Lecture 3-System Protection

System Protection 1
Introduction
• Main idea of system protection is to remove faults as
quickly as possible while leaving as much of the system
undamaged as possible.
• Fault sequence of events
1. Fault occurs somewhere on the system, changing the system
currents and voltages
2. Current transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs)
sensors detect the change in currents/voltages
3. Relays use sensor input to determine whether a fault has
occurred
4. If fault occurs relays open circuit breakers to isolate fault

System Protection 2
System Protection Components
• Protection systems have are three basic components:
• Instrument transformers
• Relays
• Circuit breakers

The figure shows a simple

overcurrent protection
schematic:
(1)a current transformer (CT)
(2)an over current relay (OC)
(3)a circuit breaker (CB)

System Protection 3
Instrument Transformers
• There are two basic types of instrument
transformers:
• Voltage transformers (VTs) or potential
transformers (PTs)
• Current transformers (CTs)
• The transformer primary is connected to
the power system and is insulated for the
power system voltage.
• The VT reduces the primary voltage to
much lower for standardized levels
suitable for operation of relays
• The CT reduces the primary current to
much lower for standardized levels
suitable for operation of relays

System Protection 4
Instrument Transformers cont.
• The VT secondary voltage divides across the high-impedance
sensing device and the VT series leakage impedances.
• VT leakage impedances are kept low in order to minimize voltage drops
and phase angle differences from primary to secondary.
• A normal standard voltage rating of VT secondaries is 115 V (𝑉𝐿𝐿 )
• The CT secondary current divides with flowing through the low-
impedance sensing device and some flowing through the CT shunt
excitation impedance.
• CT excitation impedances is kept high in order to minimize excitation
current
• A normal standard current rating of CT secondaries is 5 A and 1 A

System Protection 5
Equivalent Circuit of CT
• An approximate equivalent circuit of a CT

𝑍 ′ : 𝐶𝑇 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑋𝑒 : 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑇 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝐵 : 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 (𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦, 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠)
• The total impedance 𝑍𝐵 of the terminating device is called the burden and is typically expressed
in values of less than an ohm. The burden on a CT may also be expressed as VA at a specified
current.

System Protection 6
Performance of CT
• Current transformer performance is based on the ability to
deliver output 𝐼′ that accurately reproduces the current 𝐼.
• Performance is determined by the highest current that can be
reproduced without saturation to cause large errors.
• Using the CT equivalent circuit and excitation curves, the
following procedure can be used to determine CT
performance:
• Step 1: Assume a CT secondary output current 𝐼′
• Step 2: Compute 𝐸 ′ = 𝑍 ′ + 𝑍𝐵 𝐼′
• Step 3: Using 𝐸 ′ , find 𝐼𝑒 from the excitation curve
• Step 4: Compute 𝐼 = 𝑛(𝐼′ + 𝐼𝑒 )
• Step 5: Repeat Step1-4 for different values of 𝐼′, then plot 𝐼′ vs 𝐼

System Protection 7
Performance of CT cont.
• The CT error is the
percentage difference
between (𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑒 ) and
𝐼′, given by:
𝐼 𝑒
𝐶𝑇 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼′ +𝐼 × 100%
𝑒

• Excitation curves for

a multi-ratio bushing
CT with ANSI
classification C100
are shown in figure.

System Protection 8
Example 1
Evaluate the performance of the multi-ratio CT in the
figure-slide-8 with a 100:5 CT ratio, for the following
secondary output currents and burden:
a) 𝐼′ = 5 𝐴 and 𝑍𝐵 = 0.5 𝛺
b) 𝐼′ = 8 𝐴 and 𝑍𝐵 = 0.8 𝛺
c) 𝐼′ = 15 𝐴 and 𝑍𝐵 = 1.5 𝛺
And compute the CT error for each output current.

System Protection 9
Solution 1
The CT with 100:5 CT ratio→ 𝑍 ′ = 0.082 Ω
a) 𝐼 ′ = 5 𝐴, 𝑍𝐵 = 0.5 Ω
𝐸 ′ = 𝑍 ′ + 𝑍𝐵 𝐼 ′ = 0.082 + 0.5 × 5 = 2.91 𝑉
Based on CT curve→ 𝐼𝑒 = 0.25 𝐴
100 100
𝐼= 5
× 𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑒 = 5
× 5 + 0.25 = 105 𝐴
𝐼𝑒 0.25
CT error = 𝐼′ +𝐼 × 100% = 5+0.25 × 100% = 4.8%
𝑒

b) 𝐼 ′ = 8 𝐴, 𝑍𝐵 = 0.8 Ω
𝐸 ′ = 𝑍 ′ + 𝑍𝐵 𝐼 ′ = 0.082 + 0.8 × 8 = 7.06 𝑉
Based on CT curve→ 𝐼𝑒 = 0.4 𝐴
100 100
𝐼= × 𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑒 = × 8 + 0.4 = 168 𝐴
5 5
𝐼𝑒 0.4
CT error = 𝐼′ +𝐼 × 100% = 8+0.4 × 100% = 4.8%
𝑒

System Protection 10
Solution 1 cont.
c) 𝐼′ = 15 𝐴, 𝑍𝐵 = 1.5 Ω

𝐸 ′ = 𝑍 ′ + 𝑍𝐵 𝐼′
= 0.082 + 1.5 × 15 = 23. 73 𝑉
Based on CT curve → 𝐼𝑒 = 20 𝐴
100
𝐼= × 𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑒
5
100
= × 15 + 20 = 700 𝐴
5
𝐼
CT error = ′ 𝑒 × 100% 2.91
𝐼 +𝐼𝑒
20
= × 100% = 57.1%
15 + 20

0.25

System Protection 11
Example 2
An overcurrent relay set to operate at 8 A is
connected to the multi-ratio CT in figure-slide-8 with
100:5 CT ratio. Will the relay operate with a 200-A
primary fault current of the burden 𝑍𝐵 is
a) 0.8 𝛺
b) 3.0 𝛺

System Protection 12
Solution 2
a) From b) in example 4.1, a 168 A primary current with 𝑍𝐵 =
0.8Ω → Iout = 8 A → which would cause the relay to operate
⇒ The 200A fault current also causes the relay to operate.
b) 𝐼 ′ = 8 𝐴
𝐸 ′ = 𝑍 ′ + 𝑍𝐵 𝐼 ′ = 0.082 + 3 × 8 = 24. 7 𝑉
Based on CT curve→ 𝐼𝑒 = 30 𝐴
100 100
𝐼= × 𝐼 ′ + 𝐼𝑒 = × 8 + 30 = 760 𝐴
5 5
⇒ The 200A fault current doesn’t cause the relay to operate.

