Chapter 3

Beef Cattle Selection

The goal of beef cattle production is to provide Fertility
highly desirable beef for consumption in the most
efficient manner. Knowledge of breeding, feeding, A high level of fertility, or reproductive perform­
management, disease control and the beef market is ance, is fundamental to an efficient beef cattle enter­
fundamental to the economical production of prise. Fertility is commonly measured in terms of calf
desirable beef. crop percentage, and no single factor in commercial
cow­calf operations has greater bearing on production
The beef cattle industry is composed of six basic efficiency than the number of calves weaned per cow
segments: (1) the purebred breeder, (2) the commercial in the herd. The percentage calf crop can easily range
producer, (3) stocker or backgrounding operations, from 70 to 95 percent. However, as noted in Table 4­1
(4) the cattle feeder, (5) the beef packer and (6) the in Chapter 4 (Animal Breeding), the heritability of
retailer. The purebred breeder maintains seedstock to calving interval or fertility is low (10 percent).
provide bulls and, occasionally, females for the com­ Therefore, most of the variation in calving percentage
mercial producer. The commercial producer provides results from environmental factors such as feeding,
feeder calves and yearlings to the stocker operator management or herd health.
who, in turn, furnishes the cattle feeder who provides Fertility is a complex trait. Many environmental
the packer with finished cattle ready for slaughter. and genetic factors affect fertility from the time a cow
The packer slaughters the cattle and provides the is turned with a bull until her calf is weaned. Basic
retailer with either dressed carcasses or wholesale cuts cow herd records should report calf crop percentage
from these carcasses. The retailer cuts, trims and pack­ to determine if a problem exists. Where fertility or calf
ages the beef for the consumer. Interdependence exists crop percentage is low, very detailed records should
among these segments because each affects cost of be kept on reproductive traits to identify manage­
production or desirability of product or both. The ment, nutrition, herd health or genetic problems that
profits that accrue to all segments of the beef cattle can be modified to improve reproductive performance
industry depend on continued improvement in in the herd.
productive efficiency and carcass merit.
The association between fertility and other
performance traits, both positive and negative, should
Major Performance Traits be recognized. For example, selection for heavy wean­
ing weight can result in increased milk production or
All traits of economic value should be considered larger cow size in the herd or both and necessitate a
when selecting beef cattle. The major traits influencing higher nutritional level for the cow herd to maintain a
productive efficiency of desirable beef are: satisfactory fertility level. On the other hand, culling
open cows or problem breeders to improve reproduc­
• reproductive performance or fertility tive performance in the herd with no regard for the
• maternal ability specific cause for low reproductive performance will
• growth rate decrease the average milk production and cow size in
• feed efficiency the herd. Also, increased birth weight is associated
• body measurements with increased rate of gain and mature size. Calving
• longevity difficulty as a result of heavy birth weights can cut
• carcass merit, and deeply into calf crop weaned by reducing calf survival
• conformation or structural soundness at birth and conception rate in the cow the following
breeding season.
Maximum production efficiency is not necessarily
related to maximum performance levels in all of these
traits due to unfavorable genetic associations between Maternal Ability
certain traits. For example, high levels of milk produc­ The ability of a cow to wean a healthy, vigorous
tion and large cow size are associated with rapid calf is vital to efficient beef production. Increased milk
growth rate in the calf but are not desirable when feed production increases weaning weight per calf, and
supplies are limited because reproduction in the cow heavier weaning weights can increase efficiency of
is adversely affected. production in relation to fixed costs for the total herd.

11
However, feed requirements and costs per cow are Linear body measurements are helpful in match­
closely related to cow size and level of milk produc­ ing mature animal size to production resources. Body
tion. Thus, milk production must be matched with measurements were never intended to be used only
feed resources to maximize efficiency of production. for the purpose of selecting for a larger size. These
Optimum milk production is neither maximum measurements should also never be interpreted as a
nor minimum milk production in most situations. replacement for the weight of a beef animal at a given
Increased weaning weight per calf from milk produc­ age. No one specific size for an animal will be ideal
tion can be detrimental if weaning weight per cow is for all feed and management resources, breeding sys­
reduced as a result of poor rebreeding performance or tems and feed costs. Reproductive rate and market
market value is diminished by a wasty condition. weight ultimately determine the optimum range in
size for a given set of feed and management resources,
Growth Rate breeding systems and production costs.

Growth rate is important because of its high Hip height measurement is the most commonly
association with economy of gain in relation to fixed used body measurement in selection programs. The
costs. Growth rate has usually been measured in time­ recommended point for measurement of height is
constant, post­weaning feeding tests. A reasonably directly over the hip bones, or hooks (Figure 3­1).
high level of feeding for at least 112 days is desirable These measurements may be converted to frame
to appraise differences in growth rate most accurately. scores using the bull and heifer hip height tables in
the Appendix.
Genetic correlations among measures of growth
or size at different ages usually are high. Selection
for rapid rate of gain in post­weaning feeding tests
usually increases both birth weight and mature size.
Increases in birth weight contribute to increased calv­
ing difficulty. Increased mature size decreases carcass
quality when slaughtered at normal market weights
and increases the nutrient requirements for mainte­
nance of the cow herd.
Ideally, the beef animal should be of moderate
weight at birth, grow rapidly, but mature and finish
for slaughter early. But, the selection criterion to
obtain such a growth curve is complex.

Feed Efficiency FIGURE 3­1. Hip height measurement.

