SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY CLASS: SS 1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1 REVISION / MOUNTAINS
2 PLATEAUX
3-4 LOWLAND (PLAINS)
5 THE ENVIRONMENT
6-7 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
8 COMPONENTS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
9 INTRODUCTION TO MAP READING: DEFINITION, TYPES
OF MAP, AND SCALE
10 MAP DISTANCES (CONVERSION, DIRECTION AND BEARING)
11 REVISION

REFERENCE MATERIAL
Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools, O.A. Iwena.

WEEK ONE
TOPIC: MOUNTAINS
Mountains are great elevated land surfaces resulting from intense action of internal forces. They have
steep slopes and show distinct peaks. Mountains are classified according to their mode of formation,
resulting in four major types of mountains. These are (i) Fold mountain (ii) Block Mountain (iii)
Volcanic Mountain (iv) Residual mountain
(a) Fold Mountains

Characteristics: They contain old hard rocks with steep sides. They have wrinkling or folding
appearance and show distinct peaks of great heights. Fold Mountains exist in layered form. They are
soft, and have anticlines and synclines.
Folding shortens the earth’s crust. They form most wide spread type of Mountains and are noted for
active volcanoes. They form the highest Mountain ranges. Examples of Fold Mountains include
Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, Alps and Atlas Mountains.

Mode of formation: They are formed by large-scale horizontal earth movement as a result of stress
and compressional forces which cause expansion or contraction of some parts of the earth. Such
stresses therefore subject the rocks to compressional forces.
The compressional forces produce wrinkling or folding of the earth. The up folds of the wrinkles are
anticlines while the down folds are called syncline.
A fold may be simple, but where the compressional forces are complex, it results in asymmetrical
folding. When pushed further, it forms an over-fold. An over-fold later forms a recumbent fold. In
some cases, faults or cracks result in extreme folding to form over thrust fold.

Evaluation Questions
1. What is a mountain?
2. State the types of mountains.

(b) Block Mountains

Characteristics: Block Mountains are made up of old hard rocks with flat or slightly sloping
surfaces. They have steep sides. They are associated with rift valleys. Examples of Block Mountains
include Hunsruck Mountain, Voges Mountain and the Black Forest of the Rhine land. Example
of rift valley is the East African rift valley system which is about 4.800km.
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Mode of formation: Block Mountains are formed when the earth cracks due to faulting. Faulting
may result from tensional forces or compressional forces. Tensional forces are those that tend to pull
the earth’s crust apart and they result in a normal fault while the Compressional forces are those that
shorten the crust to produce a reverse or thrust fault. Therefore, if a block of rock between two
normal faults rises or the land on either sides of the block subsides, a Block mountain or Horst is
formed. At times, a block in between two faults may subside so that rift valley or graben is formed.
The slopes and height of Block Mountains are modified by agents of denudation.

Evaluation Questions:
1. Mention any three types of mountain.
2. Block mountain is also called......
3. Rift valley is associated with …….Mountain?

(c) Volcanic Mountain

Characteristics: Volcanic Mountains are made up of lava. They have irregular sides with conical
shape. Materials that make up volcanic mountains include ash, volcanic bombs, and cinders which are
arranged in layers. Examples include Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt Kilimanjaro,
Kenya, Elgon, Ruwenzori and Cameroon (all in Africa).

Mode of formation: Volcanic Mountains are formed from volcanoes which are built from materials
(molten magma) ejected through fissures or vents in the earth’s crust. The materials also include
molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ash, dust and liquid mud. They fall around the vent in
successive layers, building up an extensive volcanic cone. Volcanic mountains are also called
mountain of accumulation.

(d) Residual Mountain

Characteristic: Residual Mountains are formed from the remains of already existing mountains.
They have irregular surfaces with steep sides. They occur in varying heights and sizes and are caused
by agents of denudation. Examples include Mt Manodnock (U.S.A), Highlands of Scotland,
Highlands of Scandinavia and Decon Plateau.

Mode of formation: Residual Mountains are formed from already existing mountains which are
lowered or reduced by agents of denudation such as running water, ice and wind. Residual mountains
are therefore, the remains of the existing mountains. Some hard and very resistant parts of the existing
mountains remain after the lowering of the upper part. This remaining part is called residual
mountain which is also called mountain of denudation.
Importance or uses of mountains
1. Sources of minerals. 2. Formation of rainfall.
3. For transhumance. 4. Climatic barriers.
5. For defence. 6. As tourist centers.
7. Construction of Hydro-Electric Power. 8. As wind-breaks.

Disadvantages of Mountains
1. Barriers to Communication.
2. Prevent Human Habitation.
3. Mountains Promote Soil Erosion.
4. Mountains Occupy good land that could have been used for other useful things.
5. Mountains soil is poor in nutrients.

Evaluation Questions:
1. Volcanic and residual mountains are also called……… and………….
2. Mention two examples of a volcanic mountain.

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WEEK TWO
TOPIC: PLATEAUX
Plateaux are elevated uplands. They have extensive flat or level surfaces which usually descend
sharply to the surrounding lowland. It has gentle slope. They are often referred to as table lands
because of their flat or level surfaces. Plateaus are tabular in shape, steep-sided with rough and
irregular surface. They have narrow valleys and sometimes used for hydrological centers. Mesas and
buttes may be present.
Most Plateaux are relics of ancient mountain ranges.
Types of Plateau
(i) Tectonic Plateau (ii) Volcanic Plateau (iii) Dissected Plateau
(a) Tectonic Plateaux
Mode of Formation: These plateaux are formed as a result of earth movement which causes the
uplift of some areas and the depression of others. Uplifted areas of level or undulating land form
tectonic plateau and the depressed area form basins.
Tectonic plateau are two types (i) Table Land and Intermont. Examples of Tectonic Plateau include
Decan plateau (India), Harz (Germany), and Mesetal (Liberia). Intermont is formed when the
uplifted areas are enclosed by fold mountains e.g. Tibetan plateau between Himalayas and Kunlun,
and Bolivia plateau.

(b) Volcanic or Lava Plateau

Mode of Formation: These plateaus are formed when molten lava comes out of the earth’s crust
through a vent and spreads out in successive layers. The lava cools solidifies to form volcanic or lava
plateau. Examples include Antrim plateau of Northern Ireland and Columbia Snake Plateau.

Evaluation Questions:
1. What is a plateau?
2. How is tectonic plateau formed?
3. Mention the two types of tectonic plateau.

(c) Dissected Plateau

Mode of Formation: These plateaux are formed due to weathering and agents of denudation such as
running water, wind, ice etc which wear down large and extensive plateau into remnant structures of
irregular surface called dissected plateau. They may also be formed as a result of uplift. Examples
include Jos Plateau (Nigeria), edges of Fouta Djallon Plateau (Guinea) and Kumasi Plateau
(Ghana).

Importance or Uses of Plateau

(1) Some plateaux are sources of valuable mineral like tin, gold, diamond, etc. which are useful
to man.
(2) Some plateaux are centers of tourist attraction.
(3) Some plateaux are sources of rivers.
(4) Some plateaux like Jos plateau, have cold climate which encourages settlement of people.
(5) Most plateaux, due to their cold climate and fertility, promote some specialization farming
which gives rise to the cultivation of specific crops.
(6) Plateaux also support the growth of pasture grasses and legumes which support the rearing of
animals e.g. cattle, sheep and goat.

Disadvantages of Plateaux
(1) Some plateaux are barriers to communication as they prevent road, railway and airport
construction.
(2) Some plateaux are associated with erosion which tends to reduce or prevent serious farming
activities.

Evaluation Questions:
1. When will a plateau be regarded as dissected?
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2. Give two examples of a dissected plateau.

WEEK THREE AND FOUR

TOPIC: LOWLAND (PLAINS)
A plain is an extensive area of level or gentle undulating land, usually a few meters above the sea-
level.
Types of Plains
(i) Structural Plain (ii) Erosional Plain (iii) Depositional Plain
(1) Structural Plains
Mode of Formation: These are relatively undisturbed horizontal surface of the earth, formed by
bedded sedimentary rocks. Examples include the Russian Platform and the Great Plains of the
U.S.A.

(2) Erosional Plains

Mode of Formation: These plains are formed by the agents of denudation such as river, wind, rain,
glacier and ocean waves which wear out irregular rock surface and smoothen them into plain
known as erosional plains. Plain, resulting from the action of these agents of denudation are
called peneplains while those formed when wind blows and reduces a highland to a flat or
level but a gentle land is called pediplain. Examples of erosional plains include Canadian
Shield, Reg and Hamada of Sahara desert.

Evaluaton Questions:
1. What is a plain?
2. State the types of plain.

(3) Depositional Plain

Mode of formation: These are plains formed by the deposition of materials or sediments transported
by the various agents of transportation such as river, wind, wave and glacier.
Depositional plains are grouped into the following categories:
(a) Alluvial Plains (b) Flood Plains
(c) Deltaic Plains (d) Outwash Plain
(e) Aeolian Plains (f) Lacustrine Plains
(g) Coastal Plains

Importance or Uses of Plains

(1) Plains, especially level ones are good for human habitation. Population and settlements are
usually concentrated on plains.
(2) Some plains are rich sources of minerals like petroleum and coal.
(3) Plains, especially depositional plains are rich fertile soils which favour intensive agriculture.
(4) Plains generally favour construction of roads, railway and airport.
(5) In areas of low rainfall, rearing of animals are carried out in plains as they favour the growth
of pasture.
(6) Rivers in plains provide water for drinking and transportation.
(7) Rivers in plains provide jobs e.g. fishing.

Disadvantages of Plain
(1) Some plains, especially in delta areas may be flooded with water and this reduces human
activities.
(2) Some may pose serious barrier to communication, especially water either from river or after
rain. It therefore increases the cost of developing such areas e.g. construction of flyovers.

Evaluaton Questions:
1. Explain depositional plain.
2. State the uses of plain.

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 WEEK FIVE
TOPIC: THE ENVIRONMENT
Environment is defined as the total surrounding or medium of any organism in a given area. This
include the physical surroundings, climatic factors and other living organisms in that surrounding.

SPHERES OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The earth as an environment is grouped into four spheres:
i. Lithosphere: The solid portion of the environment which contains rocks, sand, soil, minerals
etc.
ii. Hydrosphere: This is the liquid portion of the environment like rivers, lakes and oceans.
iii. Atmosphere: This is the gaseous portion of the environment where gases like oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, ozone are found.
iv. Biosphere: This is the portion of the environment where plants and animals are found.
These four spheres of the environment are interrelated and interdependent on each other.

EVALUATION:
1. What is an environment?
2. State the components of the environment.

ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is defined as the community of plants and animals living together in
harmony and interacting with their physical environment.
In other word, an ecosystem can be defined as the relationship that exists between living things and
their non-living environment.

Components of Ecosystem
The ecosystem is made up of two main components. These are:
(a) Abiotic (non-living) component: These are the components like soil, water, gases, sunlight etc
in the environment.
(b) Biotic component: This is the living component of the ecosystem. It includes plants and
animals.

Biotic components can be grouped into three:

(1) Autotrophs: These are also called the producers. They include the green plants which
manufacture their own food through a process known as photosynthesis.
(2) Heterotrophs: These are called primary and secondary consumers. These organisms cannot
manufacture their own food but depend directly or indirectly on plants for their food e.g. man,
parasites, saprophytes.
(3) Decomposers: These are micro – organisms that decompose dead organic matter in order to
release nutrients required by producers to prepare their food e.g. Fungi and bacteria.

INTERDEPENDENCE WITHIN THE ECOSYSTEM

Interdependence is used to describe the relationship between the components of the ecosystem. This
is because components in an ecosystem depend on one another and they cannot exist in isolation. A
state of inter-dependence within the ecosystem is best achieved where the components are
undisturbed.

Inter-dependence in an ecosystem exist in three ways:

(1) Interdependence within Abiotic components e.g. The weathering of rock to form soil or the
evaporation of water to form cloud etc.
(2) Interdependence within Biotic components e.g. Animals depend on plants for food or the
exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide by plants and animals.

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(3) Interdependence between the biotic and abiotic components e.g. plants depend on soil for
support and nutrients, Autotrophs convert sunlight to energy, water and carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis to produce food etc.

EVALUATION
1. Define an ecosystem.
2. State the components of an ecosystem.
3. Explain the interdependence within an ecosystem.

ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCE
Environmental balance refers to the ways of recycling matter and the flow of energy within an
ecosystem in order to ensure continuous supply or availability of energy.

Environmental balance is achieved through the following processes:

(i) Hydrological (water) Cycle
(ii) Carbon Cycle
(iii) Nitrogen Cycle
(iv) Mineral or Nutrient Cycle
(v) Food Chain and Food Web.

WEEK SIX AND SEVEN

TOPIC: WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is defined as the condition of the atmosphere of a place at a certain time or within a short
period. The weather of a place is always very brief and changes regularly e.g. the weather of a day
could be sunny, rainy or cloudy etc.

Climate is defined as the average atmospheric condition of an area over a long period of time. Unlike
weather, climate of a place lasts for a very long time before it can change.