System Protection 13
Types of systems
• Protection systems must be designed with both primary
protection and backup protection in case primary
protection devices fail.
• In designing power system protection systems, there are
two main types of systems that need to be considered:
1. Radial: there is a single source of power, so power always
flows in a single direction; this the easiest from a protection
point of view
2. Mesh: power can flow in either direction: protection is
much more involved

System Protection 14
Protection of Radial Systems
• Radial systems are primarily used in the lower voltage
distributions systems.
• In radial power systems, the amount of fault current is
limited by the fault distance from the power source:
faults further done the feeder have less fault current
since the current is limited by feeder impedance
The figure shows potential
protection schemes for a
radial system. The bottom
scheme is preferred since it
results in less lost load.
System Protection 15
Protection of Radial Systems
cont.
• Radial power system protection systems usually use inverse-time overcurrent
relays.
• Coordination of relay current settings is needed to open the correct breakers
• The basic operation of radial system protection is as follows:
• If a fault is at 𝑃1 , the circuit breaker-B3 should be open while B2 and B1 remain closed
• Only load L3 is interrupted
• Select a longer time delay for the relay at B2→B3 operates first→for any fault to the right of B3
→B3 provides primary protection.
• If B3 fails to open, B3 will open after a time delay→B2 provides backup protection

System Protection 16
Protection of Radial Systems
cont.
• If a fault is at 𝑃2 , the circuit breaker-B2 should be open while
B1 remains closed
• Loads L2 and L3 are interrupted
• B2 set to open for the previous ( fault at 𝑃1 ), smaller fault current
after a time delay→ it will open more rapidly for this fault location
(𝑃2 )
• Select a longer time delay for the relay at B1 than B2→ B2 operates
first→ B2 provides primary protection for faults between B2 and
B3, as well as backup protection for faults to the right of B3
• B1 provides primary protection for faults between B1 ad B2,
as well as backup protection for further downstream faults.

System Protection 17
Coordination Time Delay
• The coordination time delay is the time interval
between the primary and backup protective devices.
It is the difference between the time that the backup
relaying operates and the time that circuit breakers
clear the fault under primary relaying.
• Typical coordination time delay from 0.2 to 0.5s are
selected to account for these factors in most
practical application

System Protection 18
Overcurrent Relays
• CT secondary current 𝐼′ is the input to the
overcurrent relay operating coil
• Instantaneous overcurrent relays respond
to the magnitude of their input current, as
shown by the trip and block regions in
figure
• If the current I = |𝐼′| exceeds a specified Instantaneous overcurrent relay
adjustable current magnitude 𝐼𝑝 , called block and trip regions
pickup current→ the relay contacts close
“Instantaneously” to energize the circuit
breaker trip coil.
• If the current I = |𝐼′| is less than the pickup
current 𝐼𝑝 → the relay contacts remain open,
blocking the trip coil
Mixed curves of OC
System Protection 19
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays
• Time delay depends on the
magnitude of the relay input
current
• If 𝐼′ is a larger multiple of the
pickup current 𝐼𝑝 → the relay
operates after a small time delay
• For smaller multiples of pickup,
the relay operates after a longer
time delay Time delay overcurrent relay
• If 𝐼 ′ < 𝐼𝑝 , the relay remains in block and trip regions
the blocking position

System Protection 20
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays
cont.
• Inverse time overcurrent relays respond instantaneously
to a current above their maximum setting
• They respond slower to currents below this value but
above the pickup current value

System Protection 21
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays
cont.
• Current and time settings
are adjusted on the relay
• Current Tap Setting (CTS)
or Plug Setting(PS)
• Time Dial Setting (TDS)
or Time Multiplier Setting
(TMS)
• Relays have traditionally
been electromechanical
devices, but are gradually
being replaced by digital 𝐼
𝐼𝐶𝑇𝑆
relays CO-8-time delay overcurrent relay
characteristics
System Protection 22
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays
cont.
• The IEC and ANSI/IEEE
Standard define the relay
operating time mathematically
by the following expression:
𝑇𝐷×𝛽
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 𝐼
𝛼 +𝐿
−1
𝐼𝑆

𝑇𝐷: 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟

IEC and ANSI/IEEE Constants for
𝐼𝑆 : 𝑃𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑎𝑝 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
standard overcurrent relays
𝐼: 𝐶𝑇 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿: 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑠

System Protection 23
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays
cont.
• The characteristic
curves are usually
shown with operating
time in seconds versus
relay input current as a
multiple of the pickup
current
• An example of the
time current
characteristics of five
CO time delay
overcurrent relays is
shown in figure
Comparison of CO relay
characteristics

System Protection 24
Example 3
The CO-8 relay with a current tap setting of 6A and a
time-dial setting of 1 used with the 100:5 CT in
example 4.1. Determine the relay operating time for
each case
a) 𝐼′ = 5𝐴 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
b) 𝐼′ = 8𝐴 ⇒ 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 7.3𝑠
c) 𝐼′ = 15𝐴 ⇒ 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 1.31𝑠

System Protection 25
Solution 3
a) 𝐼′ = 5𝐴
𝐼 ′ 5
′
𝐼 = 5 → = = 0.83 6

𝐼𝑝 6
⇒ the relay does not operate.
b) 𝐼 ′ = 8𝐴
′
′
𝐼 8
𝐼 = 8 → = = 1.33
𝐼𝑝 6
⇒ From curve, 𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 6 𝑠
c) 𝐼 ′ = 15𝐴 1.2
′
′
𝐼 15
𝐼 = 15 → = = 2.5
𝐼𝑝 6
1.33 2.5
⇒ From curve, 𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 1.2 𝑠

System Protection 26
Example 4
• Data for the 60-Hz radial system of figure are given in tables. Select
current tap settings (TSs) and time dial settings (TDSs) to protection the
system from faults.