Feed efficiency is a trait of great economic Longevity

importance in beef cattle. Feed efficiency is difficult to
evaluate because individual feeding and adjustments The longer animals remain productive in a herd,
for differences in weight are required. Increased the fewer replacements will be needed. Thus, the cost
weight is associated with higher feed requirements of growing replacements to productive age is reduced.
per unit of gain. To be meaningful, feed efficiency Longevity is especially important in the commercial
should be measured in feeding tests designed within cattle herd.
the framework of present­day cattle feeding and The major factors affecting longevity of cows are
marketing practices. infertility, unsoundness of feet and legs, udder
troubles and unsound mouth.
Breeders largely depend on differences in rate of
gain as an indicator of feed efficiency rather than Purebred breeders should be concerned with
incur the added expense of individual feeding. Some making genetic improvement in longevity for the
bull testing stations obtain individual feed consump­ benefit of the commercial beef cattle population.
tion information to measure the pounds of feed However, animals retained in purebred herds to an
required per pound of animal gain. old age increase the generation interval which reduces
the possible rate of genetic improvement from selec­
Body Measurements tion. Selection for longevity should be confined pri­
marily to such indicators as structural soundness.
Objective body measurements can be useful
selection aids. Some common measurements of cattle Carcass Merit
include backfat, height at the shoulder, height at
the hips, length of body, depth of body, scrotal Carcass merit is of basic importance to the beef
circumference and pelvic size. cattle industry. The desirability of the beef product

12
determines the price consumers are willing to pay and Selection based on independent culling levels requires
the amount they are willing to purchase at that price. that specific levels of performance be obtained in each trait
before an animal is kept for replacement. This is the sec­
Consumers desire beef with a high percentage of ond most effective type of selection. However, select­
lean as compared to fat and bone, and the lean must ing for specific levels of performance in all traits does
be tender, flavorful and juicy. The difference in the not allow for slightly substandard performance in one
percentage of lean, often called cutability, is a major trait to be offset by superior performance in another.
factor influencing differences in carcass value. It is not
uncommon for carcasses of the same quality to range Selection based on an index of net merit gives weight
from 10 to 30 percent fat trim. However, such differ­ to the traits in proportion to their relative economic impor­
ences in composition are due to both environmental tance and their heritability and recognizes the genetic
and genetic variations. association among traits. This can be the most effective
type of selection, but the importance of each individ­
Beef quality, which includes such characteristics ual trait in the index should vary depending upon the
as tenderness, flavor and juiciness, can have an impor­ needs and desires of each individual producer. This
tant influence on consumer acceptance and value. balanced selection approach considers multiple
Beef quality is determined by marbling, texture, color, economically relevant traits at one time. The dollar ($)
firmness and maturity. EPDs that many breed associations calculate are based
upon this selection principle.
The genetic association between cutability and
quality is negative. Selection for high quality will
usually diminish cutability, and selection for high Buying a Herd Bull
cutability will often lower beef quality. Also, selection Purchasing the next herd sire is one of the most
for rate of gain or mature size often will diminish important decisions that a cattle producer makes.
carcass quality. Because every calf in the herd gets half of its genetic
makeup from the sire and half from its dam, the sire is
Conformation and Structural said to be half the herd. In actuality, studies of selec­
Soundness tion experiments have shown that the sire may be
responsible for as much as 90 percent of the change in
Conformation and structural soundness are a trait such as weaning weight. The sire influences the
performance traits to the extent that they contribute to herd in two ways. First, he changes the current calf
functionality and longevity, feed efficiency and carcass crop. Secondly, he influences later calf crops through
merit. Conformation in live cattle is normally a subjec­ daughters that are retained for use as brood cows. The
tive evaluation of thickness of natural fleshing or sire’s influence may be either in a positive or negative
muscling. Differences in conformation or muscling direction. A commercial cattle producer should
can be used to reflect potential differences in carcass consider many questions when buying a bull.
cutability without having to obtain carcass data. Also,
1. Should I buy a performance­tested bull?
feed efficiency relates to muscling among cattle of
similar growth pattern and mature size. Structural Performance testing is nothing more than keeping
soundness is particularly important for productive a record of performance on the traits of interest and
grazing and pasture breeding. Sound hips, hocks, using these records to make selection decisions.
shoulders and feet are valuable for longevity in Performance testing programs provide cattle produc­
the herd. ers with reliable information for identifying animals
with superior genetic potential for the traits of pro­
Selection Methods duction measured by the test. By using the informa­
tion as a basis for herd sire selection, a breeder can
Three approaches to selection are (1) tandem greatly increase the chances of obtaining a bull that
selection, (2) selection based on independent culling will sire rapid­gaining, more efficient, high­quality
levels and (3) selection based on an index of net merit. calves. Such calves can increase profits for both the
breeder and the feeder.
Tandem is selection in which useful traits are selected
sequentially. When the desired level of performance is 2. Do I buy a young bull or an older proven bull?
reached in one trait, a second trait is given primary
emphasis, etc. This is the least effective of the three Usually more weanling and yearling bulls are
types of selection. Its major disadvantage is that by available to select from than older, proven bulls.
selecting for only one trait at a time, other traits may Obviously, more performance information is available
suffer as a result. This method of single trait selection on an older bull; but in some cases, the older bull is
is not recommended. for sale because of poor performance. Occasionally, an

13
outstanding older bull is for sale by a breeder that has interest. Individual records are meaningful but may
retained replacement heifers from him. Usually, be greatly influenced by the environment in which the
buying yearling bulls will offer the greatest number of bull was tested. Comparison to other animals tested in
bulls with the most complete records from which to the same environment provides some indication of
select. Use of virgin bulls is helpful in limiting the genetic difference. EPDs give estimations of genetic
introduction of diseases into the breeding herd. merit for many economically relevant traits and allow
comparisons to be made between bulls within the
3. What performance information should I expect? same breed or with breed averages.
The records maintained by purebred breeders
5. What about performance by the bull’s sire
range from none to very elaborate record keeping sys­
tems. Basic performance information should include and dam?
birth date, birth weight, weaning weight, yearling The herd sire should come from a cow that has
weight and number in the contemporary group on all been a regular producer, has consistently weaned
bulls. Sufficient records to evaluate the bull’s sire and
calves heavier than the herd average and is strong
dam are preferred. Expected progeny differences
(EPDs) are a valuable selection tool that should be structurally. The sire should be an outstanding
used when available. Structural soundness, type and individual in the desired performance traits and
conformation can be evaluated visually. Always con­ should have proven ability to transmit his
duct a breeding soundness evaluation on yearling or characteristics to his offspring.
older bulls.
6. How much is a bull worth?
4. What performance levels should I require in
the bull? Performance information along with EPDs gives
an indication of the expected performance of a bull’s
When selecting a herd sire, buy bulls that are calves for particular traits such as growth perform­
above average of the respective breed in the traits of ance relative to the performance of calves sired by

FIGURE 3­2. Bull Selection Decision Flow Chart

STEP 1 – Bull purpose

Is having a bull to freshen cows the only concern?