Elements of Weather and Climate

The elements of weather and climate include:
(i) Temperature (ii) Rainfall
(iii) Wind (iv) Pressure
(v) Relative humidity (vi) Cloud cover
(vii) Sunshine

Climate varies from one part of the world to another due to the effects of the following factors:
1. Latitude [Link]
3. Continentally or distance from the sea [Link] currents
5. Planetary winds and pressure belts [Link] and aspect
7. Cloud cover [Link] vegetation and soil

Evaluation Questions:
1. What is weather?
2. Differentiate between weather and climate.

Importance of weather and climate to man

1 Human settlement: Weather and climate affect the rate at which human being live in a place.
2. Health: Humid or damp environment encourage the growth of micro-organisms which cause
diseases hence, death rate is higher in the tropical region than in the temperate countries.
3. Environment hazards: Hazards like soil erosion, rain storm, flood and drought are caused by
differences in weather and climate.
4. Vegetation: Temperature and rainfall are the major determinant of the type of vegetation in an
area which could be light or thick.
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5. Clothing: The type and nature of clothing worn by different people in different part of the
world is due to the differences in climate. Cold climate requires black and thick dresses while
hot climate requires light dresses.
6. Housing: The type and nature of houses built in different places is also influenced by
differences in climate. E.g. hot region requires air-condition houses whereas, polar region do
not.
7. Agriculture: Rainfall and temperature are important elements that determine the type of crops
to be cultivated in an area.
8 Soil Formation: Soil is formed from parent rocks which have been broken by elements of
weather and climate. The rate of disintegration of rocks to form soil is principally a factor of
climate.
9. Communication and Transportation: The type of transportation used in an area is greatly
influenced by weather and climate.
10. Occupation: The climate of a place does determine the occupation of the people in that
particular region. E.g. People living in equatorial type of climate are more likely to be
involved in cash crop farming and lumbering of hardwood.
11 Cultural Activities: The climate of a place can also affect the cultural activities of some
people e.g. winter or summer sports.
12. Health: The health status of a particular area can be determined by the type of climate. The
sub –tropical climate is said to favour the breeding of mosquitoes, which causes malaria
fever.

Evaluation Questions:
1. Mention any four elements of weather and climate.
2. State any three importance of weather and climate to man.

KEEPING WEATHER RECORDS AND INSTRUMENTS

Measurement of Rainfall
An instrument called Rain-gauge is used in measuring rainfall.
Description: A rain gauge consists of a metal funnel that leads to a glass bottle enclosed within a
copper cylinder .The gauge is usually erected high above the ground to avoid splashing and it is sited
far away from buildings and tall trees that might shelter it. The rain gauge must be examined every
day and daily records taken. Record is taken by removing the funnel and the contents of the glass
bottle are emptied into the measuring cylinder.
Formula
(1) Mean monthly rainfall =
Add total rainfall for the month
No of days in the month

(2) Annual rainfall = Add the total rainfall (Jan-Dec)

(3) Annual range of rainfall

= Month with - month with
highest rainfall lowest rainfall

(4) Mean annual rainfall =

Total rainfall (Jan- Dec)
12
(5) Highest rainfall = Month with the highest rainfall

(6) Lowest rainfall = Month with the lowest rainfall

Example: Calculate (i) month with the lowest rainfall (ii) month with the highest rainfall
(iii) annual rainfall (iv) annual range of rainfall (v) mean annual rainfall using the table below:
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
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 Rainfal 10 80 20 18 5 50 45 40 90 20 50 40
l
Solutions
(i) Month with the lowest rainfall = May (5cm)
(ii) Month with the highest rainfall = September (90 cm)
(iii) Annual rainfall = Total rainfall for 12 months.
= 10 + 80 + 20 + 18 …+ 50 + 40 = 468 cm
(iv) Annual range of rainfall = 90 - 5 = 85 cm
(v) Mean annual rainfall =
Total rainfall for 12 months
12
= 468 = 39 cm
12

Measurement of Temperature
An instrument called Thermometer measures the temperature of a place.
Description: The thermometer is a narrow glass tube filled with mercury or alcohol. It works on the
principle that mercury and alcohol expand when heated and contract when cooled. Temperature is
commonly recorded in centigrade ( oC) or Fahrenheit (oF) scale. The freezing (lowest) point for
centigrade scale is 0oc while Fahrenheit is 320F. The boiling (or highest) point for centigrade scale is
100oC while that of the Fahrenheit is 212oF. It is possible to convert from one scale to another.
Geographers are interested in shade temperatures which is the temperature of the air to exclude the
intensity of the suns radiant heat. To get accurate records, thermometers are kept in a standard shelter
called Stevenson Screen to protect it from the effects of radiant heat of the sun and rain. The
Stevenson screen is a wooden box raised above the ground to a height of 4ft or [Link] measure the
maximum and minimum temperatures of the day, a combined maximum and minimum
thermometers are used.

Calculations:
Formulae
(i) Mean daily temperature = Max. temp. + Mini temp. for a day
2
(ii) Diurnal range of temperature = Max. temp – Mini. Temp that day
(iii) Monthly range of temperature = Difference between the hottest and the coldest daily
temperature for the month.
(iv) Annual temperature = temperature of the hottest month - temperature of the coldest
month.
(v) Annual temperature = Total temperature (Jan – Dec)
(vi) Mean Annual Temperature = total temp (Jan – Dec)
12

Example: Calculate using the table below

(i) The month with the highest temperature
(ii) The month with the lowest temperature
(iii) Annual range of temperature
(iv) Annual temperature
(v) Mean annual temperature
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
o
Tem.(0 ) 40 30 21 25 10 40 48 30 25 30 20 15

Solutions
(i) Month with the highest temperature = July (48oc)
(ii) Month with the lowest temperature = May (10oc)
(iii) Annual range of temperature = temp of the hottest month – Temp of coldest

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 = 48oc – 10oc
= 38oc
(iv) Annual temperature = Total temp.(Jan – Dec) = 40 + 30 + 21
+…… + 30 + 20 + 15
= 334oc
(v) Mean annual temperature = Total temp (Jan – Dec)
12
= 334
12
= 27.8oc
Measurement of Wind
Wind has direction and speed. The direction of wind is measured by an instrument called Wind
Vane while the speed of the wind is measured by a different instrument called Anemometer.
Description: (a) Wind vane: wind vane is made up of two parts – one part is the arrow or vane on
the top, which is free to move with the prevailing wind. The other part is stationary and consists of a
frame and four compass points. The vane or arrow points to the direction from which the wind is
blowing so that wind is named from the direction it blows eg South West Wind blows from South
West direction. Wind vane is located in an exposed position so that tall buildings and trees do not
deflect the wind direction.
(b) Anemometer: This consists of three or four semi-circular cups attached to the ends of
horizontal spokes mounted on a high vertical spindle. As the wind blows, the cups rotate. The higher
the speed of the wind, the greater the speed of the cups and vice versa.

Measurement of pressure
The instrument used in measuring atmospheric pressure is called Barometer. Pressure is measured in
unit of force called milibars A normal atmospheric pressure shows a reading of 760mm (76cm) or
1013 millibars. Mercury barometer consists of a beaker in which a glass tube is dipped and both
contain mercury. Another instrument used for measuring pressure is the aneroid barometer. But a
modified aneroid barometer used in aeroplanes is called Altimeter.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

The instrument used for measuring relative humidity is called Hygrometer.
Description: The hygrometer consists of wet and dry-bulb thermometers placed side by side in the
stevension screen. The dry bulb is an ordinary thermometer that measures the shade temperature. The
wet-bulb is kept by a wick that is dipped in a container of distilled water. When the air is not
saturated, evaporation, which produces a cooling effect, takes place from the moist wick. The wet
bulb always shows a lower reading than the dry bulb. The difference in the two readings, if high,
indicates low humidity and if low, indicates high humidity. If there is no difference in their
readings, it means that the air is saturated and therefore, the relative humidity would be 100 %.

Evaluation Questions:
How do we calculate:
1. Annual range of temperature?
2. Mean annual range of temperature?
3. Mean monthly rainfall?

WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: COMPONENTS OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze,
manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data.

The acronym GIS is sometimes used for Geographical Information Science or Geospatial
Information Studies to refer to the academic discipline or career of working with
geographic information systems and is a large domain within the broader academic discipline
of Geoinformatics.
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In general, GIS describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and
displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive
queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results
of all these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts,
applications, and systems.

SOURCES OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA

1. Satellite images
2. Existing maps
3. Land survey
4. Socio-economic statistical records
5. Aerial photographs
6. Field work or survey

COMPONENTS OF GIS
Geographic Information System has five key components which are:
- Hardware e.g keyboard, CPU, mouse, hard disk e.t.c
- Software e.g Microsoft word, corel draw, Microsoft excel, computer games e.t.c
- Data
- People: these are the people who design and maintain the system and they also develop plans
for applying it.
- Method: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules.

WEEK NINE
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO MAP READING
Map reading aspect of geography is often referred to as Practical Geography. Map work or map
reading involves the ability to recognize conventional signs on a map and using the signs to interpret
the map.

A map is a representation of the earth’s surface as it is seen from above on a paper. A large area of
land e.g. town, village or even a whole country can be represented on one page of paper.

Maps are of different types. They include (i) Topographical Maps (ii) Atlas Maps (iii) Plan Maps and
(iv) Sketch Maps

MAP SCALE:
The Scale of a map indicates the relationship between the distance of two points on a map and the
actual distance on the ground. That is, map scale is the ratio, proportion or relationship between
measurement on the map and the actual measurement on the ground. If the scale of a map is 2cm to
1km, it means that two centimeters on a map represent one kilometer on the ground.

TYPES OF SCALE: We have three types of scale. They include Statement scale, Linear scale and
Representative scale.
A) Statement Scale
This is a scale that is given in form of a statement and figures e.g 1cm to 2km (means 1cm on the map
represents 2km on ground), 2cm to 1km (means 2cm on map is equal to 1km on ground).
Question: If the scale of a map is 2cm to 1km, what is the ground distance if the distance between
two towns, on the map is 10cm?
Solution
Map distance = 10cm
Ground distance =?
Map scale = 2cm to 1km
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Since 2 cm = 1km
10 x 1 =?
10 x 1 = 2 x x (cross multiply)
10 = 2x
: .x = 10= 5km
2

Evaluaton Questions:
1. Explain map work.
2. What is a scale?
3. State the types of scale.

B) Linear Scale: This is a line drawn to represent the relationship between the distances on the
map and that of the actual distance on the ground. Linear scale is divided into two parts:
primary divisions and secondary divisions. The primary division is the major division on the
right side while the secondary division is the minor division on the left.

HOW TO USE LINEAR SCALE

(i) Measure the distance between the two places requested on the map either with a ruler or a
thread.
(ii) Take the distance measured in cm or inches to the scale and begin the measurement from the
Origin marked zero (0) and stretch it to the right (Primary division). Where it ends represents
the distance on the ground either in km or in miles.
(iii) If the length is longer than the scale, first record the distance where the scale ends and then
measure the remaining part again starting from zero (0) to the right and finally mark where
the distance ends. Later add the first measurement with the last one.
(iv) If any fraction is left which is far smaller than the major division, such fraction is taken to the
Secondary division starting from zero (0) to the left. This length is finally added to the first.

C) Representative Fraction: Here, the scale is expressed in form of a fraction or ratio. Thus, the
distance on the map is the numerator and is always one (1) while the denominator stands for
the distance on the ground. Both the numerator and the denominator are in the same unit.
E.g. 1: 100,000 1: 50,000 1: 200,000 etc
Note: 1: 100,000 is the same as 1 cm to 1km while 1:50,000 is the same as 2cm to 1km or 1cm to
1
/2km
How to use Representative Fraction
(i) Note the two places involved
(ii) Measure the distance between the two places
(iii) Relate the distance measured to the scale
Question: If the scale of a map is 1:50,000, What is the ground distance if the distance between two
towns on the map is 10cm?
Solution
Map distance = 10cm
Ground distance =?
Map scale = 1:50,000
= 1cm = ½ km
: 10cm = 5km
Ans = 5km

SIZE OF A SCALE
The size of a scale may be large or small
A) Small Scale Map: This shows a large area but cannot include a great amount of details. Only
very important features are shown.
The larger the denominator of a scale, the smaller the scale E.g. 1:1,000,000 1: 2,000,000,
1:250,000 etc
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B) Large Scale Map: This shows a small area but with more details of the area and also
important features are shown. The smaller the denominator of a scale, the larger the scale e.g.
1:5,000, 1:250 and 1: 20 etc

Evaluaton Question
Arrange the following scales in descending order: 1: 50,000 1:20,000 1: 200
1:3 000,000 1:500,000

WEEK TEN
TOPIC: MAP DISTANCES
Distance on a map is the interval between two points on a map. It can either be straight or curved.

MEASUREMENT OF STRAIGHT DISTANCES

(i) Locate the places involved on the map.
(ii) Use long ruler to measure the distance between the two points or places.
(iii) Relate the distance measured on the map to the scale given and get the ground distance.
MEASUREMENT OF CURVE DISTANCES
This can be done through three methods:
(i) The use of a pair of divider.
(ii) The use of a piece of thread.
(iii) The use of straight edge of a paper.

