent Assembly adopted a secular outlook that protected
the beliefs of all religious groups. The Constitution does not permit excessive
interference of the government in religious matters.
5. Universal Franchise -Universal adult franchise is the highest recognition
given to every citizen of India. The Constitution has made it clear that all citizens
have the right to participate in the affairs of the country by giving voting right to
women, illiterates, women and all castes.
6. Federalism -The federal system comprises the Central and State Governments.
The federal system is ideal for India with huge population and large area.
Criticisms against the Indian Constitution
1. Unwieldly -The Constitution of India is the largest Constitution in the world.
Some people point it as a flaw. Its a baseless argument. There are more than one
legal documents in countries with smaller constitutions But all the major laws in
India are included in the Constitution. This is the main reason for the large size of the
Constitution.
2. Unrepresentative -Most of the members of the Constituent Assembly were
from the upper castes upper classes. There were also allegations that
representatives of the common people were not included in the Assembly .Its not
correct. Members raised matters not based on their individual social concerns but
based the interest of different sections of society.
3. Alien document – The final criticism is that the Indian constitution is an
imported document. The allegation is that the Constitution of India is made up of
ideas borrowed from western [Link] not a true argument. The Constituent
Assembly borrowed only good ideas from the western Constitutions. These
ideas were adapted to suit the Indian conditions.
Limitations of Indian Constitution.
1. The Constitution of India has a centralised idea of unity.
2. The Constitution does not cover important matters like gender justice within
the family.
3. Some of the prominent social and economic rights are not included in the
list of Fundamental Rights.

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 11. Political Theory – An Intoduction
Political Science is a branch of social science that
studies the state and the government. The word politics is derived from the
Greek word ‘polis’ which means city state. The Greek philosopher
Aristotle is known as the father of political science. Ideas like freedom,
equality and secularism also come into the scope of political science.

The Importance of the study of Political Theory

1. Relevant on many professions -
Political theory is relevant for many professions like politicians, lawyers,
judges , journalists etc to perform their duties more effectively.
2. Political Studies helps to learn the functions of the
government –
Political science helps the students to learn about the functions of the
various organs of the government. Study of Political Science helps to
create awareness about the legal system of the country.
3. Awareness of Human Rights and noble ideals -
The Importance of Human Rights and Prevention of Human Rights
Violations also come under the subject matter of Political Science. Study
of political theory also helps to create an awareness about various ideals
like freedom, equality, justice, secularism etc.
4. Systematic Thinking on Social issues - Political theory exposes us to
systematic thinking on justice or equality so that we can polish our
opinions and argue in an informed manner and for the sake of common
interests.
Prepared by
Mathew Joseph / GHSS Kozhichal -Kannur

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 12. FREEDOM
In a simple sense freedom is the absence of constraints. In
a broader sense freedom is about to expanding the abilities of the people.
Social constrains are justified in every civilised society.

The Sources of Constraints

1 .Government - Governments restrict the individual freedom. Only
necessary regulations are imposed by the democratic governments. But
military rulers and dictators impose restrictions even on the basic rights of
the citizens.
2. Society - There are also social interactions over individual freedom.
Caste system, political rivalry, male domination and economic inequality
etc hinder the individual freedom.

The need for social control

1. In order to reduce tensions and inequalities in the society.
2. To uphold the dignity of all sections of the society.
3. In order to reduce the possibility of the domination of a particular
section of the society.

The Harm Principle

Harm principle is introduced by J S Mill in his famous book ‘On
Liberty’. According to J S Mill, human actions are categorized as self
regarding actions and other regarding actions.
Self regarding actions
If the consequences of one's actions only affect him / her, such
activities are classified as self-regarding actions. There is no need of the
involvement of society or government to deal these type of actions.
Other regarding actions
If the consequences of one's actions are affecting others, then such
actions are considered other regarding actions. Such activities should be
regulated by the intervention of society and the nation. There is no need
for legal action if one person's actions create only minor difficulties for
others. Such problems can be solved through social criticism and rejection.
Legal action must be taken if a person's actions cause serious social
problems.