Yes No

Buy the cheapest bull available and wait 283 days. If the calf Purchase bulls from reputable breeders. Make sure that breeding
crop percentage is unsatisfactory, then sell the bull and repeat bulls have passed a recent breeding soundness evaluation, are
STEP 1. disease-free, are structurally sound (good feet, legs, eyes, testicles
and sheath) and have acceptable conformation. Consider using
virgin bulls for disease control. Inquire about customer service
programs, such as breeding guarantees and calf buy-back
programs. Go to STEP 2.

STEP 2 – Breeding group

Will the bull be bred to heifers?

Yes No

Select a “calving ease” or “heifer” bull. Calving ease EPDs Calving ease and birth weight should be considered, but
should be used, if available. Birth weight EPDs provide a moderately high birth weights can be tolerated on medium to
good indication of potential calving difficulty when calving ease large frame cows. Go to STEP 3.
EPDs are unavailable. Selection based on both calving ease
and birth weight EPDs may overemphasize birth weight in the
selection process. Note that growth may be sacrificed when
selecting for low birth weights. Go to STEP 3.

14
 STEP 3 – Replacement heifers
Will the bull be used to sire replacement heifers?

Yes No

Selection criteria should include sire scrotal circumference. Selection considerations for a terminal sire should include a
Yearling scrotal circumference is related to age of puberty in balance of acceptable or superior performance for multiple
a bull’s daughters. Larger scrotal circumference translates to economically relevant traits. Single trait selection should be
a bull’s daughters reaching puberty at an earlier age. Milk is avoided. Select bulls that complement the cow herd. Go to STEP 4.
another important consideration when heifers are kept as
replacements. Milk EPDs indicate calf weaning weight
performance due to milk production of the dam. Total
maternal EPDs, also referred to as milk and growth or
maternal weaning weight EPDs, predict the combined effect
of the dam’s milking ability and growth transmitted to the calf
on calf weaning weight. Milk can be overdone and should be
matched to forage and feed resources. Calving ease daughters
or calving ease maternal EPDs provide useful information
about calving ease transmitted to a bull’s daughters. Yearling
weight, height, fat thickness and other factors that may impact
reproduction should also be evaluated. Go to STEP 4.

STEP 4 – Calf marketing

How will calves be marketed?

At weaning After stocker phase Ownership retained

through feedlot

Selection considerations should include Selection considerations should include yearling Selection considerations should include
weaning weight, frame size, muscling and weight, frame size and muscling. Use EPDs carcass traits, frame size and muscling.
coat color. Calf uniformity (similar color, age, when available. If performance information is Live animal ultrasound scan information,
frame, muscling, condition) may bring premiums limited to weight ratios, then select a bull with a carcass EPDs and information from
when calves are sold in groups. Use EPDs yearling weight ratio above 100. An organized participating in the Arkansas Steer Feedout
when available. If performance information is crossbreeding program should target a breed Program can be useful in evaluating carcass
limited to weight ratios, then select a bull with composition that will produce a desirable traits. An organized crossbreeding program
a weaning weight ratio above 100. If no combination of characteristics from the should target a breed composition that will
performance information is available, then different breeds. produce a desirable combination of
proceed to another breeder. An organized characteristics from the different breeds.
crossbreeding program should target a breed Go to STEP 5.
composition that will produce a desirable
combination of characteristics from the
different breeds.

STEP 5 – Value-based marketing

What type of price grid will be targeted?

Lean carcass Carcass

yield quality

Rib eye area, fat thickness, carcass weight and percent retail Intramuscular fat (marbling) is an important consideration.
product are important considerations. Ultrasound carcass Ultrasound carcass scans on live animals, carcass information
scans on live animals, carcass information from the Arkansas from the Arkansas Steer Feedout Program and carcass EPDs
Steer Feedout Program and carcass EPDs are all valuable are all valuable selection tools.
selection tools.

15
another bull or group of bulls. Using this information, heavier muscling, enhanced carcass characteristics or
educated purchasing decisions can be made regarding other economically important traits to his calves,
the purchase price differences that can be justified including the improvement in heifers kept for replace­
when comparing bulls. To illustrate differences in bull ment, then an even higher premium may be justified
value, the following is an actual scenario from the over the same payback period. This illustrates the
Livestock and Forestry Branch Station in Batesville, financial importance of making bull­purchasing deci­
Arkansas. Bull A and Bull B were exposed to cows of sions based on as much useful and reliable informa­
similar genetic merit. Bull A sired calves that weighed tion as is available.
on average 436 pounds at weaning. Calves sired by
Bull B weighed 543 pounds on average at weaning. 7. What is the reputation of the herd from which
selection is made?
Weaning weight difference between
Bull B and Bull A = The honesty and integrity of the owner and
543 pounds ­ 436 pounds = manager, the overall performance of the herd and the
107 pounds management practices under which the bull has been
developed are extremely important to the prospective
Lighter­weight calves typically sell at a higher price bull buyer.
per pound than heavier­weight calves. If calves sired
by Bull A could be sold for $2.20 per pound and Selecting Replacement Heifers
calves sired by Bull B could be sold for $2.08 per
pound, then gross returns from each bull would be as These traits should be considered when selecting
follows: heifers from the herd for brood cow replacements:
(1) reproductive performance in the heifer’s dam,
Bull A: 436 pounds x $2.20 per pound = (2) maternal ability of the heifer’s dam, (3) weaning
$960 per calf sold weight and yearling weight of the heifer, (4) confor­
mation and (5) soundness.
Bull B: 543 pounds x $2.08 per pound =
$1,130 per calf sold When the heaviest heifers are selected at weaning,
the results are improved maternal ability and
The difference in gross returns per calf would then be: growthiness in the herd. Heifers which fail to grow
and develop after weaning should be culled at breed­
$1,130 (Bull B) ­ $960 (Bull A) = $170 per calf ing time. Conformation is best evaluated after the
heifer has reached yearling age. The third selection
If each bull can be expected to sire 25 calves per year, can be made after the heifers wean their first calves.
then the difference in gross returns per year between Remove heifers that either fail to calve or produce
the two bulls would be: poor calves. Generally, the first calf is a good indica­
tion of a cow’s production in succeeding years.
$170 per calf x 25 calves per year =
$4,250 per year For a 100­cow herd, about 16 heifers will usually
be needed for replacements each year to maintain
Over 5 years, the difference in gross returns between numbers. More than 16 may be needed if considerable
the two bulls would be: culling is done at breeding time and after the first calf.