Among the three methods, the easiest and the best is the use of thread.
Use of a piece of thread: Stretch a piece of white thread along the route or curve that is to be
measured gradually, carefully and accurately. Carefully follow the curve and do not allow the thread
to move out of the curve. Mark the end of the distance on the thread with a biro or a pencil and
transfer it to the linear scale or calculate the distance in statement or R.F Scale.

Evaluation Questions:
1. What is a distance?
2. How do we measure distance on map?

DIRECTION: The direction of one place or object from another is expressed by means of compass
points or cardinal points. There are 4 cardinal points namely: North, South, East and West. But for
better accuracy in the measurement of direction, eight cardinal points are used. These include North,
North-East, North-West, South,
South-East, South-West, East and West.
N
NW NE

W E

SW SE
S

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 12

PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING DIRECTION
(i) Locate the two places involved on the map.
(ii) Place your four cardinal points at the location or places given.
(iii) Use your ruler to join the place you wish to find its direction from the location or reference
point.
(iv) The cardinal point on that line or near it is the direction.

BEARING: The location of one place from another is described as its bearing.
Bearing is expressed in degrees using a protractor, measured from North in a clockwise direction.
Procedures for Measuring Bearing
(i) Locate the two places involved on the map.
(ii) Place your four cardinal points at the reference point because you are looking for the bearing
of the other town.
(iii) Use your ruler to join the two places.
(iv) Place your protractor on the side of the line and the degrees which falls on that line represents
the bearing.

Evaluation Questions
1. Differentiate between location and bearing.
2. Explain the method of measuring bearing.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 13

 SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: PHYSICS CLASS: SS

1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Heat Energy, Concept of Heat and Temperature, Effects of Heat and Uses
2. Thermometer and Its Type, Evaporation and Boiling
3. Expansion of Solid, Effect and Applications of Expansion
4. Expansivity and Its Application – Linear, Area and Volume. Anomalous Expansion
of Water. Real and Apparent Expansivity
5. Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Their Applications
6. Electric Charges – Production, Types, Distribution and Storage
7. Gold Leaf Electroscope and its Uses. Lighting and Lighting Conductor
8. Fields – Concept and Types of Field. Gravitational and Magnetic Field, Force of
Gravity
9. Electric Field – Line of Forces, Properties of Line of Force, Description and
Properties of Force Field
10. Production of Continuous Electric Current

REFERENCE BOOK
 New School Physics By M.W Anyakoha
 Senior Secondary School Physics By P.N Okeke

WEEK ONE
TOPIC: Heat Energy, Concept of Heat and Temperature and Effects of Heat
CONTENT
 Concept of Heat
 Temperature
 Effect of Heat on bodies.
Concept of Heat
Heat is a concept of physics that deals with the study of relative motion of fluid (liquid and gas) from
one body to another. It is a form of energy that can be transferred from one body due to temperature
differences.

Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a body or an object. It is a scalar quantity,
measured in Kelvin. Heat and Temperature are similar but not the same

Differences between Heat and Temperature

1. Heat is a measure of the total internal energy of a body while temperature is the degree of
hotness or coldness of the body.
2. Heat takes place due to temperature difference while temperature occurs due to slight change
of substance.
3. Heat is measured in joules while temperature is measured in Kelvin / Celsius.

Effect of Heat
When heat is applied to a body the following effect may occur
1. Expansion: when heat is applied, volumes increases while density decreases.
2. Change in temperature: When heat is added on a body, the temperature increases
3. Change of state: melting, freezing, condensation, evaporation etc.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 14

 4. Thermion emission: Addition of heat on metal may result in the emission of electron from the
surface of the metal
5. Photo electric emission: The emission of electron when sufficient light of high frequency is
illuminated on a metal surface e.g. zinc plate.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between heat and temperature.
2. Mention five effect of heat.

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: Thermometer and Its Type. Evaporation and Boiling
CONTENT
 Thermometer and Their Thermometric Substance
 Fixed Point of Thermometer
 Evaporation and Boiling

Thermometer and Their Thermometric Substance

Thermometric substances are substances which changes in proportion to temperature.

S/N THERMOMETER THERMOMETRICAL PHYSICAL

SUBSTANCE PROPERTIES
1. Liquid in glass Mercury or alcohol Change in volume with
temperature
2. Constant volume gas Gas Change in pressure with
thermometer temperature
3. Thermoelectric Two different metal (iron and Change in potential
thermometer copper) difference due to
temperature difference
4. Resistant thermometer Resistant wire Change in resistant with
temperature
5. Bimetallic thermometer Two dissimilar metal (brass and Differential expansion of
iron) two metals of the
bimetallic stripes

ADVANTAGES OF MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

1. Mercury does not wet glass
2. Mercury response quickly to slight change in temperature
3. The liquid does not vaporize easily
4. Mercury is opaque Hence, it can be seen easily
5. It has a regular or uniform expansion.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Mercury is expensive
2. Mercury can not be used to measure very low temperature because it’s freezing
point - 39˚C

ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

1. Alcohol is less expensive than mercury
2. It has larger expansion on heating than mercury (it expands 6 times more than
mercury).
3. It can be used to measure very low temperature.

DISADVANTAGES

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 15

1. It is not opaque and so most be colored
2. It vaporizes easily
3. It wet glass
4. It has an irregular expansion
5. It has low boiling point of 78˚C

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

1. It gives more accurate measurement of temperature than any other
thermometer
2. It is very sensitive and can measure wider range of temperature

DISADVANTAGES
1. It is very expensive and so require handling with special care
2. It is very cumbersome

EVALUATION
1. What advantage does a constant volume gas thermometer has over other
thermometers?
2. Mention five types of thermometer, their thermometric substance and physical property.

FIXED POINT OF THERMOMETER

Fixed temperature point are two reference temperature (usually upper and lower fix point) chosen,
when preparing a scale for reading temperatures.

Upper Fixed Point: is the temperature of steam from pure water at the normal atmospheric pressure.

Lower Fixed Point: is the temperature of mixture of pure ice and water at normal pressure.
Fundamental Intervals: is the interval between the upper and lower fixed point.
1000C 373K 2120F

00C 273K 320F

Celsius Scale Kelvin Scale Farenheit Scale

REASON WHY WATER IS NOT USED AS A THERMOMETRIC

1. Water wet glass
2. They are colour less
3. It does not expand uniformly
4. It has small range of expansion (0˚C to 100˚C)

CLINICAL THERMOMETER
It is used for measuring the temperature of human body. The body temperature ranges from (35˚C to
45˚C). It is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water because a short range of
35˚C to 43˚C which shall result to
1. Cracking or breaking of thermometer due to excessive expansion of the mercury.
2. Malfunction of the thermometer due to over expansion of the capillary tube and the mercury
inside the bulb.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 16

Evaporation and Boiling
Evaporation is the process where a liquid turns into vapor below its boiling point. Evaporation takes
place at all temperature. Wind assist evaporation.
Boling is the change from liquid to vapor at the boiling point. It occurs throughout the entire volume
of the liquid. Wind has no effect on boiling.

EVALUATION
1. Why is water not used as a thermometric substance?
2. Differentiate between evaporation and boiling.

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: Expansion of Solid, Effect and Applications of Expansion
CONTENT
 Effect and Application of Thermal Expansion of Solid
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermal Expansion of Solid

Effect and Application of Thermal Expansion of Solid

1. When hot water is poured in a glass tumbler, it might crack due to the uneven expansion of
the inner wall of the tumbler.
2. The cracking noise of zinc roof during the day and night.
3. Thermal expansion of solid is used in the construction of bridges in which one side is fixed
and the other is placed on rollers to allow for expansion.
4. The stopper of a bottle can be removed due to the expansion of the glass.
5. In the construction of concrete pavement, little spaces are left within the concrete to allow for
expansion.
6. Gaps are left in the construction of railway tracks to give room for expansion.
7. Bimetallic stripes are use in thermostat for controlling or regulating the flow of electric
current.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermal Expansion of Solid
Advantages
1. Fire alarm e.g. electric bell
2. The fittings of wheels in rims
3. Bimetallic thermometer
4. Red hot rivet in ship building
5. Bimetallic stripes used in thermometer e.g. electric cooker etc

Disadvantages
1. Cracking of drinking glass when hot liquid poured inside
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 17
2. If the balance wheel of a watch expands the time will be fast and if the balance wheel of a
watch contrasts the time will be slow
3. Expansion of metal of concrete bridges which can lead to eventual after a long period
4. Sagging of overhead wire due to contraction in winter season
5. Expansion of railway tracks thereby forming distant railway tracks.
6. Bursting of water metal pipes.

EVALUATION
1. Mention four effect of thermal expansion of solid.
2. Mention four the advantages and disadvantages of thermal expansion of solid.

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: Expansivity and Its Application – Linear, Area and Volume. Anomalous
Expansion of Water. Real and Apparent Expansivity
CONTENT
 Linear Expansivity of Solid
 Area Expansivity of Solid
 Cubic Expansivity of solid and Liquid
 Anomalous Behavior of Water
Linear Expansivity
Linear expansivity of a solid can be defined as increase in length per unit length, per unit degree rise
in temperature. It is denoted by (α) and measure in per Kelvin or per degree Celsius.
Mathematical representation
α= L2 – L1
L1 (Ө2 - Ө1) ______________ (i)
Linear expansivity (α)= increase in length
Unit length x temp change
L1 is the original length Ө1 is the initial temperature
L2 is the final length Ө2 is the final temperature
▲L = L2 – L1
▲Ө = Ө2 - Ө1 α = ▲L
L1 ▲Ө ________ (ii)
α = L2 – L1
L1 X ▲Ө
L2 – L1 = α L1 ▲Ө
L2 = L1 + X L1 ▲Ө
L2 = L1 (1 + X ▲Ө)
N.B. ▲L = L2 – L1
▲Ө = Ө2 - Ө1
1. A brass rod is 2m long at a certain temperature. What will be the length for a temperature rise
of 100K , if the linear expansivity of brass 18 x 10-6K-1
SOLUTION
L1 = 2m, L2 =?, ▲Ө = 100K, α = 18x1o-6k-1
L2 = L1 (1 + α▲Ө)
L2 = 2 (1 + (18 X 10-6 X 100)
= 2(1 + 0.00018
= 2 (1.OOO18)
= 2.0036m

Area Expansivity
The area/superficial expansivity is the increase in area of per unit area per degree rise in temperature.
It is donated by (β) and measured in per Kelvin and per 8C
β= A2 – A1
A1 (Ө2 - Ө1)
Recall; L2 = L1 (1 + α ▲ Ө)
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 18
Similarly b2 = b1 (1 + α ▲ Ө)
A2 = L1 (1 + α ▲ Ө) X b1 (1 + α ▲ Ө)
= L1b1 (1 + α ▲ Ө) (1 + α ▲ Ө)
A2 = A1 (1 + 2 α ▲ Ө + (α ▲Ө) ²
A2 = A1 (1 + 2 α ▲ Ө)
A2 = A1 (1 + β ▲ Ө)

EVALUATION
1. A brass rod is 2m long at a certain temperature. What will be its length for a temperature rise
of 90K, if the linear expansivity of brass is 1.8 x 10-6K-1
2. Prove that A2 = A1(1 + β▲ Ө).

Volume/Cubic Expansivity
It is denoted by (Y). It is the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in
temperature
Y = V2 – V1
V1 (Ө2 - Ө1) ___________ (i)
Y = 3α _________ (ii)
Relationship between α: β: Y: = 1: 2

Real and Apparent Cubic Expansivity of Water

Real or absolute cubic expansivity (Yr) .The real / absolute of the liquid is the increase in volume by
unit volume per degree rise in temperature.
Apparent Cubic Expansivity (Ya)
The apparent cubic expansivity is the increase in volume per unit rise when heated in an expansible
vessel.
Yr = Ya + Y

Anomalous Behaviour of Water

Most liquid except water expand when heated. This abnormal behavior of water is what is refer to as
anomalous expansion of water. When water is heated from 0 0C, it contracts until it reaches 4 0C and
beyond this point, water expands normally. The anomalous expansion of water takes place between
00C and 40C.

EVALUATION
1. With the aid of a diagram, explain the anomalous behavior of water.
2. Describe an experiment to determine the apparent cubic expansivity of a liquid

Reading Assignment
New School Physics pg 38 – 40,43 – 46

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The anomalous expansion of water takes place between/at ………………..A. 1 0C and 40C B.
00C and 40C C. 40C and 250C D. all temperature
2. The SI unit of linear expansivity is ……… A. per Celsius B. per Fahrenheit C. per Kelvin D.
per Joules
3. If the linear expansivity of a solid is 1.8 X 10 -6 k-1, the area expansivity will be
A.0.9 X 10 -6 B. 3.6 X 10 -6 C. 1.8 X 10 -6 D. 5.4 X 10-6
4. A metal of length 15.01m is heated until its temperature rises by 60 0C. If its new length is
15.05, calculate its linear expansivity
A. 0.0004/K B. 0.00004/K C. 0.004/K D. 0.04/K
2. The increase in volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by 100 0C is
0.182cm3. What is the cubic expansivity of mercury A. 0.000182/K
B. 0.0000182/K C. 0.000187/K D. 0.000178/K
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 19
THEORY
1. Explain the anomalous behavior of water
2. If a cube metal box made of iron of side 2cm is to be used for construction, and the expected
temperature difference is 90 0C. What will be the expected change in volume of the cube box
if the linear expansivity of iron is 1.25 X 10-5.