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Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty
Negative Liberty - Negative liberty is the absence of external controls. It
is the freedom to do whatever one wants to do. All the human beings need
a ‘minimum area of non – interference’. Bigger the area of non
interference the more the freedom. Negative liberty discusses the idea of
‘freedom from’
Positive Liberty - Positive liberty ensures the proper condition for the
individuals to develop his or abilities. It is the duty of the government and
the community to provide the right situation. Negative liberty discusses the
idea of ‘freedom to’

Freedom of Expression
A person has the freedom to express his own ideas and opinions
. Writing books and articles, directing drama and cinema, performing other
forms of art are commonly used to communicate one’s ideas to others. It
comes under the concept of freedom of expression. However, many
societies impose restrictions on freedom of expression. Many countries
have banned artworks that are against national interests. There is also a
tendency for organizations and social groups to ban books, cinemas,
dramas etc that are against the common interest of society. Sometimes the
selfish interests and the conservative mentality of the ruling elite or certain
sections of society may hinder freedom of expression. The most
appropriate way is to impose the necessary restrictions through proper
censorship instead of total control. Water (Cinema -Directed by Deepa
Mehta), Satanic Verses (Novel - Salman Rushdie) and Ramayana Retold
(Novel - Aubrey Menon)were banned after protest from some sections of
society.

Major Books and Authors on Freedom

Republic – Plato
On Liberty – J S Mill
Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela
Freedom from Fear -- Aung San Suu Kyi
Prepared by
Mathew Joseph
HSST Political Science
GHSS Kozhichal
Kannur -670511

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 13. EQUALITY
Equality is the idea that all human beings are equal and
that all should receive equal respect and consideration. Equality is an idea that
opposes discrimination on the basis of religion, caste, color, race, wealth,
gender and language. The French Revolution and the struggles against colonial
rule were struggles for freedom as well as equality. In a world where inequality
exists more than equality, the study of equality is of paramount importance.
Natural and Social Inequalities
Natural Inequality
Natural inequality is the result of the different capabilities
and talents with which people are born. Physically and mentally challenged
people face different types of difficulties in their lives. With the help of modern
technology and medical care, many physical and mental challenges and
difficulties can be overcome to some great extent. The government and the
society have the special responsibility to help individuals who are physically
and mentally challenged.
Social Inequality
Social inequality is created by the exploitation of some group
in the society by others and denying the opportunities for growth.
Discrimination in the name of caste, religion, colour and gender are major
causes of social inequality. Social inequality can be overcome through
legislation and social reform.
The Dimensions of Equality
1. Political Equality
The democratic societies guarantee equal rights to all its citizens. Political
equality includes the right to vote, the right to contest in elections, freedom of
expression etc. Political equality guarantees the participation of all citizens in
the democratic process.
2. Social Equality
Society should guarantee minimum condition of life to all the members of the
society. It includes health care, education, minimum wage empowerment of
women , reservation for the backward classes etc. All sections of people should
be respected in the society.
3. Economic Equality
Differences in property and income creates economic inequality. Even if
absolute economic equality is not possible, the government can take measures
to reduce inequality between the people. Democratic societies try to reduce the
gap between rich and poor by providing equal opportunity to all.

Prepared by Mathew Joseph, GHSS Kozhichal -Kannur

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 14. Social Justice
According to Immanuel Kant, a German thinker, social justice
is a condition whereby all people of a society can live with dignity and well-
being.

The Three Principles of Justice

Equal Treatment for Equals
All people have equal importance and equal rights in society. The right to life,
the right to freedom and the right to property etc are granted to all citizens. The
concept of justice states that individuals should be judged not on the basis of
their race, creed or color, but on their actions.
Proportional Justice
It is not practical to treat everyone equally in all situations. It is just to
rewarding people in proportion to effort required, skills required, the possible
dangers involved and social relevance of each person's work.
Recognition of Special Needs
Particular attention is given to those who are physically and mentally
challenged, the elderly and the socially disadvantaged. It is only through such
protection that many of these groups are able to gain the rights and social status
they deserve. The caste reservation inserted in the Constitution of India and the
government's different economic schemes to the poorer sections is part of the
efforts by the state to bring social justice to the common masses.