Table 1: Maximum loads

Table 2: Fault currents Table 3: Breaker, CT (no 𝐼𝑒 ), and

relay data

System Protection 27
Example 4 cont.
• Assume three CO-8 relays for
each breaker, one for each phase,
with a 0.3s coordination time
delay for backup relays.
• The relays for each breaker are
connected as shown in figure, so
that all three phases of the breaker
open when a fault is detected on
any one phase.
• Assume a voltage at all buses Relay connections to trip all three
phases
during normal operation is 34.5
kV.
System Protection 28
Solution 4
• Select TSs such that the relays do not operate for
maximum load currents.
• For B3, the primary and secondary CT for max. load L3
𝑆𝐿3 6 × 106
𝐼𝐿3−𝑃 = = = 100.4 𝐴
𝑉3 3 (34.5 × 103 ) 3
100.4
𝐼𝐿3−𝑆 = = 2.51 𝐴
(200/5)
⇒ Relay with a 3-A is selected for the B3, which is the
lowest TS above 2.51 A

System Protection 29
Solution 4 cont.
• For B2, the primary and secondary CT for max. loads
L2+L3
𝑆𝐿2 + 𝑆𝐿3 (4 + 6) × 106
𝐼𝐿23−𝑃 = = = 167.3 𝐴
𝑉2 3 (34.5 × 103 ) 3
167.3
𝐼𝐿23−𝑆 = = 4.18 𝐴
(200/5)
⇒ Relay with a 5-A is selected for the B2, which is the
lowest TS above 4.18 A

System Protection 30
Solution 4.4 cont.
• For B1, the primary and secondary CT for max. loads
L1+L2+L3
𝑆𝐿1 + 𝑆𝐿2 + 𝑆𝐿3 (11 + 4 + 6) × 106
𝐼𝐿123−𝑃 = = = 351.4 𝐴
𝑉1 3 (34.5 × 103 ) 3

351.4
𝐼𝐿123−𝑆 = = 4.39 𝐴
(400/5)
⇒ Relay with a 5-A is selected for the B1, which is the
lowest TS above 4.39 A

System Protection 31
Solution 4 cont.
• Select TDSs
• For B3, the largest fault current through B3 is 1000 A, which occurs for the three phase
fault at bus 3. The fault to pickup current ratio at B3
𝐼3𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑆 1000/(200/5)
= = 8.3
𝑇𝑆3 3
To clear fault as rapidly as possible, select a ½ TDS for the B3 relay
⇒ From CO-8 curve, the relay operating time is 𝑇3 ≈ 0.1 𝑠 and adding the breaking operating
time (5 cycles= 0.083𝑠)⇒primary protection clears this fault in 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 = 0.183 𝑠
• For this same fault, the fault to pickup current ratio at B2 is
𝐼3𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑆 1000/(200/5)
= =5
𝑇𝑆2 5
⇒ Adding the B3 relay operating time (𝑇3 =0.1s), breaker operating time (0.083s) and 0.3s
coordination time delay, a B2 relay operating time is 𝑇2 = 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 + 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 0.1 + 0.083 +
0.3 ≈ 0.48𝑠
⇒ From CO-8 curve, select TDS2=2

System Protection 32
Solution 4 cont.
• For B1, the largest fault current through B2 is 2000A. The fault to pickup current ratio at B2 for this fault
𝐼2𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑆 2000/(200/5)
= = 10
𝑇𝑆2 5
⇒ From the 2 TDS curve, 𝑇2 ≈ 0.43𝑠
⇒ For the same fault, the fault to pickup current ratio at B1
𝐼2𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑆 2000/(400/5)
= =5
𝑇𝑆1 5
⇒ 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 + 𝑇𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟 + 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 0.43 + 0.083 + 0.3 ≈ 0.81𝑠
⇒ From CO-8 curve, select TDS1=3.
• The largest fault current through B1 is 3000A. The fault to pickup current ratio at B1 for this fault
𝐼1𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡−𝑆 3000/(200/5)
= = 7.5
𝑇𝑆1 5
⇒ From the 3 TDS curve, 𝑇1 ≈ 0.85𝑠

• The relay setting are listed in the table:

System Protection 33
Reclosers and Fuses
• Automatic reclosers are commonly used for distribution system
protection
• A recloser is a self-controlled device for automatically
interrupting and reclosing systems with a preset sequence of
opening and reclosures
• Reclosers have built-in controls unlike circuit breakers (i.e.
Relay control circuit breaker opening and reclosing)
• The automatic tripping-reclosing sequence of reclosers clears
temporary faults and restores service with only momentary Recloser
outages

Fuse
System Protection 34
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• The figure shows a common
protection scheme for radial
distribution systems using
Fuses, Reclosers and Time
delay overcurrent relays
• The system consists of:
• Three loads protected by fuses
• The recloser ahead of the fuses
is set to open and reclose for
faults up to and beyond the
Single-line diagram of a 13.8-kV radial
fuses distribution system
• Time delay overcurrent relays

System Protection 35
Reclosers and Fuses cont.