$4,250 per year x 5 years = $21,250

Performance Records
If Bull B costs $2,000 more than Bull A, then one­half
of the additional income from the first calf crop would The University of Arkansas System Division of
pay for the cost difference to acquire the superior bull: Agriculture’s Cooperative Extension Service can assist
beef cattle breeders with developing a systematic set
$2,000 ÷ $4,250 = of performance records. It also can help in utilizing
0.47 these records in decisions relative to individually
defined objectives within their breeding programs.
By using Bull B as a herd sire, a producer can Defined objectives and a planned breeding program
more than justify paying the $2,000 premium for him are fundamental to attaining the maximum rate of
over Bull A. This ignores interest and depreciation genetic improvement in economically important traits
costs and assumes that there are only weaning weight in beef cattle. An organized improvement program
differences in the calves sired by the two bulls. If Bull with selection based on differences in records is basic
B is also superior to Bull A in his ability to transmit to any planned breeding program.

16
 Success in breeding superior beef cattle depends Expected Progeny
on the ability of the breeder to make accurate deci­
sions while working toward his objectives. The more a Differences (EPDs)
breeder knows about the individuals in his herd and
Throughout history, geneticists have studied
the more clearly he understands his objectives, the
methods for use in identifying superior individuals in
more likely he is to make correct decisions. Records
beef cattle populations. Sire selection has tremendous
from a complete improvement program provide the
basis for making accurate decisions. A breeder’s objec­ value to the beef cow­calf operation. Choices of herd
tives for improvement can be reached only through sires not only have an impact on the resulting calf
a planned breeding program based on the use of crops, but these choices also affect the performance of
performance data in selection. the cow herd if daughters of the sires are kept as
replacement heifers. Ideally, beef producers would
Performance records should have flexibility and like to select sires of desirable genetics for genetic
be helpful to both purebred and commercial cattle improvement in economically important traits.
producers for comparing cattle within the same herd, Selection of desirable genetics to match with a cow
breed, sex, age group and management group (Figure herd is a challenging task. Fortunately, the concept
3­3). Performance records are not designed for esti­ of breeding value provides beef producers an avenue
mating differences between herds or between groups to make useful selection decisions. The background
managed differently within a herd because environ­ on breeding value estimation leads to a better
mental differences are likely to exist. understanding of the merit of Expected Progeny
Differences (EPDs).

Background on
Breeding Value Estimation
Breeding Value

Breeding value is defined as the value of an

individual as a parent. Parents transfer a random
sample of their genes to their offspring. Estimated
breeding value gives an estimate of the transmitting
ability of the parent.

FIGURE 3­3. Weighing calves and measuring hip height Expected Progeny Difference
for performance testing.
One­half the estimated breeding value is equal to
Two types of performance testing programs are the Expected Progeny Difference (EPD). The word
available to beef cattle breeders who may use them “difference” implies a comparison. Thus, EPDs let us
collectively to monitor each animal’s performance compare or rank the superiority of individual animals.
from birth. The two types that should receive empha­
EPDs provide a prediction of future progeny perform­
sis by cattle breeders are (1) cow herd performance
ance of one individual compared to another individ­
testing and (2) on­farm bull testing.
ual within a breed for a specific trait. The EPDs are
reported in plus or minus values in the units of meas­
When performance data are maintained, they can
urement for the trait. For example, birth, weaning and
be a valuable aid in (1) measuring progress in herd
improvement, (2) evaluating performance of herd yearling weight EPDs are reported in pounds. As a
sires, (3) culling poor­producing cows, (4) selecting common rule, the EPD values may be used to com­
replacement females, (5) selecting bull calves for test­ pare only those animals within a breed. For example,
ing, (6) selecting future herd sires and (7) determining the EPD values for a Hereford bull may not be com­
structural soundness under standardized conditions. pared against the EPDs for an Angus or Limousin
bull. However, new across­breed EPD adjustment
Contact your county Extension office for more values are now available that make it possible to
information about performance testing. compare EPDs on animals of different breeds.

17
Genetic Evaluation approach adjusts for the merit of mates. Specific
matings of inferior or superior animals are considered.
The first beef cattle national sire summary was Maternal genetic values, or Milk EPDs, may be
published in 1971 by a breed association. Up until the computed for the maternally influenced trait, weaning
first summary, only within­herd comparisons of weight. As with the previous evaluation (NSE), EPDs
breeding value could be made for a given year, season from the NCE are comparable across herds.
and contemporary group. The national sire summaries Environmental and management differences are
in the early ’70s and subsequent summaries allowed accounted for so that comparisons can be made.
cattle within a breed to be compared across herds,
generations and regions of the United States. These Also, any genetic change within a breed for a
evaluations by individual breeds were National Sire particular trait is accounted for in the evaluation;
Evaluations (NSE). However, the NSE concept had therefore, comparisons may be made across genera­
some problems. tions of cattle. Young bulls with no progeny may be
directly compared with older sires that have progeny.
1. Bulls had to have progeny information in order to
be included in the evaluation. This meant that Each EPD value should have an accuracy
only older bulls were published in the summaries. assigned to it. Accuracy is the measure of reliability
associated with an EPD. It is expressed as a value
2. No adjustment was made for the mating of
between 0 and 1. A high accuracy (>.7) means a higher
superior cows to the bulls represented in the eval­
degree of confidence may be placed on the EPD and
uation. The purebred breeders saw this as a big
the EPD value is not expected to change much as fur­
problem.
ther information is gathered. A low accuracy (<.4)
3. Progeny records were used in the evaluation, but means that the EPD may change a great deal as
the individual record on a bull was not included. additional information is gathered.