Just Distribution
The society and the state have the responsibility to ensure the basic living
conditions of all the individuals. If there is serious economic inequality in the
society, the major resources of that society must be redistributed among all the
citizens. Land reforms and caste reservation implemented by the Government of
India are examples of just distribution.

John Rawls's Theory of Justice

John Rawls presents his theory of justice based on a hypothetical
situation in which individuals are ignorant of their future. The theory of justice
is based on some of the possibilities that may arise if law making group, for the
creation of a just society, are not aware of their own situation in the future. The
law makers would try to make laws that are beneficial to all sections of society

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because they have also the chances to be the poorest or the dominant class in
the future. John Rawls called the ignorance of the future a ‘veil of ignorance’.
John Rawls suggested that if the rulers were to administer within the veil of
ignorance, laws would be made in favor of the common and the weak sections
also. Theory of Justice states that the rulers must have a broad vision and should
consider the problems of all sections of society as their own.

Free Market versus Nation Intervention

Supporters of free market, Individuals should be free to
own private property and to compete with each other to make a profit.
Achieving gains in a free market without the intervention of the nation would
be favorable to the competent and capable people. Some of the supporters of
the free market agreed with government regulations. Private sector services in
education and health care must be promoted and the people should be able to
get the benefits.
The intervention of the government is necessary to ensure
healthy competition in the market. A large section of private entrepreneurs are
socially irresponsible and profit minded. Private firms are usually not interested
less profitable trades. The services offered by the private sector are likely to be
costly to the general public. There is also a strong argument that government
intervention is necessary to ensure the service of the private sector to the all
sections of general public.

Prepared by
Mathew Joseph
HSST Political Science
GHSS Kozhichal
Kannur -670511

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 15. Rights
Rights are essential elements for a decent life. Rights
are recognised and enforced by society. All human beings are entitled to
fundamental rights such as the right to life, liberty, equality and the right to
property.
Rights and Society
The primary responsibility for the protection of
rights lies with the nation and society. Modern constitutional laws include
laws to protect human rights. This is an example of the fundamental rights
enshrined in Part III of the Constitution of India.
Different Types of Rights
1. Political Rights - The right to vote, the right to contest elections and
the right to form political parties are the main political rights. Political
rights force the government to act according to the interests of the
individual.
2. Civil Rights - The right to free and fair trial, freedom of expression
and freedom to form organizations are examples of civil rights. Democracy
is based on a combination of political and civil liberties.
3. Economic Rights -The main economic rights are the right to basic
amenities such as food, shelter and health, the right to work, the right to
rest, and the right to a reasonable wage. Only a person whose basic
economic needs are met can enjoy political and other civil rights.
Rights and Responsibilities
Along with rights, individuals have responsibilities. The main
responsibilities of individuals are as follows.
1. Work for the common good- Environmental protection, forestry and
protection from the public are all responsible for the welfare of
society.
2. Respect the rights of others. -Everyone has equal rights. Everyone
should enjoy his or her own rights without interfering with the rights
of others.
3. Control over their own rights- There are certain restrictions on rights
for the good of the nation and society. Everyone is obliged to respect
the restrictions imposed by the government for the common good.
Human Rights Day.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights was held on 10 December 1948.
December 10 is celebrated as Human Rights Day.
Prepared by Mathew Joseph, GHSS Kozhichal -Kannur