Example of Time current characteristics Example of Time current characteristics

for reclosers for fuses (200k and 200T)

System Protection 36
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• For temporary faults, the recloser can be set for one or
more instantaneous or time delayed trips and reclosures
in order to clear the faults and restore service
• If faults continue, the fuses operate for faults to their
downstream, or the recloser opens after a time delay and
locks out for faults between the recloser and fuses
• Separate time delay overcurrent phase and ground
relays open the substation breaker after multiple
reclosures of the recloser.

System Protection 37
Reclosers and Fuses cont.

Example of Time current curves for the

radial distribution system

System Protection 38
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• Coordination of the fuses, reclosers, and time delay
overcurrent relays is provided in the time current curves
• The fuses are selected on the basis of maximum loads served
• A 65T fuse is selected for the bus 1→ 60-A max. load current
• A 100T fuse is selected for the bus 2→ 95-A max. load current
• A 100T fuse is selected for the bus 3→ 95-A max. load current
• A rated voltage of fuses are larger than the maximum bus voltage
• An interrupting current rating is larger than the maximum fault
current
⇒ The Type T fuses with voltage rating of 15kV and interrupting
current rating of 10 kA and higher are standard

System Protection 39
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• Standard reclosers have:
• Minimum trip ratings of 50, 70, 100, 140, 200, 280, 400, 560, 800,
1120, and 1600 A
• Voltage ratings up to 38 kV
• Maximum interrupting currents up to 16 kA
• A minimum trip rating of 200-250% of maximum load current (
typical selection for the phases)
• A minimum trip ratings of the ground unit is typically set at
maximum load
⇒For the recloser that carries a 250 A maximum load, minimum trip
ratings of 560 A for each phase and 280A for the ground unit are
selected.

System Protection 40
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• A popular operation sequence for reclosers is
• Two fast operations without intentional time delay
• Followed by two delayed operations
• Fast operations allow temporary faults to self-clear, whereas the delayed
operations allow downstream fuses to clear permanent faults
• The time current curves of the fast recloser lie below the fuse curves→the
recloser opens before the fuses melt
• The fuse curves lie below the delayed recloser curves→the fuses clear
before the recloser opens
• The recloser is typically programmed to reclose 0.5s after the first trip, 2s
after the second fast trip, and 5-10s after a delayed trip.

System Protection 41
Reclosers and Fuses cont.
• Time delay overcurrent relays with an extremely inverse
with both reclosers and fuses.
5
• A 300:5 CT ratio is selected→CT secondary= 250 × ( ) =
300
4.17𝐴 at maximum load
• Relay setting are selected to allow the reclose to clear faults
before relay operation
• A CTS of 9A is selected for the CO-11 phase relays→minimum
pickup exceeds twice the maximum load
• A TDS of 2 is selected→the delayed recloser trips at least 0.2s before
the relay
• The ground relay is set with a CTS of 4A and a TDS of 1.

System Protection 42
Example 5
For the system in the figure below, describe the operating
sequence of the protective devices for the following faults:
a) A self-clearing, temporary, three-phase fault on the
load side of bus 2
b) A permanent three-phase fault on the load side of bus
2.

System Protection 43
Solution 5
Fault in case of a)
• The three-phase fault current at bus 2 is 1500A→the
560A fast recloser opens 0.05s after the 1500A fault
current occurs, and then recloses 0.5s later
• Assuming the fault has self-cleared, normal service is
restored. During the 0.05s fault duration, the 100T fuse
does not melt

Fault in case of b) Delayed recloser operation ( open in

3s) and then recloses 5-10s later
• For a permanent fault the fast recloser opens after 0.05s,
recloses 0.5s later into the permanent fault
• Opens again after 0.5s, and recloses into the fault a 100T fuse
second time after a 2s delay
• Then, the 560A delayed recloser opens 3s later
• During this interval, the 100T fuse clears the fault
• The delayed recloser then recloses 5 to 10s later,
restoring service to loads 1 and 3 2 times of fast recloser (open-close)

System Protection 44
Protection of Meshed Systems
• In a meshed system, there are a number of difference sources or supplied
feeders of power ⇒ Power flows are bidirectional
• Meshed system offers greater reliability, since the failure of a single
device does not result in a loss load
• Meshed systems are usually used with transmission system, and are
sometimes used with the distribution systems, particularly in urban areas

Application of directional overcurrent relays:

(a) ring system; (b) multi-source system
System Protection 45
Protection of Meshed Systems
cont.
• Removing system elements require the opening of
circuit breakers at both ends of the device
• There are several common protection schemes;
multiple overlapping schemes are usually used
1. Directional relays with communication between the
device terminals
2. Impedance (distance) relays
3. Differential relays

System Protection 46
Directional Relays
• Directional relays are commonly used to protect
high voltage transmission lines
• Voltage and current measurements are used to
determine direction of current flow ( into or out
line)
• Directional relay are designed to operate for fault
currents in only one direction
• The directional relay D is required to operate only
for the right of the CT.
• Since the line impedance is mostly reactive, a fault
at 𝑃1 to the right of the CT will have a fault current
𝐼 from bus 1 to bus 2 that lags the bus voltage 𝑉 by
an angle of almost 900 → Forward direction of
fault current
Directional relay in series with OC relay
• If fault occurs at 𝑃2 , to the left of the CT, will have
a fault current 𝐼 that leads 𝑉 by almost 90𝑜 →
Reverse direction of fault current

System Protection 47
Directional Relays cont.
• The directional relay has two inputs:
• Reference voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉 ∠0𝑜
• Current 𝐼 = 𝐼 ∠Φ
• The relay trip and block regions can
be described by
−180𝑜 < Φ − Φ1 < 0 ⇒ 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ⇒ 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
Φ: angle of the current with respect to
the voltage
Φ1 : typically 2𝑜 to 8𝑜 , defines the Directional relay block and trip regions

boundary between the trip and block

regions

System Protection 48
Directional Relays cont.
• The contacts of the OC relay and D are connected in
series→ So that breaker trip coil is energized only
when the CT secondary current
(1) exceeds the OC relay pickup value
(2) is in the forward tripping direction
• Faults in the forward direction→ the current lags the
voltage and the angle Φ − Φ1 is close to −90𝑜
• Faults in the reverse direction→ the current lags the
voltage and the angle (Φ − Φ1 ) is close to 90𝑜