WEEK FIVE
TOPIC: Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Their Applications
CONTENT
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 Thermo Flask
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation.

CONDUCTION
This is the process of transfer of heat through a material by vibration of the molecules fixed in
position. N.B. Metals that allow heat to pass through them are said to be good conductors of heat.
Though all metals are classified as good conductors, they differ in an ability to conduct heat. Non
metal (wood / plastic) are bad conductors that does not allow heat to pass through it. Thermal
conductivity is simply the ability of a metal to conduct heat.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CONDUCTION OF HEAT

1. Kettle, pans and other utensils made of metals are provided with wooden or ebonite utensils
so that heat from to utensils is not conducted.
2. House old source pans are made of metals because metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity.
3. Thick brick walls are used in the construction of storage rooms. Bricks are bad conductors of
heat, so it will not allow heat to enter the storage room.
4. A stone floor feels cold to the feet than a rug or a carpet on the same floor feels warm.

CONVECTION
Convection is the process by which heat energy is transferred in a fluid (liquid or gas) by actual
movement of the heated fluid. The direction of the motion of a filter paper indicates the circulation of
heated water. Circulation of a liquid is called CONVECTION CURRENT.

APPLICATION OF CONVECTION
Convection in liquid
1. Domestic water-boilers.
2. Cooling process of a motorcar vehicle.
3. Land and sea breezes.

Land and sea breezes

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Convectional current set up in land and sea breezes. They occur mainly in coastal regions.

Sea breeze
During the hot season, heat from the sun passes straight from the air with little effect. The land is
heated by the sun more quickly than the sea becase:
(i) It is a good absorber of heat.
(ii) It is a good radiator.
(iii) It has low specific heat capacity.

The air near the land thus warms up and rises while air from the sae moves into the land to replace the
risen air. Air from the higher atmosphere moves from the sea and then a circulation current is set up.
The breeze from the sea is known as the sea breeze.

Land breeze
During the night, land is not heated by the sun, so it cools very quickly. Temperature of the sea drops
only slightly and since it has been heated to a very high temperature, it retains more heat as a form of
energy. As a result of this, the sea is warmer than the land at night. Convectional current is therefore
set in the opposite direction in the day as a result of breeze blowing from land to the sea. This breeze
from the land is called land breeze.

Convection in gases
1. Chimneys in Kitchens
2. Ventilation of industrial buildings (up-cast and downcast)
3. Bonfires
4. Room radiators- when in use, the hot air rising from it can produce a shadow in the room by
the sun due to convection.
5. Glider lift- lift for aircraft used in flying sport. It is done by positioning the aircraft towards
the roofs of factories where air above is warmer than any other place. The rising convection
current is called thermal
6. Wind- convection currents in air when hot air rises from the equator and replaced by a colder
or denser air from the polar region. Wind depends on earth’s rotation, large masses of land
and sea over which it passes and temperature.
7. Air conditional are placed at the top of wall in the room and not on the floor so that the hot air
which are less dense rises and are cooled while the colder air which are denser sink down
hence. This continuous process of rising and cooling of warm and cold air set up convectional
currents which cools the room.

RADIATION
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred or conveyed from one place / point to another
without heating the interview medium. In radiation molecules are not involved, it differs from another
method because it does not require a medium for heat to be transferred. Heat from the sun reaches us
by this method. The energy given out as radiant heat is known as RADIANT ENERGY. This energy
displace electrical and magnetic properties and it said to be electromagnetic radiation and the name is
INFARED.

RADIATION CAN BE DETECTED BY

1. Radiometer
2. Thermo-pile
3. Leslie cube
Dark surface is good absorber of heat and poor emitter of radiation. Highly polished surface are good
emitter of radiation and poor emitter of heat.

APPLICATION OF RADIATION
1. It is not advisable to wear a dark shirt in the tropical sun.
2. Roofs of factories are coated with aluminum paint.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 21
3. Shinning roofs and outside walls are painted with light colour in hot climate to keep the house
cool.
Cooking utensils are darkening at the bottom and polished in the upper surface. The blacking surface
will allow the heat while the silver surface won’t allow the heat to go out.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms A. conduction B. Convection C. Radiation
2. State two application of radiation.

Thermos Flask
A thermos flask is used to keep the temperature of its content constant. The essential
Feature of a thermos flask are as follows:
1. Cork stopper – Prevent heat loss by conduction, conduction and Evaporation
2. Vacuum in the double wall – Reduce heat loss or gain by conduction and convection
3. Silvered wall surface – Minimize heat loss by radiation
4. Cork support – Prevent heat loss by conduction
Thermos flask is also known as vacuum flask.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms A. Conduction B. Convection C. Radiation
2. With the aid of a diagram, explain how the construction of a thermos flask minimizes heat
exchange with the surrounding

WEEK SIX
TOPIC: ELECTRIC CHARGES→ Production, Types, Distribution and Storage
CONTENT
 Production of Charges
 Types of Charges
 Distribution of Charges
 Storage of Charges

 Production of Charges
If a plastic pen is rub vigorously on the hair or on a coat and it is hold near a very small piece of
paper, the paper will be attracted by the pen. Some substances are found to poses the ability to attract
light objects once they are rubbed. The light object as well as the rubbed material are said to be
charged or electrified with static electricity.

Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest. It is a type of electricity that does not move from one
point to another in the substance in which it is produced.

 Types of Charges
There are two types of charges – positive and negative charges.
Positive charge is obtained when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, or cellulose acetate
with silk, while negative charge is obtained when an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur or polythene with
fur.

These two rods with positive and negative electrification attract each other when brought close.
Repulsion occurs if two similar rods are brought close.

FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

The law states that like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors are materials that allow electrons to pass through them easily. Examples of conductors are
metals, damp air, graphite, acids, salt solutions, the earth, and the human body.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 22
Insulators are materials that do not allow electrons to pass through them easily. Examples of
insulators are plastic, polythene, Bakelite, ebonite, paper, dry hair, silk, oils, glass, sulphur and wood.

EVALUATION
1. State the fundamental law of electrostatic.
2. What is electrostatic?

 Distribution of Charges
Experimental works have shown that charges are distributed where there is a sharp curve. The
densities of these charges are greater at the surface of sharp curve. The charge per unit area of a
charged surface is called surface density.
x x x x x x x
x x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x x
x Distribution is greater at the edge (sharp edge)
Fig. 2.3 Charge x x x x x x x x x
 Storage of Charges
The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It produces electric charges by
electrostatic induction. Another device for the storage of electric charges is the capacitor

EVALUATION
1. With the aid of a diagram, explain charge distribution.
2. Name two devices that can store charge.

WEEK SEVEN
TOPIC: Gold Leaf Electroscope and Its Uses. Lighting and Lighting Conductor.
CONTENT
 Gold Leaf Electroscope
 Lighting and Lighting Conductor.

Gold Leaf Electroscope

The gold-leaf electroscope is an instrument used for testing positive and negative charges. It consists
of a metal (brass) rod to which a thin gold-leaf (or aluminium leaf) is attached. The rod is surmounted
by a brass disc or cap and insulated from the metal case. The leaf is protected from outside influences
(like drought) by enclosing it in an earthed metal case with glass windows.
Generally, the gold-leaf can also be used to test the conducting properties of materials.

Fig. 2.1 Gold-leaf electroscope

Uses of Electroscope
1. It is used to test whether a material is a conductor or an insulator. The material is made to
touch the cap. Rapid collapse means that the charges escape easily and hence the material

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 concerned is a good conductor. A slow collapse means that it is a poor conductor. No collapse
means that it is an insulator.
2. Use to test charges whether the charge is positive or negative. The gold leave electroscope to
test the sign of the charge of an object. If an unknown charge is brought near to a charged
electroscope and the leaf diverges more, the unknown charge is similar to the charge on the
electroscope.

CHARGING AN INSULATED BODY

A neutral insulated body can be charged by two methods
i) Contact method and
ii) By induction
1. Contact Method: - The method is achieved by bringing a charged object in contact with it. By
so doing the neutral insulated body acquired the same type of charge as that on the charged
object.
2. Induction Method: - This method is simply a process of charging a neutral body by placing a
charged body near it without any contact between the two.

This process is as explained in the following steps below:

i) Bring a positive charge close to an insulated body to be charged. (Note: insulation as used
here is by placing body on an insulated stand to avoid the charge induced from leaking away).
Negative charges on insulated body are attracted towards the inducing charge while the
positive charges are repelled away from it.
ii) Earth the insulated body by momentarily touching it so that the positive charge conducts
away
x- xx x- x x

(ii) - --- + +
+ - ----

(i) Insulator
- --- -- ----
Eart
(iii) Insulator h

Fig. 2.2 charging by induction

iii) Remove inducing charge: From observation, the negative charge will spread round leaving
the body is a negatively charged body. If the inducing charge is negative, then the body will
acquire a negative charge after taking the steps above.

EVALUATION
1. State two uses of an electroscope.
2. Draw a well label diagram of an electroscope.

 Lighting and Lighting Conductor

The atmosphere is known to contain ions or charged particles, which have been
produced by radiation from the sun and by what is known as cosmic radiation, which enters the
atmosphere from outer space.

Lighting is a sudden discharge or neutralizing of electric charges, and it occurs when charges build up
in a cloud.

The lighting conductors are long metal strips running from the spike end of a conductor on the top of
a building. They are used to prevent building from destruction when struck by thunder or lightning.
The conductor is a long metal rod installed or connected to the earth by means of a cable. The sharp
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 24
outer point of the top gains an induced charge opposite to that in the thundercloud. The charge ionizes
the nearby air and the charged air molecules flow upwards from the point. This discharges the cloud
before a lightning flash occurs.

EVALUATION
1. What is the function of lighting conductors?
2. Define lighting.

WEEK 8
TOPIC: FIELD – CONCEPT AND TYPES OF FIELD. GRAVITATIONAL AND MAGNETIC
FIELD. FORCE OF GRAVITY
CONTENT
 Concept of Field
 Types of Field
 Gravitational Field

 Concept of Field
Field can be defined as the region or space under the influence of some physical agency such as
gravitational, electricity and magnetism.

 Types of Field
Fields are of various types namely: gravitational, magnetic and electric field.

 Gravitational Field
Gravitational field is any region or space around a mass in which the gravitational force of the mass is
felt.

If we throw up massive objects, it is our common observation that they move up to their highest
points, stay stationary very briefly and eventually move downwards, falling faster and faster until they
hit the ground level. The up and down movements objects on the earth’s surface are subject to the
influence of the gravitational field.

Force of Gravity
The force of gravity is the pull of attraction between the earth, itself and objects on or near it.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Newton’s law of gravitation states that the force of attraction between two bodies of mass M 1 and M2
is inversely proportional to the square of their distance R, between their centres and it is directly
proportional to the product of their mass.

Mathematical expression
M1 M 2 G M1 M2
Fα 2 F= 2
R R

Where F is the gravitational force on either particle, M 1 and M2 are their masses, R is the distance
between them, and G is a universal gravitational constant, whose numerical value depends on the
units in which the force, mass, and length are expressed.

Acceleration Due to Gravity

The acceleration of objects due to the earth’s gravitational attraction is called the acceleration due to
gravity. It is represented by the symbol g whose average value is about 9.81ms −2.

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Without air resistance, different mass or objects released from rest at the same point will fall to the
ground at the same time (free fall).

EVALUATION
1. Define field.
2. State Newton’s law of gravitation.

Magnetic Field
The region or space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt or detected is
called a magnetic field. If a white sheet of paper is placed over a magnet and iron fillings are
sprinkled on the paper, it will be observed that the iron filings will arrange themselves in a definite
pattern which illustrates the magnetic lines of force of the magnet. A similar pattern can be obtained
by using the compass needle to plot the magnetic lines of force.

N S

Fig 3.0 Magnetic Lines of Force Round a Bar Magnet

Lines of Force
A line of force is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that its direction at any point, that is the
direction of the tangent, is the same as the direction of the field at that point.

EVALUATION
1. Define magnetic field.
2. Define gravitational field.

WEEK NINE
TOPIC: Electric Field – Line of Forces, Properties of Line of Force, Description and
Properties of Force Field
CONTENT
 Electric Field
 Line of Force and properties

 Electric Field
Electric field is defined as any region where a charge experiences a force of electrical origin. There
are two types of charges namely : positive and negative charges.

Lines of Force
An electric field has been defined as a region where an electric force is experienced. Electric fields
can be mapped out by electrostatic lines of force. An electrostatic line of force may be defined as a
line whose tangent is in the direction of the force on small positive charge at that point. Arrows on the
lines of force show the direction of the force on a positive charge. The force on a negative charge is in
the opposite direction.

Since the direction of a field varies from point to point, lines of force are usually curves.