4. Breeding values were calculated on sires in the

evaluation, but no genetic values were computed
Contemporary Group
for dams. In the collection of beef cattle performance
information, breed associations realize that contempo­
A mathematical model, called the Animal Model, rary group definition is critical. A contemporary
was developed in the mid­1980s to correct the prob­ group is a group in which animals of a given sex and
lems associated with NSE. Use of the Animal Model age, having similar treatment, are given the equal
required extensive calculations. To reduce the number opportunity to perform (Beef Improvement
of equations that needed to be solved in an evalua­ Federation Guidelines, 1990). The basis of sound
tion, the Reduced Animal Model (RAM) was devel­ performance testing relies on correct identification of
oped. This approach reduced the amount of computer contemporary groups. Accuracy in estimation of
memory necessary to run the genetic evaluation. genetic differences within a group of animals is
dependent on accuracy of grouping.
The theory behind RAM was developed much
earlier, but the computer technology was needed to Breeding value estimation in beef cattle has an
process large numbers of equations for many animals. important history. Developments in animal breeding
With the advances in computers, major beef breed theory and computer technology have provided beef
associations today conduct National Cattle Evalu­ cattle producers with a selection tool for comparison
ations (NCE) rather than National Sire Evaluations or ranking of individual animals within a breed. This
(NSE) because of its superiority in genetically evaluat­ selection tool is an Expected Progeny Difference
ing cattle within a breed. The beef industry had pro­ (EPD). National Cattle Evaluations conducted by
gressed into an era of computing EPDs for all animals individual beef breed associations combine pedigree,
within a breed, thus the terminology of cattle evalua­ individual records and progeny performance to
tion rather than sire evaluation was adopted. compute EPDs. The use of EPDs allows producers to
make selection decisions for beef cattle traits of
National Cattle Evaluations conducted using economic importance.
RAM procedures calculate a genetic value for an indi­
vidual within a breed, whether that individual is a
sire, dam or nonparent animal. Any combination of Breed Average EPD and Base Year
pedigree, individual records and progeny information
is included to derive breeding values for all animals in It is frequently said that an EPD is a comparison
the evaluation. The breeding values are divided by to an average bull. This is NOT an accurate statement.
two and reported as EPDs. The Animal Model A zero EPD represents the average genetic merit of

18
animals in the database at the time when there was Of all the animals with this EPD and accuracy,
sufficient information to calculate EPDs. Therefore, it two­thirds of the animals are expected to have “true”
represents a historic base point, or base year. Some progeny differences between +.7 and +3.3. These
breed associations now set the base year to a particu­ “true” differences have a much greater chance of
lar year. If the breed has made any genetic change for falling toward the center of the range defined by the
a trait, the average EPD for the trait will no longer be possible change value than falling close to the
zero. Breed associations publish the average EPDs in extremes. Also, one­third of the individuals in the
the sire summaries made available to the public. evaluation may have their “true” progeny difference
Information printed in the summaries should be values fall outside the range of +.7 and +3.3. This
examined carefully before individual EPDs are means that one­sixth of the individuals may have
studied. “true” values less than +.7 and one­sixth of the indi­
viduals may have “true” values of more than +3.3.
Accuracy
Sire summaries include a sampling of the
Accuracy is the measure of reliability associated available genetic material in each breed. The sum­
with an EPD. Each EPD value should have an accu­ maries for breed associations that conduct National
racy assigned to it. It is expressed as a value between
Cattle Evaluations come out at least once a year.
0 and 1. A high accuracy (>.7) means a higher degree
Summaries include EPDs, accuracies, graphs of the
of confidence may be placed on the EPD and the EPD
average change in EPD for the particular breed, breed
value is not expected to change much as further infor­
mation is gathered. A low accuracy (<.4) means that average EPDs, possible change values and other use­
the EPD may change a great deal as additional infor­ ful materials. Descriptive material written at the
mation is gathered. Nonparent animals have lower beginning of each summary describes the format for
accuracy values since no progeny information con­ reporting the EPDs. An example of a sire summary is
tributes to their EPD. From a practical viewpoint, the listed in Table 3­1. The example presents EPDs and
EPDs are used to select bulls for use in the herd, and accuracy values (ACC) for traits commonly found in
accuracies help determine how extensively to use the most summaries.
bulls in the herd. Some sale catalogs do not list accu­
racies with the EPDs. On young animals with no At least 18 beef breed associations currently
progeny data, such as yearling bulls, one would conduct National Cattle Evaluation programs. Almost
realize that accuracies would be low. all sire summaries include birth weight, weaning
weight, yearling weight and milk EPDs. A few cur­
rently include some characteristics that have a role in
reproduction such as calving ease, gestation length
Possible Change Value

Possible Change is the measure of the potential and scrotal circumference. Many of the breed associa­
error associated with EPD values. Many sire sum­ tions are currently working to include some of these
maries are starting to include such values. Possible other characteristics into the summaries. There is a
change is expressed as “+” or “­” pounds of EPD. fairly large effort to incorporate more carcass informa­
These values quantify the amount a certain EPD may tion. Carcass evaluations may result in EPDs for
deviate from the “true” progeny difference. Accuracy carcass weight, rib­eye area, fat thickness and
and possible change values share a relationship. As marbling score.
more information is accumulated, accuracy increases
and possible change diminished. For a given accuracy, Many of the summaries contain two listings of
the “true” progeny differences of two­thirds of all bulls. The first is a listing of progeny­proven bulls.
animals evaluated within a breed are expected to fall These are older bulls that have calves with perform­
within the plus or minus possible change value. An ance records; therefore, the accuracies on the birth
example to illustrate this point follows: and weaning weight EPDs are generally at least .5.
The second section is devoted to younger bulls that
Birth Weight EPD = +2.0 pounds have lower accuracies (.3 to .5 on weaning and birth
Accuracy = .60 weight). The criteria for listing varies among
Possible Change = + 1.3 pounds the breeds.