System Protection 49
Protection of a two-sources
system with D relays
• Becomes difficult and in some cases impossible to coordinate OC relays when
there are two or more sources at different locations
• If there is a fault at 𝑃1 , B23 and B32 should clear the fault→ So that service to
the three loads continues without interruption
• Using time delay OC relays, set B23 faster than B21
• If a fault occurs at 𝑃2 instead, B23 will open faster than B21, and load L2 is
disconnected
• When a fault can be fed from both the left and right, OC relays cannot be
coordinated
⇒ Directional D relays can be used to resolve this problem.

System with two sources

System Protection 50
Example 6
Explain how directional and time delay OC relays can be
used to protection the system. Which relays should be
coordinated for a fault
(a) At 𝑃1
(b) At 𝑃2
(c) Is the system also protected against bus faults?

System Protection 51
Solution 6
Breakers B12, B21, B23, and B32 should respond only faults on their “forward” or “line” side.
• Directional OC relays connected as in series can be used for these breakers.
• OC relays alone can be used for B1 and B3→do not need to be directional

• Case (a):
• For a fault at 𝑃1 , the B21 relay would not operate; B12 should coordinate with B23 so that B23 trips
before B12 and B1
• Also, B3 should coordinate with B32

• Case (b):
• For a fault at 𝑃2 , B23 would not operate; B32 should coordinate with B21 so that B21 trips before B32
and B3
• Also, B1 should coordinate with B12

• Case (C):
• The D-OC relays also protect the system against bus fault
• If the fault is at bus 2, relays at B21 and B23 will not operate, but B12 and B32 will operate to clear the
fault
• B1 and B21 will operate to clear a fault at bus 1
• B3 and B23 will clear a fault at bus 3
System Protection 52
Protection Zones
• A fundamental concept for more general power system
configurations is the division of a system into protective
zones.
• If a fault occurs anywhere within a zone, action is taken
to isolated that zone from the rest of the system
• Zones are defined for:
• Generators
• Transformers
• Buses
• Transmission and distribution lines
• Motors

System Protection 53
Protection Zones cont.
• This figure shows the protective zone concept. Each
zone is defined by closed, dashed line.

Power system protective zones

System Protection 54
Protection Zones cont.
• Zone 1 contains a generator and connecting leads to a
transformer
• In some case, a zone may contain more than one components
• Zone 3 contains a generator-transformer unit and connecting leads to
a bus
• Zone 10 contains a transformer and a line
• Protective zones have the following characteristics
• Zones are overlapped
• CBs are located in the overlap regions
• For a fault anywhere in a zone, all CBs in that zone open to isolate
the fault

System Protection 55
Protection Zones cont.
• Neighboring zones are overlapped to avoid the possibility of unprotected
areas.
• Without overlap the small area between two neighboring zones would
not be located in any zone and thus would not be protected
• Since isolation during faults is done by CBs, they should insert between
equipment in a zone and each connection to the system. That is, CBs
should be inserted in each overlap region. As such, they identify the
boundaries of protective zones
• Zone 5 is connected to zone 4 and 7
• Therefore, a CB is located in the overlap region between zones 5 and 4, as well
as between zones 5 and 7
• If a fault occurs at 𝑃1 on the line in zone 5, then the two CBs in zone 5 should
open
• If a fault occurs at 𝑃2 within the overlap region of zone 4 and 5, then all five CBs
in zones 4 and 5 should open.

System Protection 56
Protection Zones cont.
• If a fault occurs within an overlap region,
two zones are isolated and a larger part of
the system is lost from service
• To minimize this possibility, overlap regions
are kept as small as possible

• Overlap is accomplished by having two

sets of instrument transformers and relays
for each CB two
• The CB in the figure shows two CTs, one for
zone 1 and one for zone 2 Overlapping protection around a CB
• Overlap is achieved by the order of the
arrangement:
• Firs the equipment in the zone
• Second the CB
• And then the CT for that zone

System Protection 57
Example 7
Draw the protective zones for the power system
shown in the figure. Which CBs should open for a
fault at 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 ?

Power System for Example

System Protection 58
Solution 7
• Noting that CBs identify
zone boundaries,
protective zones are
drawn with dashed lines
as shown in the figure.
• For a fault at 𝑃1 , located
in zone 5→CBs B24 and
B42 should open.
• For a fault at 𝑃2 , located
in the overlap region of
zones 4 and 5→CBs B24,
B42, B21 and B23 should
open Protective zones

System Protection 59
Impedance Relays
• Consider the use of relays for the
transmission loop as shown in figure
• Coordination becomes extremely difficult on
the magnitudes of the fault currents
• During a three-phase fault, current increases
while bus voltages close to the fault decrease
• If current increases by a factor of 5 while
voltage decreases by a factor of 2, then the
voltage-to current ratio decreases by a factor
of 10
• That is, the voltage-to-current ratio more
sensitive to faults than current alone

• The relay that operates on the basis of

voltage-to-current ratio is called an
impedance relay (or distance relay or ratio
relay) Example of 345kV Transmission
line loop

System Protection 60
Impedance Relays cont.
• Impedance relay block and trip regions are shown in the figure
• Impedance Z is defined as the voltage-to-current ratio at the relay location
• The relay trips for |𝑍| < |𝑍𝑟 |, where 𝑍𝑟 is an adjustable relay setting
• The impedance circle that defines the border between the block and trip regions
passes through 𝑍𝑟