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 Fig 4.1: Lines of Electrostatic force

(i) Isolated positive charge (ii) Isolated negative charge

(iii) Unlike charges – positive and negative charges (iv) like charges – positive and positive
charges

Properties of Lines of Force

1. Lines of force never intersect.
2. Lines of force are usually curves, as the direction of a field varies from point to point.
3. In a uniform field, the lines of force are straight, parallel and uniformly spaced.
4. No lines of force originate or terminate in the space surrounding a charge.
5. Every lines of force in an electrostatic field is a continuous line terminated by a positive
charge at one end and a negative charge at the other end.

Coloumb’s Law states that the force experience by two charges Q1Q2 separated by a distance r is
directly proportional to their product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of their
distance apart. It is also known as inverse square law.
Q1 Q2

F α Q1Q2
Fα 1/r2
F α Q1Q2

r²
F = K Q1Q2 __________ (i)
r²
K = 9 x 109 Nm² C-2 ⁄ f/m
K=1
4ΩЄ0
(Permitivity of Free Space vacuum)

EVALUATION
1. State four properties of line of force.
2. State coulomb’s law.
 Electric Field Intensity (E)
It is simply the force per unit charge. It is a vector quantity and measured in
E = F/Q _________ (iii)
 Electric Field Potential (V)

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It is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from it point of infinity to a point in the field. It
can also be defined as work done per unit charge, it is a scalar quantity and measured in joules per
coloumb or volt.
V=W
Q

 Flux Density D.
It is denoted by D. It is simply charge by unit area. It is measured in Cm-2/ Clm²
D=Q
A

EVALUATION
1. Define A. electric field intensity B. electric field potential
2. Differentiate between electric potential and electric potential energy

WEEK TEN
TOPIC: PRODUCTION OF CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC CURRENT
CONTENT
 Production of Continuous Current From Mechanical Energy.
 Production of Continuous Current From Chemical Energy
 Production of Continuous Current From Heat Energy
 Production of Continuous Current from Solar Energy.

 Production of continuous energy from mechanical energy

When a force is applied at a prime mover, the prime mover drives the amature/ rotar. As the amature
is rotating in the magnetic field system , the amature cuts the magnetic flux produce by the magnet.
Hence E.M.F will be induced in the coil of the amature
based on faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
The induced E.M.F can be supplied to an external load.

 Production of Continuous Current from Chemical Energy

A cell consist of two dissimilar metals separated by solution of various acids or salt. The metal are
known as the electrodes and the solutions are the electrolyte. The positive electrode is known as the
anode. The negative electrode is the cathode.
A cell is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy.

EVALUATION
1. With the aid of a diagram, describe how continuous current can be generated from mechanical
energy.
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe how continuous current can be generated from chemical
energy.

 Production of Continuous Current from Heat Energy

The ends of two dissimilar metal joined are inserted in cold and hot water and a galvamometer to
detect the flow of charges. Due to temperature difference at both end current will flow in the
connection. The greater the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junction, the greater
the current flow.
 Production of Continuous Current from Solar Energy
If solar energy is made to fall on a photo electric cell, solar energy will be converted to electric energy
directly by photo electric effect.

EVALUATION

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1. With the aid of a diagram, describe how continuous current can be generated from mechanical
energy.
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe how continuous current can be generated from chemical
energy.

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 SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS:

SS 1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Reproduction (Meaning, Types and Form of Asexual Reproduction)
2. Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation, Meiosis) and Excretory Organelles in Living
Cells
3. Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms and Invertebrates
4. Irritability and Movement
5. Nutrition in Animals (Food Substances and Digestive Enzymes)
6. Basic Ecological Concepts
7. Biomes
8. Population Studies
9. Functioning Ecosystem
10. Ecological Management
11. Revision and Examination

REFERENCES
 Modern Biology for Senior Secondary Schools by S.T. Ramlingam
 Essential Biology by M.C Michael
 New Biology by H. Stone and Cozen
 SSCE, past questions and answers
 New System Biology by Lam and Kwan
 College Biology by Idodo Umeh
 UTME, SSCE and CAMBRIDGE past questions and answers
 Biology practical text

WEEK ONE DATE

……………………
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION
CONTENT
- Meaning and Types of Reproduction
- Forms of Asexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation and Fusion of Gametes)
- Meiosis and Importance of Meiosis

MEANING AND TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of an organism to give rise to new individuals of the same species
in order to ensure continuity of life.
There are two types of reproduction
a. asexual reproduction

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b. sexual reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction: is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by
itself. I.e. only one parent is presence. No gametes involved thus there is no fusion of
nuclei, but the cells that give rise to the offspring usually divide by means of mitosis.
Offspring produced are identical to the parent in all respect and are called clones
b. Sexual Reproduction: is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the
fusion of the male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced
show new variation. The sex cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division
and after fertilization the new individual continue to grow and produce new cells by
mitosis.

EVALUATION
1. What is reproduction?
2. Why is reproduction necessary?
3. Differentiate between the two types of reproduction.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a. Binary Fission: Fission is the simplest form and involves the division of a single organism
into two complete organisms, each identical to the other and to the parent. Fission is
common among unicellular organisms such as bacteria, many protists and some algae.
b. Budding: The parent organism develops an outgrowth which subsequently forms the
new individual organism. These buds break off from the parent without causing any
injury and live an independent life. Budding is common in yeast and hydra
c. Spore Formation: Spores are DNA-containing capsules capable of sprouting into new
organisms; unlike most seeds, spores are produced without sexual union of gametes,
when dispersed, each spore is capable of developing into a new organism. Spores are
common in lower organisms especially fungi such as rhizopus and penicillum.
d. Fragmentation: A part of the parent organism breaks up and develops into a new
independent organism. This type of reproduction is also called regeneration.
Fragmentation is common in spirogyra and coelenterates.
e. Vegetative Propagation: It occurs in higher plants. In this process, a new plant grows
from any portion of an old one other than the seeds. There are two methods of
vegetative propagation, this include natural and artificial vegetative propagations.
Natural vegetative propagation involves the use of vegetative parts such as stems, leaves,
roots or buds. The part involved must have a store of food and sometimes able to act as a
perennating organ i. e. enable the plant to survive from one growing season to the next.
Organs of vegetative propagation include;
- Bulbil: Axillary buds growing from the veins of leaves e. g. Bryophyllum and Begonia.
- Runners or stolons: Stems that creep horizontally on soil surface. Buds and
adventitious roots develop from the nodes of the parent plants e. g. sweet potato,
grass.
- Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stem. It has scaly leaves which cover lateral buds
at the nodes. Lateral buds grow into new aerial shoots e. g. ginger, canna lily.
- Corms: Underground stems which grow vertically in the soil. Buds develop from the
axils of scale leaves, grow upward and form leaves and flowers e. g. cocoyam.
- Stem tubers: Underground stems which have swollen tips. Axillary buds on tubers
give rise to new aerial shoots e. g. yam, sweet potato

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 - Suckers: Short underground horizontal branches e. g. banana, pineapple
- Bulb: Underground condensed shoots with compressed stems and scaly leaves e. g.
onion, garlic.
Artificial propagation is the use of parts of the parent plant to multiply the plants. Budding,
grafting, layering, cutting and marcotting are types of artificial propagation.

EVALUATION
1. List four types of asexual reproduction with examples.
2. Discuss spore formation in a named fungus.

WEEK TWO DATE ……………………………

TOPIC: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
CONTENT
 Sexual Reproduction
 Conjugation
 Fusion of Gametes
 Meiosis
 Excretion
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
There are two types of sexual reproduction, this include conjugation and fusion of gametes.
a. Conjugation: the simplest form of sexual reproduction, as contrasted with asexual
reproduction. This is observed in some unicellular organisms e. g. paramecium,
fungi e. g. rhizopus, algae e. g. spirogyra. Two similar organisms (conjugants) join
together and exchange genetic material contained in their nuclei. After the
exchange, the organisms separate. The zygote or zygosphere form is capable of
developing into a new organism.
b. Fusion of Gametes: This occurs in higher organisms where gametes (male and
female sex cells) are produced in special structures by a process known as
gametogenesis which involves meiotic cell divisions.
Fertilization, the process in which haploid male and female sex cells fuse together to
producing a single diploid cell (zygote) that develops into an adult organism occurs
after gamatogenesis.

EVALUATION
1. Describe conjugation in spirogyra.
2. Define spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the reduction method of division that leads to the formation of four daughter
cells that are haploids. Meiosis differs from mitosis, in that it involves two consecutive cell
divisions instead of one and the genetic material contained in chromosomes is not copied
during the second meiotic division. Whereas mitosis produces identical daughter cells,
meiosis randomly mixes the chromosomes, resulting in unique combinations of
chromosomes in each daughter cell. Meiosis ensures the chromosome number of an
individual remains the same from generation to generation.

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions:

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First Meiotic Division
a. Interphase: resting phase, chromosomes are not seen.
b. Prophase I: At early prophase, chromosomes contract and become clearly visible. At
middle prophase, homologous chromosomes come together and spindle is formed.
At late prophase crossing over takes place between homologous chromosomes at a
place called chiasma.
c. Metaphase: Nuclear membrane disappears, the bivalent chromosomes assemble at
the equator and are attached to the spindle by their centromere.
d. Anaphase: Bivalent chromosomes separate completely and move to the opposite
pole of the cell.
e. Telophase: bivalent chromosomes arrived at the pole, nuclear membrane are
formed around the chromosomes at the two poles, two daughter cells result with
half the number of chromosomes in the parent cell.

Second Meiotic Division

It consists of four stages similar to mitosis, no resting stage and no replication of
chromosomes. At the end, four daughter cells are formed.

Importance of Meiosis
Meiosis aids the formation of
a. Spermatozoa.
b. Ova or egg cells.
c. Pollen grains in flowering plants.
d. Ovules in flowering plants.

EVALUATION
1. What is crossing over?
2. Outline four life processes involving meiosis.

WEEK THREE DATE

……………………
TOPIC: REPRODUCTION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND INVERTEBRATES
CONTENT
 Reproduction in Amoeba(Binary and Multiple Fission)
 Reproduction in Paramecium(Sexual and Asexual)
 Reproduction in Spirogyra
 Reproduction in Earthworm
 Reproduction in Cockroach
 Reproduction in Housefly
 Reproduction in Snail
REPRODUCTION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission and multiple fission (sporulation) during
adverse condition.

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In binary fission when an amoeba reaches full size, it stops moving and divides into two
equal parts starting from the nucleus. This is followed by the division of the cytoplasm, after
which two daughter amoebae are formed.
In multiple fission amoeba becomes rounded and secretes around itself a cyst. Inside the
cyst, the nucleus divides several times. When conditions becomes favourable, the cyst burst;
each nucleus surrounded by a part of the cytoplasm of the parent. In this way, very small
amoebae are formed.

REPRODUCTION IN PARAMECIUM
Paramecium reproduces asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
Binary fission occurs under favourable conditions, the micronucleus divides into two equal
halves by mitosis and each moves to the opposite side of the cell, the meganucleus
elongates and the cytoplasm constricts after which two young paramecia are produced.
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of two individuals of different lines of descent. Stages
in conjugation include
1. Two matured paramecium come together and get fused by their oral grooves.
2. The micronucleus divides twice by meiosis and four nuclei are formed in each
conjugant
3. The smaller micronuclei are exchanged between the two conjugants
4. The migatory micronucleus fuses with the stationary micronucleus in each conjugant
to form a zygote
5. The zygote in each conjugant divides thrice to form eight nuclei
6. The ex-conjugant with four meganuclei and four micronuclei divide to form four
paramecia each having a meganucleus and a micronucleus.

Conjugation in paramecium

EVALUATION
1. Describe binary fission in amoeba.
2. Describe sexual reproduction in paramecium.

REPRODUCTION IN SPIROGYRA
Spirogyra reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by conjugation.

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In fragmentation, when a filament reaches a certain length, parts of it break away and grow
into new filaments
In conjugation
1. The cells of two filaments come to lie side by side and a conjugation tube is formed
between them.
2. the cells in one filament act as the male gamete while the other act as the female
3. The male gamete passes through the conjugation tube to meet the female gamete
and fuses to form a zygote.
4. The zygote secretes a resistant wall around itself and form a zygospore.
5. After a period of rest and favourable condition, the outer coats burst and a young
filament grows out.

REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM
Earthworms are hermaphrodites i. e. each has both male and female sex organs and
therefore produces both male and female [Link] is by sexual means.

Process of Copulation
Two worms to be engaged in copulation come to lie close together with their ventral
surfaces touching. Copulation takes place at night outside the burrows. The reproductive
organs of earthworms are anteriorly located. The worms lie in such position that the
segments 9-15 of one worm are opposite the clitellum (segments 32-37) of the other and
are held firmly by chaetae during copulation.

After copulation, the two worm separate. After few days eggs are laid and fertilized in a
cocoon secreted by the clitellum. The development of the embryo takes place inside the
cocoon and one worm hatches from a batch of eggs in one cocoon.

EVALUATION
1. Describe conjugation in a named alga.
2. What is hermaphroditism?
3. Describe the process of copulation in earthworm.