TABLE 3­1. Example EPDs for Two Bulls

Birth Wt. Weaning Wt. Milk Yearling Wt.
Sire
EPD ACC EPD ACC EPD ACC EPD ACC
Bull 123 +4.0 .90 +24 .90 +12 .70 +50 .80
Bull 345 +2 .35 +12 .30 +5 .40 +23 .20

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Growth Trait EPDs The EPD values are available for all animals, male
and female. Preferential mating of certain individuals
EPDs provide a prediction of future progeny does not bias the results. A genetically superior bull
performance of one individual compared to another can be mated only to genetically superior cows and
individual within a breed for a specific trait. The EPDs his EPD will not be inflated. This is accomplished by
are reported in plus or minus values in the units of adjusting for the EPDs of the cows to which he is
measurement for the trait. For example, birth, wean­ mated. Appropriate adjustments are made for genetic
ing and yearling weight EPDs are reported in pounds. trend. For example, this adjustment allows young
The EPD values may be used to compare only those bulls to be directly comparable to older bulls with
animals within a breed. In other words, the EPD many progeny records.
values for a Hereford bull may not be compared
against the EPDs for an Angus or Limousin bull. The Table 3­3 is an example of Weaning Weight EPDs.
EPD values are most useful when two individuals are It describes a weaning weight difference in the
being compared directly. For example, consider the
progeny of two bulls.
two sires in Table 3­2 and assume that both sires are
from the same breed and that the EPDs have equal TABLE 3­3. Example of Weaning Weight EPD
accuracies. Sire A Sire B
WW EPD (LBS) +25 ­10
TABLE 3­2. Example of Birth Weight EPD
Sire A Sire B The expected difference in the progeny of Sire A
BW EPD (LBS) +5 ­2 and Sire B for weaning weight is 35 pounds. Sire A
has an EPD of +25 and Sire B has an EPD of ­10. On
The expected difference in the progeny of Sire A average, we should expect the calves by Sire A to be
and Sire B for birth weight is 7 pounds. Sire A has an 35 pounds heavier at weaning than calves of Sire B, if
EPD of +5 and Sire B has an EPD of ­2. On the aver­ all the calves are exposed to the same environmental
age, we should expect the calves by Sire A to be 7 conditions and are from cows with similar genetic
pounds heavier at birth than calves of Sire B, if all the merit. Table 3­4 is an example for Yearling Weight. It
calves are managed uniformly and are from cows of describes a yearling weight difference in the progeny
similar genetic merit. The predicted performance of two bulls.
difference is 7 pounds although it is not possible to
TABLE 3­4. Example of Yearling Weight EPD
estimate the actual birth weight average for these
Sire A Sire B
calves. The EPDs allow the prediction of performance
YW EPD (LBS) +50 +10
differences, not actual performance.
The expected difference in the progeny of Sire A
Each individual member of a breed can have EPD and Sire B for yearling weight is 40 pounds. Sire A has
values calculated for it. Purebred breeders report data an EPD of +50 and Sire B has an EPD of +10. On
to the National Herd Improvement Program for their average, we should expect the calves by Sire A to be
breeds to contribute to the breed national database. 40 pounds heavier at one year of age than calves of
Age and sex of a calf or status as a parent are not Sire B, if all the calves are managed uniformly and are
limiting factors. A newborn calf could be assigned
from cows with similar genetic merit.
EPDs. It is possible to compare any two members of
the breed regardless of location, but comparisons
cannot be made across breeds. Each individual has its
Maternal Trait EPDs
own performance and the performance of progeny,
Maternal effects are an important consideration
sibs, parents, grandparents, etc., that can be utilized to
evaluate genetic merit. New animal breeding and when evaluating beef cattle performance. Extensive
computer technology result in techniques whereby the studies have been conducted to quantify maternal
performance of the animal and information on its rela­ effects for a variety of traits, especially those meas­
tives are included in the estimate of genetic merit. ured during the preweaning period. Phenotype is the
Thus, EPDs are available on parent and nonparent physical expression of the genetic makeup of an ani­
animals. This process involves extensive calculations mal. In beef cattle, the dam makes at least two contri­
which only the latest generation of computers is able butions to the offspring phenotypic value. These
to accomplish efficiently. contributions are the sample half of her genes passed

20
directly to the offspring and the maternal effect she Bull A has a direct Weaning Weight EPD of +20
provides her calf. A maternal effect is defined as any pounds. This expresses the ability of the bull to trans­
environmental influence that the dam contributes to mit weaning growth directly to his progeny. On aver­
the phenotype of her offspring. The contribution of age, calves sired by Bull A should be 16 pounds
the dam is environmental with respect to the calf heavier at weaning than calves sired by Bull B, assum­
(mothering ability, milk production, environment, ing both bulls are mated to a comparable set of
maternal instinct). The genetics of the dam allow her females and the calves are exposed to the same envi­
to create this environment for her calf. Maternal ronmental conditions. The 16­pound difference in
effects are important during the nursing period with future progeny performance is due to genes for direct
diminishing effects through post weaning. weaning growth. The Milk EPD for Bull A (+12) is the
contribution to his daughter’s calves solely through
Milk EPD transmission of genes for mothering ability. The
expected difference in the progeny from daughters of
Weaning weight can be determined by the genes Bull A and Bull B is 6 pounds. Bull A has a Milk EPD
for growth in the calf and genes for milk (mothering of +12; Bull B has a Milk EPD of +6. The expected
ability) in the cow. There are separate EPD values for weaning weight difference, due to mothering ability
these two components. The Weaning Weight EPD alone, in calves out of daughters by the two bulls is
evaluates genetic merit for growth, and the Milk EPD +6 pounds. The Combined EPD for Bull A (+22) is
evaluates genetic merit for mothering ability. The Milk computed by taking one­half the Weaning Weight
EPD that results from the separation of weaning EPD plus all the Milk EPD. The +22 pounds affect
weight into growth and milk segments is, like any both the milking ability transmitted to daughters and
other EPD, fairly simple to use. It is the expected dif­ the direct weaning growth transmitted through the
ference in weaning weight of calves from daughters of daughters to their calves. In a similar method, the
a particular sire, due to differences in mothering abil­ Combined EPD for Bull B is one­half times the
ity. As an example, consider two bulls in Table 3­5. Weaning Weight EPD plus the Milk EPD, or +8
pounds. An average difference of 14 pounds would
be expected as the difference in weaning weight of
TABLE 3­5. Example of Milk EPD
calves out of daughters of the bulls based upon the
Sire A Sire B
genetic merit for growth (WW EPD) and milk
EPD (LBS) +10 ­5 (Milk EPD).