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 16. CITIZENSHIP
Citizenship guarantees protection and right to the individuals .
There have been many struggles to secure civil rights. The French Revolution,
the independent struggles in Asia and Africa, and the fight against apartheid are
examples for such movements.
Full and equal membership.
The idea of full and equal membership is to give all citizens the
opportunity to live and enjoy civil rights in all parts of the country. But many
people are not ready to accept people from other parts of the country. The
sentiments outsiders and insiders are very strong in many societies. Skilled
workers and professionals often do not face major objections. But many
societies refuse to accept poor workers from other parts of the country. They are
not willing to share limited resources and employment opportunities with the
late comers.
Ways to Earn Indian Citizenship
1. Citizenship by birth.
2. Citizenship by descent.
3. Citizenship through Registration.
4. Citizenship by naturalisation.
5. Citizenship by incorporation of territories.
Universal Citizenship
Universal Citizenship is a vision of giving citizenship to all who
wish to gain membership in a country. Due to war, ethnic violence, natural
disasters, and famine, billions of people are fleeing to other countries. The
countries refuse to grant citizenship to all the refugees. Governments are keen
on citizenship laws, fearing that unauthorized access to refugees could
adversely affect the country's security and economy.
Global Citizenship
Global Citizenship is a broad view that every human being is a
member of a global community rather than citizen of a particular country.
Contemporary challenges such as terrorism, epidemics, natural disasters and the
refugee problem cannot be solved by any country alone. Such problems can
only be solved through the collective effort of the humanity. Globalization and
the advancement in transport and communication have helped to create greater
closeness among the people.

Prepared by,
MATHEW JOSEPH
GHSS KOZHICHA
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 17. NATIONALISM
A nation is different from other groups or communities. It is
different from the family which is based on face-to-face relationships with each
member. It is also different from tribes and clans and other kinship groups in
which ties of marriage and descent link members to each other. . But as a
member of a nation we may never come face to face with most of our fellow
nationals nor need we share ties of descent with them.
Nationalism is a form of patriotism based upon the
identification of a group of individuals with a nation. Creative nationalism
unites people and makes them prosperous. But destructive nationalism has led
to the disintegration of many countries.

The factors contribute to the growth of nationalism.

A nation is to a great extent an ‘imagined’ community, held together
by the collective beliefs, aspirations and imaginations of its members. It is
based on certain assumptions which people make about the collective whole
with which they identify. Let us identify and understand some of the
assumptions which people make about the nation
1. Shared Beliefs
The nation is only strengthened when citizens believe that they are all members
of the same community. Citizens must have a common belief in unity, national
identity and national development.
2. History
Having a proud historical background will strengthen nationalism. Collective
memories, legends, great events, and great personalities can help to create
patriotism in the citizens.
3. Territory
Living together in a particular territory develops a feeling of oneness. Giving
various descriptions such as holy land, fatherland and motherland indicates
closeness of citizens to the territory of their state.
4. Shared Political Ideals
General political beliefs are another important factor which strengthen
nationalism. Belief in different ideologies, such as democracy, secularism and
liberalism inspires the people to stand together.
5. Common Political Identity
Common cultural background such as common language, same religion,
observing same celebrations and rituals etc enrich nationalism. But the
excessive emphasis on language and religion has led to the rise of separatist
activities in many countries.

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National Self Determination
Communities with a common culture, living together in a particular
area, strongly advocate for the right to make their own decisions. The idea of
one nation - one culture was strong in European countries in the nineteenth
century. A number of small, newly independent states were formed. It is
impossible to satisfy all the demands for self determination. Movements
against colonialism in Asia and Africa also demanded the right to self-
determination. The formation of new nations to satisfy the different groups is a
false tendency. The more acceptable way is to give the different peoples living
in a country a decent representation in national affairs.