REPRODUCTION IN COCKROACH
Sexual reproduction takes place in cockroaches and fertilization is internal. Male and female
cockroaches mates and the male introduces sperm into the genital opening of the female.
The sperms are then stored in the sperm pouch until the eggs are released from the two
ovaries. As the eggs are released, they are fertilized by the stored sperm. Fertilized eggs are
laid (about 10–16 eggs) in a horny egg case (ootheca) which the female carries in her

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abdominal pouch for some time and later deposit it in a safe dark place. After 30 – 100 days,
the eggs hatch into nymphs which are wingless, small and whitish in colour.

The nymphs feed, grow, and become brown, moult about 13 times to become adults.
In the process of moulting, the wings first appear as wing pad and later develop into full
grown wings. Cockroaches require 11 – 20 months to develop from eggs to imagos.
Metamorphosis is incomplete.

REPRODUCTION IN HOUSEFLY
Adult male and female mates and within two to three days fertilized eggs are laid. The laying
of eggs takes place in the day light. Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
2 – 7 batches of eggs (100 – 150 eggs in a batch) are laid by the female housefly in a moist
dirty environment. The eggs hatch into white larvae in about 8 – 24 hours.
The larva called maggot has a segmented body. The head bears a pair of hook for tearing
food and drawing the larva along. On the ventral surface of the segmented body lie spiny
pads for movement. It has two pairs of spiracles for breathing. The larva moults several
times and lasts for about 5 – 14 days after which it moves to a dry place to begin the pupal
stage.
The maggot shortens; its skin becomes hard and brown forming the pupal case (puparium).
It does not feed or move. Internal re-organisation takes place at this stage. In about 3 – 10
days, the young adult hatches out of the puparium.
The adult housefly called imago emerges from the puparium using a sac-like organ
(ptilinum) to break it open. It moves to the surface of the dirt and flies away when the wings
are dry.

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REPRODUCTION IN SNAIL
Reproduction in land snails is hermaphroditic and fertilization internal. The female snail has
a fertilization pouch for sperm to travel into. The snails will transfer their spermatophores to
a place called epiphallus. The epiphallus is part of the sperm duct to the penis to help put
the spermatophores into place by using their flagellum. From here, sperm is travelled to the
bursa duct where fertilization takes place. During snail development, there is a 180 o twist of
the visceral mass that brings the anus and the mantle cavity forward to a position above the
head. This process is known as torsion.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between metamorphosis in housefly and cockroach.
2. Describe fertilization in snails.

WEEK FOUR
DATE……………………
TOPIC: IRRITABILITY / CELL REACTIONS TO ITS ENVIRONMENT
CONTENT
 Irritability and Type of Responses
 Movement
 Organelles for Movement
IRRITABILITY AND TYPES OF RESPONSES
Irritability is the ability of organisms to respond to stimuli. A stimulus is any change in
external or internal environmental condition which can bring about a change in the activity
of the whole or part of the organism.
Response is the term used for the change in activity of the organism. There are three major
types of responses, these include tactic, nastic and tropic movements.
a. TAXIS OR TACTIC MOVEMENT: is a directional movement or response of a whole
organism from one place to another in response to external stimuli such as light,
temperature, water and certain chemicals. Examples of tactic movement include;
o Euglena or chlamydomonas swimming away from high light intensity (Negative
phototaxis).
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 o In a moss plant, sperm swim towards the chemical produced by the egg cell (positive
chemotaxis).
b. NASTISM OR NASTIC MOVEMENT: is a non-directional sleep movement or response of a
part of a plant in response to non-directional stimuli such as light intensity, temperature
and humidity. Example of nastic movement include;
o The folding of the leaflets of mimosa plant when touched.
o Closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low.
c. TROPISM OR TROPIC MOVEMENT: is a unilateral growth and directional movement of a
part of a plant in response to directional stimuli. These responses are experienced in
growth regions (root and shoot apices) and are controlled by certain plant hormones
known as auxins. Tropic movement are named according to the stimuli e.g.
o Shoots bend towards light (positive phototropism) while roots bend away from light
(negative phototropism).
o Shoots bend away from gravity (negative geotropism) while roots bend toward
gravity (positive geotropism).
o Tendrils of climbing plants twine around a support (positive thigmotropism) while
root tips grow away from it (negative thigmotropism).

EVALUATION
1. Give two other examples each of nastic, tropic and tactic movement.
2. List four environmental factors that evokes responses.

MOVEMENT
Organisms moves from one place to the other in search of food, water, mates and escaping
predator or harsh weather conditions.

Cyclosis in Cell
Cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming) is the mass rotational movement of the cytoplasm and its
contents in cells. Cyclosis brings about the transportation of substances from one part of the
cell to the other and the exchange of materials between the cell organelles. Cyclosis occur in
a. Protozoa like amoeba known as amoeboid movement.
b. Chloroplasts of some plants where they move independently to place their broad
surface parallel to the surface of the leaf to receive sufficient sunlight for
photosynthesis.

EVALUATION
1. What is cyclosis?
2. State two examples of cyclosis.

ORGANELLES FOR MOVEMENT

a. Flagella: they are long whip like projections usually one or two on the cell surface.
Flagella are organelles for movement in Euglena, Trypanosome, Spermatozoa,
Chlamydomonas etc.
b. Cilia: They are short hair like structures, numerous and closely packed together on the
cell surface. Cilia can be found in paramecium and on cells lining the human wind pipe.

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WEEK FIVE DATE…………………
TOPIC: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
CONTENT
 Animal Nutrition
 Classes of Food
 Balance Diet and its Importance
 Digestive Enzymes
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animals generally cannot manufacture their food. Rather, they depend directly or indirectly
on plants for their food. Hence they are called heterotrophs. Based on their food types,
animals are grouped into three:
a. Carnivores which feed on flesh or other animals e.g. lion.
b. Herbivores which feed on plants e.g goat.
c. Omnivores, which feed on both plants and animals e.g man.

CLASSES OF FOOD SUBTANNCES

Foods eaten by animals are generally classified into seven i. e.
a. Carbohydrate
b. Proteins
c. Fat and oil
d. Mineral Salt
e. Vitamins
f. Water
g. Roughages

CARBOHYDRATE
This is got from food like bread, yam rice etc. It basically consists of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Carbohydrates are of three types:
a. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars) which include glucose, fructose and galactose
b. Disaccharides (Reducing sugars) which include maltose, sucrose and lactose.
c. Polysaccharides (Complex sugars) e.g starch, cellulose, chitin under the action of
enzymes like ptyalin, maltase, lactase etc, and starch yields glucose as product of its
digestion. Excess carbohydrate is stored in the body in form of glycogen in muscles
and liver. This can be reconverted to glucose during starvation.

Importance of Carbohydrates
a. It gives animals energy.
b. It provides heat needed to maintain body temperature
c. It can be used for lubrication e.g mucus.
d. It provides the body with a strong framework e.g. exoskeleton in insects.

PROTEINS
These are complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. Protein is made
up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Food like
egg, meat, fish, beans etc gives you protein. Proteins are broken down into amino acids
under the action of enzymes like pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin.

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Importance of Proteins
a. Growth in young ones.
b. Repair of worn-out tissues.
c. Production of enzymes.
d. Production of hormones.
e. It supports reproduction.
f. It is for tissue and all formation i.e body building.

FATS & OIL (LIPIDS)

Fats are solid lipids at room temperature while oil is the liquid. Fat and oil consist of carbon,
hydrogen and little oxygen. When digested, it gives rise to fatty acids and glycerol. Foods like
palm oil, groundnut, Soya beans give fat and oil. Lipids are broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol when acted upon by lipase enzymes.

Importance of Fat and Oil

a. It gives you energy even more than carbohydrates
b. It supplies essential fatty acids to the body.
c. It helps in the maintenance of body temperature
d. It provides the body with fat-soluble vitamins

MINERAL SALT
These are usually taken in very small quantity in the food we eat except sodium chloride
(table salt) and iron tablet, which can be taken directly by man. The lack of these salts
results in nutritional deficiency. The minerals include calcium, magnesium, potassium,
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, iron, Iodine, fluorine, manganese, copper, cobalt and
sodium.

Importance of Mineral Salts

a. Regulate body metabolisms
b. Components of bones and teeth
c. Aids blood formation
d. Control chemical reactions in the body
e. Aids the formation of enzymes and pigment
VITAMINS
These are organic food substances needed by man and other animals in small quantity for
normal growth and development. Lack of or inadequate supply of any of these vitamins
results in nutritional deficiency.
Vitamins can be grouped into two:
a. Water-soluble vitamins
b. Fat – soluble vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins include: vitamins B complex and vitamin C. Vitamin B complex
include vitamin, B2, B3 , B5, B6 and B12
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K.

VITAMINS, SOURCE FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS

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 Vitamin A Liver, eggs, fish (i) Normal growth of (i) Night blindness
milk, palm oil, body cells and skin (ii) Reduced resistance
fish Vegetables (ii) Proper vision of the eye to disease

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, (i) Normal growth Beri-beri (wasting of

beans, (ii) Proper functioning of Muscles), paralysis
Ground nut heart
and nervous system
Vitamin B2 Yeast, soya (i) Growth, proper functioning (i) Slow growth
beans, of the eye (ii) Dermatitis
egg, milk, green (ii) Formation of co-enzymes
Vegetables
Vitamin B3 Yeast, beans, Formation of co-enzymes for Pellagra
milk, cellular respiration
Vegetables
Vitamin B12 Kidney, liver, fish Formation of red blood Pernicious
Milk Cells Anaemia
Vitamin C Fresh fruits and (i) Aids wound healing Scurvy
Green (ii) Helps to resist infection
vegetables
Vitamin D Fish, milk, egg, (i) Increases absorption Ricket;
Liver, sun’s Of calcium and phosphorus. Osteomalacia
Ultraviolet rays (ii) Calcification and
hardening Of bones
Vitamin E Green Promotion of fertility Sterility
vegetables, In animals Premature abortion
Egg, butter, liver
Vitamin K Fresh green Aids blood clotting Hemorrhage
vegetables, liver

WATER
This is of utmost importance to all organisms and it is made up of two elements, hydrogen
and oxygen. Water can be got from food, river, stream, pond etc. water makes up 75% of
the human body.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
a. Metabolic activities of the body of animals.
b. Digestion of food.
c. Maintenance of body temperature.
d. It is a medium of transportation for all nutrients.
e. It helps to maintain the osmotic balance in body tissues.
f. It helps in excretion of metabolic waste from the body e.g urine.

ROUGHAGES
These are indigestible fibrous materials got from vegetables, fruit, carbohydrates and
proteins. Roughages aid digestion, lack of which can lead to constipation.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 41
EVALUATION
1. State three importance of; A. Carbohydrate B. Protein C. Lipids.
2. Mention five disease that may result from the deficiency of vitamins.

BALANCED DIET
Balanced diet is a diet containing a correct proportion of all the food substances. On a
general note, a balanced diet contains 15% protein, 15% fat and oil, 10% vitamin, minerals
and water and 60% carbohydrate. Once a food is taken at these proportions, there is a
normal growth and development in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF BALANCED DIET

a. It makes us healthy.
b. It gives ability to be resistant to diseases
c. It makes available energy needed to carry out all biological activities.
d. It prevents malnutrition and deficiency symptoms. For examples, a diet that lacks
protein results into a nutritional disease called kwashiokor in children.

The protein deficient child has the following features

a. Retarded growth.
b. Loss of weight.
c. Swollen legs effect (oedema).
d. Cracked / split stomach and thin legs e.t.c.

EVALUATION
1. State two importance each of A. protein B. carbohydrates C. vitamins
2. State three importance of balanced diet

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic (protein) catalysts produced by living cells which help to speed up and
slow down the rate of chemical reactions. Digestive enzymes aid the breaking down of
complex food substances into simple, soluble and diffusible form. Enzymes have the
following characteristics.
a. Enzymes are soluble
b. Enzymes are protein
c. They are specific in their actions
d. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature i. e. they work best between 35 oC to 40oC
e. Enzymes are PH specific
f. Enzymes brings about reversible reactions
g. Enzymes needs co-enzymes to activate them and can be inactivated by inhibitors
such as mercury and cyanide

CLASSES AND FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes are classified based on the type of food they act upon. These include
a. Proteases e. g. pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin. They act on protein.
b. Amylases e. g. ptyalin, lactase, maltase, sucrose. They act on carbohydrates
c. Lipases which act on lipids (fats and oils)

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EVALUATION
1. What are enzymes?
2. Outline five characteristics of enzymes

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. State two food items each that supply A. Protein B. Lipids C. Mineral salts
2. List two functions each for protein and lipids.
3. State the functions of A. Chlorine B. Magnesium C. Iodine.
4. What are the diseases resulting from deficiency of: A. Sodium B. Calcium C. Iron
5. State the functions and deficiency symptoms of all the water soluble vitamins

WEEK SIX
DATE………………………
TOPIC: BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
CONTENT
 Definition and Branches of Ecology
 Ecological Terms ( Environment, Biosphere, Habitat, Ecological Niche, Population,
Community, Ecological System, Biome)
 Components of an Ecosystem
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of plant and animals (as well as microorganism) in relation to their
environment. As a practical science, ecological studies involve:-
 Studying the distribution of living organisms
 Finding out how living organisms depend on themselves and their non-living
environment for survival.
 Measuring factors affecting the environment.

BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
Depending on whether the organisms are studied alone or in groups, ecology is divided into
two:
i. AUTECOLOGY: This is the study of an individual organism or a single species of
organism and its environment e.g. the study of a student and his school
environment.
ii. SYNECOLOGY: This involves studying the inter-relationships between groups of
organisms or different species of organism living together in an area e.g. study of
fish, crabs, seaweeds, etc in a pond.

EVALUATION
1. Define ecology.
2. Differentiate between the two branches of ecology.

ECOLOGICAL TERMS
The various concepts closely associated with ecology include;
a. ENVIRONMENT

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This includes external and internal factors, living or nonliving which affects an organism or a
group of organisms. These include the habitat (with its peculiar physical conditions e.g. light,
food, water, air), the animals preying on other animals or the diseases affecting the
organism.
b. BIOSPHERE (ECOSPHERE)
This is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms so as to carry out their
biochemical activities.
The ecosphere consists of 3 major portions:-
- Lithosphere:- this is the solid portion (the outer-most zone) of the earth which is
made up of rocks and minerals. This zone forms 30% of the earth surface and it is the
basis of human settlement.
- Hydrosphere:- this is the liquid (aquatic) part of the biosphere. It covers about 70%
of the earth’s crust. It consist of water in various forms; solid, liquid or gas (water
vapour), hydrosphere includes lakes, pools, spring, oceans, ponds, rivers, etc.
- Atmosphere: - this is the gaseous portion of the earth. It consists of three main
gases; nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and carbon (iv) oxide (0.03%). There are also
0.77% rare gases.
c. HABITAT
This is a place where an organism is naturally found. Habitat is always affected by
environmental factors. Habitat can be divided into three:-
- Aquatic habitat: this is where plants and animals (as well as micro organisms) live in
water e.g. Sea, ocean, lagoons, streams, etc.
- Terrestrial habitat: this is where the organisms live on land e.g. forests, grassland,
(savanna), desert etc.
- Arboreal habitat: These include tree trunks and tree tops where some organisms
(usually animals) are naturally found.
d. ECOLOGICAL NICHE
This refers to the habitat and the entire habit (behavioural, feeding, breeding) of an
organism. It is the physical space occupied by an organism and its functional role in the
community.
e. POPULATION
This is the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a habitat e.g.
population of cockroaches in Biology laboratory.
f. COMMUNITY
This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exists together in a habitat
e.g. a community of decomposer, insects and birds on a decaying log of wood.
g. ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM (ECOSYSTEM)
This refers to the basic functional unit in nature, which consists of all living factors and their
interaction with non-living factors of the environment. An ecosystem can be natural or
artificial.
h. BIOMES
This is a large natural terrestrial ecosystem. It is a plant and animal community produced
and maintained by the climate.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following A. Community B. Population C. Ecosystem
2. Differentiate between Biosphere and Ecosystem.

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COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Biosphere comprises of various ecosystems. There are two main components of the
ecosystem, the abiotic and the biotic components.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
These are non-living components and they are basic elements and compounds of the
environment in which an organism lives.

Abiotic components include organic substances (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins),
inorganic substances (e.g. CO2, H2O), climatic factors (e.g. light, temperature, rainfall) as well
as edaphic factors (e.g. soil types, texture, topography etc).

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
These are the living things in the ecosystem. These include the producers, the consumers
and the decomposers.
a. Producer: These are autotrophs in that they synthesize their food from simple
inorganic substances e. g. green plants, protophytes and chemosynthetic bacteria.
b. Consumers: These are heterotrophs which feed on the producers or one another.
They may be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers e.g. non-green plants,
animals protozoa and some bacteria
c. Decomposers: These are saprophytes. They break down remains of plants and
animals and release usable nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are used by plants
to make food e.g. fungi and some bacteria
Generally living things influence other living things in many ways such as in feeding
(parasitism), shading from sunlight, pollination and dispersal of seeds, competition. Some of
these factors are favourable while others are unfavourable.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a short note on ecosphere.
2. Differentiate between a habitat and ecological niche.
3. With two example each, state three subdivisions of habitat.
4. What is a population?
5. How is population related to the community?
6. Differentiate between ecosystem and biomes.
7. State the two major components of an ecosystem with two examples each.

WEEK SEVEN DATE

………………………
TOPIC: BIOMES
CONTENT
 Biomes
 Local Biomes
 World Biomes
BIOMES

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Biomes are large natural terrestrial ecosystem, identified by their dominant vegetation.
They are terrestrial because plants form the bulk of the community in any ecosystem e.g. a
forest biome has densely packed tall trees while grasses and few scattered shrubs are found
in a savanna biome. Climatic factors determine the type of vegetation in a biome. These
factors may include rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, wind and light.

EVALUATION
1. What is a biome?
2. Mention four factors that determine the vegetation of a biome.

LOCAL BIOMES
The local biomes particular to Nigeria include the following:
- mangrove swamp
- tropical rain forest
- savanna (northern and southern Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and sahel
savanna)
a. MANGROVE SWAMPS
These are found in the tropics along coastal region and river mouths. Mangrove swamps are
forest of small, evergreen, broad-leaved trees growing in shallow, brackish water or wet soil.
Many mangrove trees have pop roots and breathing roots called pneumatophores. The
climate here is hot and wet, with total annual rain fall of above 250cm and temperature of
about 260c. In Nigeria, mangrove swamps are found in the delta region of Lagos, Delta,
Rivers, Bayelsa and Cross rivers states.
b. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST:
This occurs in the region that is between the equator and latitude 50-100N and S. It has the
following characteristics:
- The forest are mainly lowland.
- The climate is hot and wet.
- It consists of broad leaved trees that are mostly ever green; the leaves are gradually
shed throughout the year and replaced by new ones.
- The trees form canopy strata with their interior having low light intensity, high
humidity and damp floor.
- The trees possess thin bark.
- The forest is rich in epiphytes and wood climbers.
- The annual rainfall and temperature are 200cm and 270c respectively.
In Nigeria, tropical rainfall is found in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo, Lagos, Rivers state e.t.c.
c. SAVANNA
These are tropical grassland in Africa. They are usually flat for miles at a stretch and made
up mainly of grasses. The savanna region has a hot and wet seasons (290c) which alternate
with a cool and dry season (180c). The total annual rainfall around 50cm-150cm. During the
dry season, the grasses are usually dry and brown and bush fire is common occurrences.
South Guinea savanna (the largest of all the biomes in Nigeria) has tall grasses with
scattered, deciduous trees. It is found in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti State
etc.
Northern Guinea Savanna has scattered, deciduous trees, sometimes with thorns and tick
barks. Grasses are short and numerous. it is found in plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Kano,
Adamawa states etc.

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Sudan savanna has the shorter grasses fewer trees which are more scattered. It is found in
Kano and parts of Borno, Sokoto, Niger, Bauchi states e.t.c

Sahel savanna has high temperature and low rainfall with short and scanty grasses as well as
short and tough shrubs or trees. The plants are drought-resistant. It is found in Borno,
Kastina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kano, Jigawa states etc.

EVALUATION
1. In a tabular form, distinguish between the three major biomes in Nigeria using the
following
a. Total annual rainfall
b. Temperature
c. Regions found
2. List five characteristics of savanna.

WORLD BIOMES
Of all abiotic factors affecting ecological system, temperature and rainfall determine the
world biomes. The biomes include: tropical rain forest, temperate forest, coniferous forest,
temperate shrubland, savanna, temperate grassland, desert, and tundra and mountain
vegetation.
a. TEMPERATE FORESTS
These are forests with the following characteristics they are
- Mainly of broad leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves during winter.
- Possession of moderately wet climate with a dry or cold season.
b. CONIFEROUS FORESTS
These are characterized by
- Needle-leaved evergreen conifers such as pines, firs.
- Possessing few trees.
- Possessing tall tree forming upper storey.
- The forest floor being covered with a thick layer or conifer needles.
- Possessing cool temperature climate with light rainfall and snow.
c. TEMPERATE SHRUBLAND
This is forest with the following characteristics
- It consists of drought-resistant shrub plants and dwarf trees, often fire-resistant e.g.
marquis.
- It has temperate climate with low rainfall.
d. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
This is characterized by:
- perennial grasses grow on very fertile soil to support herds of grazing mammals
- It has moderately dry climate with a cold winter and a hot summer
e. SAVANNA
This is a tropical grassland with:
- scattered trees and often infertile soil
- moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season
f. DESERT
This has:

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 - very sparse vegetation, with succulent perennials that have deep root systems.
- tropical temperate and afro-alpine regions with less than 25 cm annual rainfall.
g. TUNDRA
This is characterized by:
- treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichen and
moss with very few plant trees.
- cold climate with long icy winter and very short summer with an average
temperature of 100c.
h. MOUNTANE VEGETATION
This has:
- evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain, these forest are less luxuriant than the
tropical rainforest.
- Afro alpine vegetation occurs at heights above 3000m on mountain, vegetation
consists mainly of heath, grasses and sedges.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term biome?
2. State the local biomes found in Nigeria.
3. State the four savannas present in Nigeria.
4. What are the two factors that determine the world biomes?
5. State four of the world biomes with two characteristics each.
6. Using their characteristics, differentiate between savanna and desert.

WEEK EIGHT DATE

……………………
TOPIC: POPULATION
CONTENT
 Population Characteristics
 Population Studies
 Factors that Affect Population
 Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
These include population size, density, frequency, percentage cover and distribution.
a. Population size: - this is the number of organisms of the same species living together
in a given area at a particular time.
b. Population density: - this is the number of a particular species per unit area or
volume of the habitat. Therefore
Population density = population size / area of habitat.
c. Population frequency: - this is the number of times an organism occurs within a
given area or habitat.
d. Percentage cover: - this refers to how much space or area an organism occupies its
habitat.
e. Population growth rate: - this refers to the net result of the influence of natality
(birth rate) and mortality (death rate) of organism in a given habitat.

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 f. Population distribution: - this refers to the ways in which individuals of the same
species are arranged in a given habitat, either randomly, evenly or clumped.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms: (i) Percentage cover (ii) Population size (iii) Population
frequency (iv) Population density.
2. Mention two methods of determining population size.

POPULATION STUDIES
a. Choose the habitat.
b. Select the sampling method to be used.
c. Collect, count and record the different types of organisms present. Sampling using a
quadrant or transcent using a tape can be adopted.
d. Identify the dominant species i. e. the species that has greater influence on the other
members of the community.
e. Repeat the population studies at intervals.
f. Determine the population characteristics.

EVALUATION
1. How do you determine the population density of insect on a piece of land?
2. How do you determine the population of grasses in a piece of land?

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

a. Natality; Ability of organisms to reproduce to increase its population
b. Mortality; Death rate.
c. Immigration; Movement of organisms from different habitats into a new habitat and
this increases the population of the new area, decreasing the population of the
former habitat.
d. Emigration; Movement of organisms out of a habitat due to unfavourable conditions
e.g. food scarcity etc. This reduces the population of the habitat.
e. Availability of food; Animals tend to migrate to where there is plenty of food,
thereby increasing the population of such places.
f. Seasonal climatic changes; whether the change is favourable or not determines the
stay or migration of organisms into or out of a habitat.
g. Breeding season; some organisms move out of their habitats during this season (e.g.
fishes); hence the population drops.
h. Natural disasters; Like fire, drought, floods, earthquakes etc lead to a decrease in
population through the death of organisms out of such habitat

MEASUREMENT OF ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

These factors can be measured using some instruments as shown below.
INSTRUMENTS USES
a. Photometer Light intensity
b. Hydrometer Light intensity in water
c. Wind vane Direction of wind
d. Anemometer Speed of wind
e. Rainguage Amount of rainfall

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 f. Hygrometer Relative humidity
g. Barometer Pressure
h. Glass thermometer Temperature
i. Colorimeter or pH scale Acidity / Alkalinity
j. Secchi disc Turbidity
k. Sweep insect net Catching insects

EVALUATION
1. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the
population of a habitat.
2. Explain the effect of bush burning on the population.
3. List five ecological instruments and their uses

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. State the two components of an ecosystem
2. With two examples each, discuss the various biotic components in an ecosystem
3. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the
population of a habitat.
4. State five effects of over population in a community
5. State two Abiotic factors unique to: a) aquatic habitat b) terrestrial habitat.
6. List five measurable ecological factors.
7. State the ecological instruments used in measuring the factors listed above.

WEEK NINE DATE:

…………
TOPIC: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
CONTENT
 Feeding Relationship
 Trophic Levels
 Food Chain and Food Web
 Energy Flow and Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Transformation in Nature
 Laws of Thermodynamics
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
Since all living organisms must obtain energy and nutrients from the environment in order
to remain alive, they are into feeding relationships. This makes an ecosystem a functional
unit. All organisms fall into one of the three major groups of biotic community, namely:
producers (autotrophs), consumer (heterotrophs) and decomposers
a. The autotrophs provide food for other organism in the habitat. In terrestrial habitat,
they include grasses, trees and shrubs while aquatic autotrophs include
phytoplankton, seaweeds etc
b. The heterotrophic include: (i) herbivores (called primary consumers) feeding on
plants, carnivores (called secondary consumers) feeding on primary consumers and
omnivores is other animals called (tertiary consumers) that feed on secondary

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 consumer or on both. Terrestrial heterotrophs include cow, dog, lion, man etc while
water fleas, tadpoles, larvae of insect and fishes are aquatic heterotrophs
c. Decomposers like termites, larvae of housefly (maggot), bacteria and fungi break
down dead organic matter to release simple chemical compounds which can be
absorb and use again.
Of all the three biotic groups, consumers have better chance of survival than any other in an
ecosystem.