Impedance relay block

and trip regions

System Protection 61
Impedance Relays cont.
• A straight line is called the line impedance locus is
shown in the figure
• This locus is a plot of positive sequence line
impedances, predominantly reactive, as viewed
between the relay location and various points along
the line
• The relay setting 𝑍𝑟 is a point in the R-X plane
through which the impedance circle that defines the
trip-block boundary must pass

System Protection 62
Impedance Relays cont.
𝑉
• Consider an impedance relay (𝑍 = 𝐼 1 ) for B12 in the figure (see slide-60)
12

• During normal operation, load currents are usually much smaller than fault
currents, and the ratio Z has a large magnitude⇒Z will lie outside the circle of
the impedance relay regions⇒ the relay will not trip during normal operation
• During a three-phase fault at 𝑃1 , Z appears to relay B12 to be the line impedance
from the B12 relay to the fault
• If |𝑍𝑟 | is larger than the magnitude of this impedance⇒B12 will trip

• During a three-phase fault at 𝑃3 , Z appear to relay B12 to be negative of the line

impedance from the relay to the fault
• If 𝑍𝑟 is larger than the magnitude of this impedance⇒ B12 will trip

⇒ The impedance relay is not directional: a fault to the left or right of the relay can
cause a trip

System Protection 63
Impedance Relays cont.
• Two ways to include directional capacity with an impedance relay as shown in
the figure
• Figure (a), an impedance relay with directional restraint is obtained by including
a directional relay in series with an impedance relay
• Figure (b), a modified impedance relay is obtained by offsetting the center of the
impedance circle from the origin.

(a) Impedance relay with directional restraint (b) Modified impedance relay (mho relay)
System Protection 64
Impedance Relays cont.
• This modified impedance relay is sometimes called an mho
relay
• If either of these relays is used at B12 (see slide-60)
• A fault at 𝑃1 will result in a trip decision
• A fault at 𝑃3 will result in a block decision

• The radius of the impedance circle for the modified

impedance relay is half of the corresponding radius for the
impedance relay with directional restraint
• The modified impedance relay has the advantage of better
selectivity for high power factor loads
• The high power factor load 𝑍𝐿 lies outside the trip region for the
modified impedance but inside the trip region ( see slide-64)

System Protection 65
Impedance Relays cont.
• The reach of an impedance relay denotes how far down the line
the relay detects faults
• For example, an 80% reach means that the relay will detect any fault
between the relay and 80% of the line length
• It is common practice to use three directional impedance relays
per phase, with increasing reaches and longer time delays
• For example (see silde-60), it shows three protection zones for B12
• Zone 1 relay is typically set for an 80% reach and instantaneous operation, in
order to provide primary protection for line 1-2
• Zone 2 relay is set for about 120% reach, extending beyond bus 2, with a typical
time delay of 0.2s to 0.3s. Zone 2 relay provides backup protection for faults on
line 1-2 as well as remote backup for faults on line 2-3 or 2-4 in zone 2

System Protection 66
Impedance Relays cont.
• In case of a fault on line 2-3, it is desirable to set the B23
relay to trip, not the B12 relay
• The impedance seen by B12 for faults near bus, either on line 1-2 or
line 2-3, is essentially the same⇒ do not set the B12 zone 1 relay for
100%
• Instead, select an 80% reach to avoid instantaneous operation of B12
for a fault on line 2-3 near bus 2
• If there is a fault at 𝑃2 on line 2-3, B23 should trip instantaneously;
• If it fails, B12 will trip after a time delay
• Other faults at or near bus 2 also cause tripping of the B12 zone 2
relay after a time delay

System Protection 67
Impedance Relays cont.
• Reach for the zone 3 B12 relay is
typically set to extend beyond
bus 3 and 4 (see slide-60), in
order to provide remote backup
for neighboring lines
• The zone 3 reach is set for 100%
line 1-2 plus 120% of either line
2-3 or 2-4, whichever is longer, (a) Impedance relay with directional restraint
with an even larger time delay,
typically one second
• Typical trip and block regions
for both types three-zone,
directional impedance relays are
shown in the figure
(b) Modified impedance relay (mho relay)
System Protection 68
Impedance Relays cont.
• Relay connections
for a three-zone
impedance relay
with directional
restraint are shown
in the figure

System Protection 69
Impedance Relays cont.
• The impedance relays considered so far use line-to-
neutral voltages and line current⇒are called ground
fault relays
• Respond to 3ph fault, SLG fault, LLG fault
• The impedance relays use line-to-line voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 ,
𝑉𝑏𝑐 , 𝑉𝑐𝑎 and line-current differences 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼𝑏 , 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑐 ,
𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝑎 ⇒ are called phase relays
• Respond to LL fault
⇒ Both phase and ground fault relays need to be used

System Protection 70
Example 8
The positive-sequence line impedances as well as CT and VT
ratio at B12 (see slide-60) is provided in the table
(a) Determine the settings 𝑍𝑟1 , 𝑍𝑟2 and 𝑍𝑟3 for the B12 three-zone,
directional impedance relays connected as shown in figure (see slide-
69). Consider only solid, three-phase faults
(b) Maximum current for line 1-2 during emergency loading conditions
is 1500A at a power factor of 0.95lag. Verify that B12 does not trip
during normal and emergency loadings

System Protection 71
Solution 8
(a) 𝒁𝒓𝟏 , 𝒁𝒓𝟐 , 𝒁𝒓𝟑 ?
𝑉𝐿𝑁 : line-to-neutral voltage at bus 1
𝐼𝐿 : line current through B12
𝑉𝐿𝑁
• Primary impedance Z viewed at B12: 𝑍𝑝 = Ω
𝐼𝐿

• Using the CT and VT ratios given in the table, the secondary impedance viewed by the B12 impedance
relay is:
𝑉𝐿𝑁 /(3000/1) 𝑍𝑝
𝑍𝑠 = =
𝐼𝐿 /(1500/5) 10
8+𝑗50
• Setting the B12 zone 1 for 80% reach: 𝑍𝑟1 = 0.8 × = 0.64 + 𝑗4 = 4.05∠80.9𝑜
10
8+𝑗50
• Setting the B12 zone 2 for 120% reach: 𝑍𝑟1 = 1.2 × = 0.96 + 𝑗6 = 6.08∠80.9𝑜
10