The expected difference in the progeny from Calving Ease EPDs

daughters of Sire A and Sire B is 15 pounds. Sire A has
a Milk EPD of +10; Sire B has a Milk EPD of ­5. The Calving ease heritabilities have been reported to
expected weaning weight difference, due to mother­ be small (.00 to .13) for beef cattle. The magnitude of
ing ability alone, in calves from daughters by the two the estimates indicates that little genetic progress
bulls is 15 pounds. The 15 pounds are expressed in can be made on selecting directly for calving ease.
pounds of weaning weight, not pounds of milk. However, there are exceptions where calving ease
heritabilities have been reported to be over .46 in
Combined Maternal EPD particular studies. Some breed associations report
Calving Ease EPDs along with Birth Weight EPDs
Combined Maternal EPD (sometimes called while other associations’ reports do not include
maternal weaning weight or total maternal) reflects Calving Ease EPDs. Breed associations that report
both the milking ability transmitted to daughters and Calving Ease EPDs may present them in different
direct weaning growth transmitted through daughters formats. Be sure to study the meaning of Calving Ease
to their calves. An example is illustrated in Table 3­6. EPDs separately for each breed. Descriptive material
written at the beginning of most sire summaries
TABLE 3­6. Combined Maternal EPD should be useful in interpreting the meaning of
Calving Ease EPDs. Different breed associations may
Weaning Milk Combined
Weight EPD EPD EPD
list the calving information in different formats.

Bull A +20 +12 +22 Calving Ease EPDs are given in two ways:
Bull B +4 +6 +8 Calving Ease EPD and Maternal Calving Ease EPD.
Combined (Bull A) = 1/2(20) + 12 = 22 Calving Ease EPDs are expressed as deviation of
Combined (Bull B) = 1/2(4) + 6 = 8 percent of unassisted births.

21
 When comparing EPDs of two animals, a larger Feedlot Value ($F) is an index that includes
EPD represents a higher percent of unassisted births. adjustments associated with postweaning perform­
Calving Ease EPDs indicate the ease with which ance and predicts the variation in value between sires.
calves of a sire are born to first­calf heifers. Maternal
Calving Ease EPDs are the ease with which daughters GridValue ($G) is an index that includes adjust­
of a sire calve as first­calf heifers. These may also be
ments associated with carcass grid merit and predicts
given as the ease with which daughters of a sire calve
the variation in value between sires
as mature cows. When comparing sires, the larger
EPD represents a higher percent of unassisted births
for calves born from daughters of a bull. Beef Value ($B) is the expected average difference
in future progeny performance for postweaning and
Milk EPDs are widely available from beef cattle carcass value compared to progeny of other sires. The
breeds. The values are expressed in pounds of wean­ $B value combines the contributions of $F and $G.
ing weight. Direct comparisons of Milk EPDs may be
made between individuals within a breed. The Milk The values are not designed to be driven by a
EPD is the expected difference in weaning weight of single trait, as an index is multi­trait by design.
calves from daughters of a bull compared with calves These selection tools are the result of the application
from daughters of another bull, due to mothering abil­ of industry­relevant market values to genetics for
ity. Beef producers may use Milk EPDs as part of their
preweaning, feedlot and carcass merit. These values
selection program when choosing bulls to sire replace­
ment heifers for their herd. should be used to complement the criteria that
producers already use when selecting bulls. These
The Combined Maternal EPD is another value are $ indexes reported by the American Angus
available for use in sire selection. It is the sum of one­ Association. However, many breed associations are
half the Weaning Weight EPD plus all the Milk EPD. now reporting $ index values, and some come with
The Combined Maternal EPD reflects both the different definitions than the ones that are listed here.
mothering ability transmitted to daughters and direct It is very important to evaluate the sire summary to
weaning growth transmitted through daughters to understand each value that is associated with your
their calves. Calving Ease EPDs are available and are breed of interest.
correlated with BW EPD. Details about these values
and their use should be studied before selection
decisions are made.
Use of EPDs
Use of EPDs for Selection in
$Value Indexes Purebred Herds
These values are multi­trait selection indexes, Purebred producers need to consider EPDs in
expressed in dollars per head, to assist beef producers their breeding programs. Competitors are using EPDs
by adding simplicity to genetic selection decisions.
and making genetic change in their beef herds.
A $Value has meaning only when used in comparison
to the $Value of another animal. For example (Table However, care needs to be exercised when making
3­7), just as with EPDs, variation in $Values between selection decisions. Type fads have caused some prob­
animals indicates average expected differences in lems in the past when single traits have been empha­
the relative value of progeny if random mating is sized. Similar, or worse, problems may arise if a single
assumed and the calves are exposed to the same performance trait is emphasized. For example, if the
environment. members of one breed association began to emphasize
yearling weight and ignored all other characteristics,
TABLE 3­7. $Value EPD several concerns might arise. Birth weight would be
$W $F $G $B expected to increase, with the attendant calving diffi­
+22.36 +14.26 +12.53 +26.25
culty. Mature size should also increase, perhaps to the
point where the functionality of the cow herd would
diminish. This could also lead to problems in reaching
Weaned Calf Value ($W) is an index expressed in
dollars per head. This is the expected average differ­ desirable quality grade at an acceptable weight. Each
ence in future progeny performance for preweaning trait has a set of drawbacks if changes are carried to
merit. $W includes both revenue and cost adjustment an extreme. The availability of EPDs would make
associated with differences in birth weight, weaning such extremes easier to achieve if breeders chose to
direct growth, maternal milk and mature cow size. blindly emphasize a single trait.