Nationalism and Pluralism

In many countries, people of different cultures and faiths live together. Such
countries take steps to address the interests of all sections of the population.
Special consideration is given to certain minorities. In countries with different
social groups, sectarianism is more likely to grow. Governments should pay
special attention to formulate policies that are satisfactory to all sections of the
people.
Prepared by Mathew Joseph (GHSS Kozhichal, Kannur)

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 18. SECULARISM
Secularism is the idea of equal respect and opportunity for all
religions. Importance of secularism is growing in the contemporary world.
Inter-religious Domination -
Inter religious domination means the domination of one religion over other
religious groups. In some societies, people belonging to the majority religious
community deny the basic religious rights of the minority groups.
Intra-religious Domination -
Intra religious domination is the practice of the dominance and discrimination
within a particular religion. Caste system and male domination that exist within
religion are examples of Intra religious domination.

Secular state
According to Nehru, a secular state is a nation which protects all religions and
does not support any religion at the expense of another religion and does not
accept any religion as the official religion of the nation. Below are the key
features of a secular nation.
1. The secular state has no official religion
2. No relationship between Religion and nation.
3. State must not be governed by religious head.
4. No special consideration to any religion.

The Western Model of Secularism

Following are the main ideas that the Western model of secularism proposes.
1. Mutual exclusion of state and religion.
2. State can not financially aid any religious institutions.
3. Religion is a private matter.
4. State supported religious reform is not encouraged.
5. Individual freedom and equality are important.
6. Community rights and minority rights are not important.
The Indian Model of Secularism
Indian secularism is different from the western model of secularism. The
following are some of the main ideas related to Indian secularism.
1. Importance is given to inter religious equality.
2. Equality within the religion is also important.
3. Encourages nation-sponsored religious reforms.
4. The rights of minority groups are important.

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Major criticisms of Indian secularism
1. Anti – religious - Critics say Indian secularism is against religions. But
Indian secularism only opposes acts that promote communalism and
communalism
2. Western import -There has been criticism that the Western idea of
secularism is not suited to Indian conditions. Just because the concept is
western ,it need not be discarded at the very out set. Indian secularism is
different from western secularism.
3. Minoritism- Another criticism of Indian secularism is that it gives special
attention to minorities. Its a baseless argument. Indian secularism only ensures
the basic rights of the minorities.
4. Interventionist - Another criticism is that Indian secularism interferes
excessively with the religious freedom of communities. Indian secularism
interfere in religious matters only to make needed reforms.
5. Vote bank politics -Another criticism is that Indian secularism promotes
vote bank politics.
Vote bank politics is part of democracy. Vote bank politics is dangerous only
when it creates communal issues.
6. Impossible Project -Some have argued that secularism is irrelevant in a
society where religious consciousness is deeply rooted. This argument is
absolutely false. Most sections of Indian society are secular.

Prepared by,
MATHEW JOSEPH/HSST POLITICAL SCIENCE
GHSS KOZHICHAL

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 19. PEACE
Peace is generally defined as the absence of war. But in the
broadest sense, peace is the absence of war, rebellion, massacre, and murder
and all other types of violence .

Forms of Structural Violence

Violence made on the basis of caste, religion, class, colour, gender
etc are termed as structural violence.
1. Traditional caste system - There are a large number of people in India
who have been excluded from society on the basis of traditional caste system
and subjected to various forms of abuse and violence. An example for caste
related brutality is the untouchability of dalits.
2. Class conflict – Class division creates inequality and oppression in the
society. Under class is subjected to exploitation in different parts of the world.
[Link] and communalism - Racial abuse and exploitation exist in
many parts of the world. Many people were denied their basic rights because
they were born into a particular race. Examples of racism include slavery in the
US, apartheid in South Africa, massacre of Jews in Germany by Hitler.
[Link] - In patriarchal societies, women are subjected to various
forms of violence. Female foeticide, child marriage, dowry related torture,
sexual harassment and domestic violence are very common in many societies.
5 Colonialism - Colonial rule means the political and economic domination
of one country over another. European countries ruled Asian and African
countries for many centuries. The colonial masters ignored even the basic
rights of the Asian - African people .