• Setting the B12 zone 3 for 100% reach of line 1-2 plus 120% reach of line 2-4:
8+𝑗50 5.3+𝑗33
𝑍𝑟1 = 1 × + 1.2 × = 1.44 + 𝑗8.96 = 9.07∠80.9𝑜
10 10

System Protection 72
Solution 8 cont.
(b) Verification?
345 𝑜
𝑉𝐿𝑁 = ∠0 = 199.2∠0𝑜 𝑘𝑉 and
3

𝐼𝐿 = 1500∠ − cos −1 0.95 = 1500∠ − 18.190

• The secondary impedance viewed by B12 during emergency loading is:
199.2∠0𝑜
𝑍𝑝 1500∠ − 18.190
𝑍𝑠 = = = 13.28∠18.19Ω
10 10
• Since this impedance exceeds the zone 3 setting of 9.07∠80.9𝑜 → the impedance
during emergency loading lies outside the trip regions of the three-zone of
relay ⇒ Relay do not trip
• Lower line loading during normal operation will result in even larger impedances
farther away from the trip regions ⇒ Relay do not trip
⇒ B12 will trip during faults but not during normal and emergency loadings
System Protection 73
Differential Relays
• Main idea behind different protection is that during normal operation the
net current into a device should sum to zero for each phase
• Differential relays are commonly used to protect:
• Generators
• Buses ← 𝐼2
• Transformers 𝐼1 →
← 𝐼3

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0 for each phase except

during a fault
• Since this relay operation depends on a difference current, it is called a
difference relay

System Protection 74
Differential Relays cont.
• An electromechanical differential
relay called a balance beam relay is
shown in the figure
• The relay contacts close if the
downward force on the right side
exceeds the downward force on the
left side
• The electromagnetic force on the
right, operating coil is proportional • The condition for relay operation
to the square of the operating coil 𝑁𝑜 (𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ ) 2 > 𝑁𝑟 (𝐼1′ + 𝐼2′ )/2 2
mmf→ 𝑁𝑜 (𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ ) 2
• Taking the square root:
• The electromagnetic force on the 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ > 𝑘|(𝐼1′ +𝐼2′ )/2|
left, restraining coil → ሾ𝑁𝑟 (𝐼1′ +
𝐼2′ )/2ሿ2 Where 𝑘 = 𝑁𝑟/𝑁𝑜

System Protection 75
Differential Relays cont.
• Assuming 𝐼1′ and 𝐼2′ are in phase,
we obtained
2+𝑘 ′
𝐼2′ > 𝐼 for 𝐼2′ > 𝐼1′
2−𝑘 1
2−𝑘 ′
𝐼2′ < 𝐼 for 𝐼2′ < 𝐼1′
2+𝑘 1

• The figure shows the trip and

block regions of a differential
relay for k=0.1
• As k increases, the block region
becomes larger, that is the relay
becomes less sensitive

System Protection 76
Differential Relays cont.
• In practice, no two CTs are identical, and the
difference relay 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ can become appreciable
during external fault, even though 𝐼1 = 𝐼2
• The balanced beam relay solves this problem
without sacrificing sensitivity during normal
currents, since the block region increases as the
currents increase
• The relay can be easily modified to enlarge the
block region for every small currents near the
origin, in order to avoid false trips at low currents

System Protection 77
Generator Protection with
Differential Relays
• The figure shows the basic method to
differential relaying for generator
protection
• When the relay in any one phase
operates, all three phases of the main
CB will open
• For the case of no internal fault
within the generator winding, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ,
and assuming identical CTs, 𝐼1′ = 𝐼2′
• The current in the relay operating coil is Differential relaying for generator protection
zero⇒ Relay does not operate
• For an internal fault such as a SLG or
LL within the generator winding, 𝐼1 ≠
𝐼2 and 𝐼1′ ≠ 𝐼2′
• A difference current 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ flows in the
relay operating coil⇒ Relay operate

System Protection 78
Bus Protection with Differential
Relays
• Differential bus protection is
shown in the figure
• If there is no internal fault
between the CTs:
• No bus fault: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
• Assuming identical CTs → the
differential current 𝐼1′ + 𝐼2′ − 𝐼3′ =
0 ⇒ Relay does not operate

• If there is a bus fault:

• The differential current 𝐼1′ + 𝐼2′ −
𝐼3′ ≠ 0 ⇒ Relay operate

⇒ Use of the restraining coils Single-line diagram of differential bus

overcomes the problem of protection
nonidentical CTs

System Protection 79
Single-Phase Transformer Protection
with Differential Relays
• The protection method used for power
transformers depends on the transformer
MVA rating
• Fuses are often used to protect
transformers with small MVA ratings
• Differential relay are commonly used to
protection transformers with ratings larger
than 10MVA

• The differential protection method is

shown in the figure
• Denoting the turns ratio of the primary
and secondary CTs by 1/𝑛1 and 1/𝑛2
• The CT secondary current:
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼1′ = 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2′ = 𝑛2
1 2

• The current in the relay operating coil: Differential protection of a single-phase

𝐼 𝐼
𝐼′ = 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 transformer
1 2

System Protection 80
Single-Phase Transformer Protection
with Differential Relays cont.
• If there is no fault between the CTs→No internal transformer fault
• Primary and secondary currents for an ideal transformer:
𝑁1 𝐼1 𝐼1 𝑁1 /𝑁2
𝐼2 = (𝑒𝑞. 1) ⇒ 𝐼′ = 1− (𝑒𝑞. 2)
𝑁2 𝑛1 𝑛2 /𝑛1
• To prevent the relay from tripping for the case of no internal transformer fault, where (1)
𝑛 𝑁
and (2) are satisfied, the differential relay current 𝐼′ must be zero⇒ Select 2 = 1
𝑛1 𝑁2