22
 A more balanced selection program is certainly A commercial producer has a major responsibility
desirable. Some producers recommend choosing herd of choosing the appropriate breed, or breeds, for
sires that have a balanced yearling weight EPD, milk his/her program. Once breeds are chosen, examina­
EPD and birth weight EPD. It also needs to be recog­ tion of what is needed in replacement breeding stock
nized that there are still many important traits that are is in order. Some recommendations for commercial
not included in the sire summaries. Careful monitor­ scenarios are shown in Table 3­8.
ing of reproductive performance, conception rates,
calf mortality, regularity of calving and libido in bulls Each of these recommendations should be
is critically important. Carcass characteristics may followed while at the same time considering the
have increased importance in the near future; there­ prevailing conditions. Rougher conditions probably
fore, breeders are encouraged to obtain whatever dictate the need to avoid very high EPDs for growth
carcass data is feasible and use it in making some or milk and even more to avoid high birth weights.
selection decisions. Carcass EPDs should be available Growth EPDs should be geared to the needs of the
in several breeds soon, but more complete databases potential buyers. Also, traits for which there are no
need to be established. EPDs as yet can be important. Traits associated
with reproduction certainly fall into this category.
Most beef breed associations have EPDs. Purebred Commercial producers should demand that the
breeders should obtain EPDs on each member of seller’s bulls should have passed a breeding sound­
their herd if their association provides the service. ness examination.
Although the accuracies are sometimes low on these
EPDs within a breed are directly comparable
EPDs, they should be used when choosing replace­
between herds. Therefore, if a commercial producer
ments and, where possible, when culling cows.
has more than one source of breeding stock, he/she
Purebred producers are not only users of EPDs, but
can compare the genetic merit of the different sources.
they also provide the data used in calculating EPDs.
Producers are encouraged strongly to provide com­
plete, accurate records on all calves born each year.
Pedigree Estimated EPDs
Complete, accurate record keeping is the only way
Many sale catalogs will contain Expected Progeny
that useful EPDs can be calculated.
Differences (EPDs) for the bulls offered for sale. Some
bulls will appear in catalogs with limited or no EPD
information. This may be particularly true for young
Use of EPDs for Selection in
bulls that have not had their performance information
Commercial Herds
Commercial producers should be using bulls that included in the breed genetic evaluation yet. Bull buy­
are listed in a breed association’s sire summary. What ers may use a quick and easy procedure to compute
then should the commercial producer do about EPDs “Pedigree EPD” values for young bulls with no EPDs.
of their progeny? Many breed associations have a
mechanism in place where individual purebred pro­ Pedigree EPDs may be computed provided that
ducers can obtain EPDs on each animal in their herd you have access to EPDs on the animals in the pedi­
including the calves. Commercial producers should gree of the young bull. By using the EPDs on animals
demand the information from their purebred breeding in the young bull’s pedigree, you are ready to com­
stock sources. pute Pedigree EPDs. Each calf receives a random

TABLE 3­8. Recommendations for EPDs for Various Commercial Scenarios

Use of Individual Breed Birth Weaning Yearling Milk

Terminal sire on mature cows Large carcass Not too high High High Not relevant

Bull to use with heifers Small to medium size Low Moderate Moderate Consider, if
keeping heifers

Sire replacement heifers Medium size Low to Moderate to Moderate to Varies

maternal moderate high high

23
sample half of the sire’s genes and a random sample This technology can be used to help decide which
half of the dam’s genes. The two halves combine to bulls should be of value, as an early sorting stick of
form the complete genetic makeup of the calf. Parents such. It will add value for commercial bull buyers
of the calf also receive their genetic makeup in the because it can correct potential pedigree errors and
same way, with half of their genetic makeup con­ increase the accuracy of EPDs on young animals. Use
tributed by each of their parents. By understanding of EPDs will not change and remains the industry
this halving nature of inheritance, the EPDs on par­ standard, but this technology is a means of mitigating
ents and grandparents in the pedigree of a young bull risk by increasing the confidence of the EPD of young
may be used to compute Pedigree EPDs. sires. Essentially animals will have the accuracy value
that is typically associated with animals that have
Across-Breed EPDs already had calves.

Since the inception of EPDs, it was easy to make Genomic performance testing is currently avail­
bull comparisons within the same breed for selection able through Zoetis (GeneMax Advantage) and
decisions. Today that is still the case. However, the Neogen (Igenity and GeneSeek). Testing includes
U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (MARC) in Clay genetic markers for maternal, growth and carcass
Center, Nebraska, has made it possible to compare traits. Results are often represented as scores.
EPDs among different breeds. MARC has released a
table of adjustment factors used to estimate across­ Genomic defect testing is now required by many
breed expected progeny differences (AB­EPDs) for breed associations for offspring of a sire or dam that is
18 breeds. Bulls of different breeds can be compared a known carrier of a genetic defect such as curly calf
on the same EPD scale by adding the appropriate syndrome or calves born hairless.
adjustment factor to the EPDs being evaluated.

Genetic Testing
Improvements in genomic technology have now
made it possible to further enhance predictability of
our current selection tools with the incorporation of
genomic values into our genetic evaluations and
thereby improving accuracy of EPD, particularly for
younger animals. Hair follicles, blood card, semen or
tissue notches are required for samples in the DNA
test kits. DNA tests, however, do not replace the
importance of collecting actual phenotypic data.

24