Eliminating Violence
Spiritual principles and practices, modern healing techniques
like psychoanalysis etc are helpful to construct peace in human mind.
Elimination of structural violence is also important in peace making efforts. It is
argued that force can be used to remove tyrants and oppressors. Once deployed,
it tends to spin out of control. So it's better to use love and truth to retain peace..
State tends to protect the interest of their citizens. Sometimes it may be harmful
to other nations. Military dictators may misuse the forces. Democratisation is
the solution to such problems. Democratic approach is helpful to retain peace
for a long term.

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Different approaches to the pursuit of peace
1. Centrality to states- Each sate respects the sovereignty of other states
and accepts competition among them as a fact of life. Arrangements like
‘balance of power’ are used to maintain world peace.
2. Social and economic cooperation – Interdependence among the
modern states is an effective tool to bring world peace. international
understanding and cooperation will lead to better prospects of life.
3. Fostering of a global community – Creating a global community is
considered as a surest guarantee of peace. Multinational corporations and
people’s movements strongly support the concept of international brotherhood.

Contemporary Challenges
Military alliances – The military alliances formed by the world powers are
threat to world peace. NATO, SEATO, CENTO are the examples of military
alliances.
The rise of terrorism – Terrorist organisations pose a great threat to peace
through the use of modern weapons and modern technology. They use
biological/chemical/nuclear weapons mercilessly. They apply gurrilla tactics to
cause destruction.
Genocide -Systematic massacre of an entire group of people is called
genocide. This became particularly evident in Rwanda where nearly half a
million people were killed in the ethnic conflict.

Positive signs
Peace movements are active after second world war. All types of people
participate in it. Peace movements work together with women and
environmental movements. Peace studies – a new branch of knowledge is
developed. New means of communication are helpful to spread the message of
peace easily.

Prepared by,
MATHEW JOSEPH
HSST POLITICAL SCIENCE
GHSS KOZHICHAL
KANNUR - 670511

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 20. DEVELOPMENT
In the narrow sense, development is defined as
economic growth. In the broadest sense, development is the concept of well-
being, progress, prosperity and the desire for a better life.
Criticisms of the Development Model
1. The Social Costs of Development - Many people are forced to evacuate for the
construction of large dams, airports and factories. Mining, road construction and
railway construction also leads to the eviction. Forced evictions may destroy
traditional skills and jobs. This creates poverty and increases crimes. Displacement
also contributes to the decline of local cultures. Mass movements against eviction are
taking place all over the world. Narmada Bachao Andolan, led by Medha Patkar, is an
example of such protests.
2. Environmental Costs of Development - Environmental exploitation for
development causes major disasters. Lack of proper developmental planning leads to
environmental problems such as air pollution, water pollution, erosion and climate
change.
Assessing Development - In many countries the benefits of economic growth are
enjoyed mainly by the upper classes of society. Many countries develop
economically. But there are many citizens who have to live in poverty. Therefore
development cannot be regarded as mere economic development. Real development
is the process of raising the standard of living of all classes of people.
The United Nations releases the Human Development Report every year for the
purpose of assessing development. It determines the level of development of
countries in terms of literacy, education level, life expectancy and maternal mortality
rate. This criterion used to classify countries is called the Human Development Index.
Alternative Conceptions of Development
The world today is following a deficient development model. The main accusation of
modern development models is environmental and social costs. Another drawback is
the lack of public participation. Discussions about a better development model are
lively. The following are the main ideas involved in the alternative concept of
development.
Right Claims -People who are adversely affected by development projects have the
right to be protected. It is generally assumed that tribals and indigenous peoples are
entitled to special rights.
Democratic Participation -It is hoped that the development activities will be
strengthened by ensuring the participation of the people in the adoption and
implementation of development goals. Gram Panchayats and Municipalities have an
important role to play in development activities.
Development and Lifestyle- Development can not be measured in terms of the
luxurious lifestyle of a section of society. The real development is to meet the basic
needs of all sections of the population. A developmental project which supports
conservation and renewal of natural resources is more acceptable.
Mathew Joseph / HSST Political Science / GHSS Kozhichal

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