• If there is an internal transformer fault between the CTs

• Eq.1 is not satisfied and 𝐼′ = 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ ≠ 0
• The relay will trip if Eq.2 is satisfied

• The value of 𝑘 (see previous slide) can be selected to control the size of the block
region
• Due to mismatch of relay currents with standard CT ratios, most transformer
differential relays have tap settings for better balanced solution

System Protection 81
Example 9
A single-phase, 10-MVA,
80 kV/20 kV transformer
has differential relay
protection.
(a) Select suitable CT
ratios.
(b) Select 𝑘 such that the
relay blocks for up to 25%
mismatch between 𝐼1′ and
𝐼2′
System Protection 82
Solution 9
(a) Select suitable CT ratios
• The transformer-rated primary and secondary currents are:
𝑆 10×103 80
𝐼1𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = = = 125 and 𝐼2𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 125 = 500 𝐴
𝑉 80×103 20

• From table, select a 150:5 CT ratio for primary:

5
⇒ 𝐼1′ = 125 = 4.17 𝐴 at rated conditions
150

• From table, select a 600:5 CT ratio for secondary:

5
⇒ 𝐼2′ = 500 = 4.17 𝐴 at rated conditions
600

⇒A differential current: 𝐼 ′ = 𝐼1′ − 𝐼2′ = 0

Standard CT ratios
System Protection 83
Solution 9 cont.
(b) Select k?
• For a 25% mismatch between
𝐼1′ and 𝐼2′ , select a 1.25 upper
slope
2+𝑘
⇒ = 1.25 ⇒ 𝑘 = 0.2222
2−𝑘

System Protection 84
Three-Phase Transformer Protection
with Differential Relays
• The figure shows differential protection
of a three-phase 𝑌 − ∆ transformer
• A 𝑌 − ∆ transformer produces 30𝑜
phase shifts in the line currents
• The CTs must be connected to
compensate for 30𝑜 phase shifts, such
that CT secondary currents as seen by
the relays are in phase.
• The connection of CTs to correct phase
shift of ccurrent:
• Connecting CTs on the 𝑌 side of the
transformer in ∆
• Connecting CTs on the ∆ side of the
transformer in 𝑌

• No zero-sequence current for ∆ side

System Protection 85
Example 10
• A 30-MVA, 34.5/138-kV 𝑌/∆ transformer as shown
in the previous slide is protected by differential
relays with taps.
(a) Determine currents in the transformer, CT connections
at rated current
(b) Select CT ratios and relay tap settings
• Assume that the relay tap settings are 5:5, 5:5.6,
5:6.6, 5:7.3, 5:8, 5:9, and 5:10, giving relay tap
ratios of 1, 1.1, 1.32, 1.46, 1.6, 1.8, and 2

System Protection 86
Solution 10
(a) Currents in the transformer, CT connections
• Rated current on the 34.5 kV-𝑌 side
𝑆 30 × 103
𝐼𝑎 = = = 502.04 𝐴
3 × 𝑉𝑙𝐿 3 × 34.5
⇒ CTs are connected in ∆
• Rated current on the 138 kV-∆ side
𝑆 30 × 103
𝐼𝐴 = = = 125.51 𝐴
3 × 𝑉𝑙𝐿 3 × 138
⇒ CTs are connected in 𝑌
System Protection 87
Solution 10 cont.
(b) Select CT ratios and relay tap settings
• CT at 𝑌 Side Transformer
⇒ 𝐼𝑎 = 502.04 𝐴 ⇒ Select a 500:5 CT
5
⇒ Secondary current 𝐼𝑎′ = 502.04 = 5.02 𝐴
500
′
⇒ 𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 3 × 𝐼𝑎′ = 3 × 5.02 = 8.696 in the 𝐶𝑇 − ∆ restraining
windings
• CT at ∆ Side Transformer
⇒ 𝐼𝐴 = 125.51 𝐴 ⇒ Select a 150:5 CT
5
⇒ Secondary current 𝐼𝐴′ = 125.51 = 4.18𝐴 in the 𝐶𝑇 − 𝑌 restraining
150
windings

System Protection 88
Solution 10 cont.
• Relay tap settings:
′
𝐼𝑎𝑏 8.696
The ratio of the current in the restraining windings: ′ = = 2.078
𝐼𝐴 4.18
′
𝑇𝐴𝐵 ′
⇒ The closest relay tap ratio is = 2 ⇒ A relay tap setting of 𝑇𝐴′ : 𝑇𝑎𝑏 = 5: 10
𝑇𝐴′

𝐼′𝐴 𝐼′𝑎𝑏
− 4.185 8.696
𝑇′𝐴 𝑇′𝑎𝑏 5
− 10
⇒The percentage mismatch : 𝐼′𝑎𝑏
× 100 = 8.696 × 100 = 3.77%
10
𝑇′𝑎𝑏

Since transformer differential relays typically have their block regions adjusted
between 20% and 60%, a 3.77% is a good mismatch.

System Protection 89
Other Types of Relays
• Other common types of relays include
• Under-frequency for load: e.g., 10% of system load must
be shed if system frequency falls to 59.3 Hz
• Over-frequency on generators
• Under-voltage on loads (less common)

System Protection 90
Exercise 1
For the system shown in the figure, and starting data
that are given there, carry out the following:
1. Calculate the nominal currents and three-phase
short-circuit levels at each breaker
2. Select the transformer ratios the CTs
3. Determine the values of the current tap setting,
time dial setting all phase relays to ensure a
coordinated protection arrangement. The
coordination time delay for backup relays is set to
be 0.4s.
System Protection 91
Exercise 1 cont.

Typical operating
curves for an inverse-
time delay of the
exercise 1

System Protection 92
End of Lecture

System Protection 93