EVALUATION
1. State two examples each of the following in both terrestrial and aquatic habitat
A. Autotrophs B. heterotrophs C. Decomposers.
2. How do the three groups of organisms in one above relate?

TROPHIC LEVELS
In an ecosystem, energy and nutrients are transferred step by step among organisms along
a feeding path way. The feeding pathway in all ecosystems follows a similar pattern which is
as
follows:
a. It begins with a producer e.g green plant like grass.
b. The producer is eaten by a primary consumer e.g Zebra , goat.
c. The primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer e.g. lion.
d. Decomposers convert the remains of dead producers and consumers into simple
inorganic substance which return to the non –living environment. The difference in
the feeding pathways within an ecosystem or between different ecosystems is the
termination of the pathway. Some may end at the primary consumer step or may go
on to secondary consumer, tertiary consumer etc.

Trophic (feeding) level: is each step along a feeding pathway. The order in which the trophic
levels are arranged gives the path of energy (food) flow among the functional groups of
organisms. The trophic levels are numbered in ascending order, starting from one to
indicate the path of energy flow.

Trophic level 1 always consists of producers or autotrophs, trophic level 2 always consists of
primary consumers. Above trophic level 2, consumers could be carnivores, parasitic
organisms and scavengers. The final consumers eventually die and are fed upon by
decomposers.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the pattern that feeding pathway follow in all ecosystems.
2. What do you understand by feeding level?

FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB

This is the feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from producers
to consumers in a linear form.

Examples of food chain in terrestrial habitats are:

Grass zebra lion

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(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)

Guinea grass grasshopper toad snake hawk

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

In aquatic habitats are:

Spirogyra tadpoles crabs kingfish
(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Diatoms mosquito larva Tilapia fish whale

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Therefore, in a food chain, food energy is transferred from one organism to another in a
linear form. Most food chains begin with producers but few of them start with dead plants
or animals e.g
Humus earthworm domestic fowl man

Numerous food chains present in an ecosystem produce a food web.

FOOD WEB: - is a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment
with two or more interrelated food chains. Food webs therefore contain more organisms
than food chains. A single plant could be fed upon by more than one or two organisms
In an ecosystem, a consumer has a better chance of survival because it feeds on different
types of plants or animals in a food web.

EVALUATION
1. What is a food chain?
2. Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a A. marine B. terrestrial habitat.

ENERGY FLOW AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramids are diagrammatic representations used in ecology. They include pyramid of
number, pyramid of energy and pyramid of biomass.

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1. PYRAMID OF NUMBER: this refers to the numbers of individual organisms at each
trophic level, decreasing from the first to the last level in a food chain.

HAWKS
2
Decre
LIZARDS 5
asing
numbe
r of
GRASSHOPPERS 12 ograni
sms
GRASSES 40

Pyramid of number has the following defects: The individual organisms is given the same
status, though they varied greatly in size e. g. grass and trees grouped together as producer
and is not drawn to scale.

2. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: This is the amount of energy present in the living organisms at
different trophic level of a food chain, which decreases from the first to the last i. e.
from the base of the pyramid to the apex.
3. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the size and numbers of living organisms. It
represents the total wet or dry mass of the organisms in each trophic level. This gives a
more accurate picture of the relationship between the organisms at various trophic
levels in a food chain than the pyramid of numbers.

ENERGY LOSS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat.
The food is produced by green plants and other organisms depend on them. As energy is
passed from one organism to another along the food chain, it is progressively lost due to
respiration (energy used for various metabolic activities) and as heat. In most ecosystems,
only about 1 - 10% of the solar energy may be available to photosynthetic producers.

EVALUATION
1. What is a pyramid? State three types of ecological pyramids.
2. State the similarities between pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics simply means heat change. Heat as a form of energy that is subject to
change in living organisms is governed by two laws
a. First law of thermodynamics which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. E.g. chemical
energy in food is converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in our muscles when
we walk or run.
b. Second law of thermodynamics which state that in any conversion of energy from
one form to another, there is always a decrease in the amount of useful energy i. e.
no transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent efficient.
During metabolic activities, some chemical energy is constantly lost as heat energy from the
body of an organism. As energy is converted from one form to another, there will always be
a loss.

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FOOD CHAIN AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
(i) Using the first law: in a food chain, energy from the sun is transferred from the
producer to the final consumer and the sum total of the energy remains
constant.
(ii) Using the second law: as the energy is transformed from one trophic level to
another, part of it is converted into heat it is lost, among a progressive drop in
energy in successive trophic levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: The energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid is higher
and it is gradually transformed to other trophic levels.
(ii) Using the second law: As energy is transferred from one trophic level to another,
part of the energy is converted to heat.

ENERGY FLOW AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: Energy flows from producers to 1 0 consumers, then to 20
consumers and finally to 30 consumers in a food chain. The energy flow in a food
chain is therefore in one direction only.
(ii) Using the Second law: Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100%. Successive
levels have less useful energy and so can only support fewer organisms. Produce
(green plants) have the highest amount of energy. When herbivores feed on the
plants, the energy level is reduced. When carnivores consume the herbivores, the
energy level is reduced.

EVALUATION
1. State the laws of thermodynamics and explain.
2. Explain pyramid of energy and food chain using the laws of thermodynamic

WEEK TEN DATE:

…………………
TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
 Types of Association
 Features by organism of an association
TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS AND THEIR FEATURES
SYMBIOSIS OR MUTUALISM (+ +)
Definition: When both population benefit and at least one of them is so dependent upon
the other for some critical resource or function that it cannot survive in the
given environment without the other species is referred to as mutualism or
symbiosis. Symbiosis is a beneficial association and each member is called a
symbiont.

Examples and features of organisms in Symbiotic Association

a) Lichen: This result from mutualistic association between an alga and a fungus. The
alga carries out photosynthesis through it tallus while the fungus absorbs rain water

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 through its tangled network of mycelia which the alga uses to photosynthesize its
food. The fungus gets ready-made food from the alga.
b) Protozoa in the digestive tract of termites: The protozoa help the termite to digest
the cellulose in the food while protozoa are protected by the termites.
c) Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants: A bacterium
called Rhizobium leguminosarium living in the root nodules of leguminous plant
grow and multiply or reproduce there. In return, the rhizobium (bacterium) fixes
nitrogen directly into the plant from the atmosphere, thereby increasing the
nitrogen requirement of leguminous plants.
d) Micro-organisms in the intestinal tract of ruminants: Bacteria and other protozoa in
the rumen of ruminant animal like cattle, sheep and goat help the ruminant to digest
cellulose to sugars, synthesize amino acids and vitamins from other substances while
the ruminant in turn provides food and shelter for the bacteria.
e) Flower and insects: Insects obtain food from flowers in the form of pollen and
nectars while in return, the insects bring about cross-pollination in the plant they
visit, thus enabling plants to reproduce sexually.

PROTOCOOPERATION (+ +)
Definition: Protocooperation is an association between organisms of different species in
which both are mutually benefited but they can also survive individually of each
other. Unlike mutualism, the association in protocooperation is not obligatory.
Example and features of organisms in protocooperative association
a) Sea anemone and hermit crab: The sea anemone attaches itself to the shell of the
hermit crab. The sea anemone provides camouflage protection to the hermit crab
against predators while the hermit crab helps to transport the sea anemone to a
feeding ground. It helps the sea anemone obtain food during its movement.
b) Plover and crocodile: Plover (Pluvianus aegyptius), a crocodile bird, enters into the
mouth of the crocodile to feed on parasitic leeches. As it obtains food from the
mouth of the crocodile it also gets rid of the harmful leeches.
c) Cattle and egret: The bird, egret, feeds on the parasite on the body of cattle. As the
cattle benefits from the removal of parasites from it body, the egret benefits
because it obtains food from the association.
COMMENSALISM (+ 0)
Definition: Commensalism is an association between two organisms living together in which
only one (commensal) benefits from the association while the other neither
benefits nor is harmed.
Examples and features of organisms in Commensalism
a) Shark and Remora fish: The remora fish attaches itself o the body of a shark,
whereas the shark is neither harmed nor benefits as a result of the presence of the
remora fish.
b) Oyster and crabs: The habitation of a crab is in the oyster shell in which case the
crab is not protected and no harm is done to the oyster.
c) Man and intestinal bacteria: Some bacteria in the large intestine of man feed on
digested food there. The bacteria receive food and protection from the man
whereas the man neither gains nor suffer any disadvantages from the presence of
the bacteria.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 55

EVALUATION
1. What are symbiosis and commensalism?
2. Explain two examples of symbiosis and commensalism.

AMENSALISM (- 0)
Definition: Amensalism is an association between two organisms of different species where
one species is inhibited or killed and the other is unaffected. In amensalism, one does not
allow the organism to live or grow near it. This relationship is also called antibiosis. The
species affected is called amensal while the species causing the effect is called the inhibitor.
This inhibiton is done by the release of chemicals known as allochemics or allelopathic
substances.
Examples of amensalism
a) Penicillium notatum and bacteria: Penicillium releases antibiotics known as penicillin
which inhibits the growth of bacteria.
b) Streptomyces griseus and bacteria: Like Penicillium, Streptomyces also secretes
chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria.

PARASITISM (- +)
Definition: Parasitism is a close association between two organisms in which one, known as
the parasite, lives in or on and feeds at the expense of the other organism which is known as
the host. The parasite benefits from the association while the host usually suffers harm or
may die.

Examples and Features of Organisms in Parasitism.

a) Man and tapeworm: The tapeworm is a parasite the lives in the small intestine of
man where it derives the benefits of a habitat, protection and food. The tape worm
attaches itself to the small intestine of man by means of hook and sucker. In the wall
of the small intestine, absorption of digested food takes place from which the
tapeworm benefits. The man who is the host suffers because he loses to the
tapeworm part of the food he has eaten and digested.
b) Mistletoe and flowering plant: The mistletoe is a plant parasite that lives on other
larger flowering plants. The mistletoe benefits because it is raised up to a position
from which it can receive sunlight. The parasite also absorbs water and mineral salts
from the host while the host suffers harm by losing to the parasite part of the water
and mineral salts that it has absorbed.

PREDATION (- +)
Definition: Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator
kills the other called the prey and directly feeds on it. The predator which is usually larger in
size and always stronger than the prey is completely eliminated.
Examples of Predation
a) The hawk and chicks of domestic fowls: The hawk is the predator that catches, kills and
eats the prey (young chicks) of domestic fowls. The hawk benefits while the chicks are
completely eliminated.
b) The lion and goat: The lion is the predator that catches, kills and eats the prey (goat).
The lion is stronger and bigger than the goat. The lion benefits while the goat is
completely eliminated.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 56

REVISIONAL QUESTIONS
1. Define parasitism and predation.
2. Give two examples of parasitism and predation.
3. State the differences between parasitism and amensalism.
4. Mention two growth hormones each in plants and animals.
5. Discuss the stages involved in mitotic cell division.
6. Outline four life processes involving mitosis.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 57

TERM: 2ND TERM
SUBJECT: CIVIC EDUCATION
SS 1
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS
1. Revision of Last Term’s Work
2. Voter Education
Meaning of voting
Voters Registration and related rules
3. Voter education
Process of voting
Importance of voting
4. Election
Meaning
Importance of election
5. Electoral Bodies in Nigeria
INEC, SIEC
Composition and roles
6. Free & Fair Elections
Meaning
Importance
7. Electoral malpractice
Meaning & Forms
Causes
Ways of preventing electoral malpractice
8. Planning for results
Need for planning
Benefits
Consequences of not planning
9. The current Nigerian constitution
Meaning
Sources of Nigerian constitution
10. The current Nigerian
Constitution
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 58
 Features
Functions
12 & 13 Test & Examination
WEEK ONE
TOPIC: Reviewed of last Term’s work

Teacher Review last Term work with the students and corrected them where necessary.

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: VOTER EDUCATION
CONTENT:
Voter’s education is a process of teaching, training and learning about a political activity that
will guide the electorates before, during and after the election in a country.

Voting
Voting in its widest meaning is an act of choosing candidates of choice by the electorates or
voters.

The electorate will go to the polling station on a voting day, to exercise their civic right.

At the poll, each of the electorate or voter is given a ballot paper and after thumbprint secretly
drops it in a ballot box of the candidate or party of his choice. There are electoral officials to
hand over the ballot papers to the voters and to monitor the conduct of the process.

VOTER’S REGISTRATION
Voter’s registration is the act of preparing an official record of those that are qualified to vote
during the election period. i.e any body that attains the ages of 18years and above and of sane
mind are qualified to vote.
Voters list must be publicly displayed for objections and complains that may arise.

Evaluation
See your work book for the exercise.
WEEK THREE
TOPIC: VOTER EDUCATION
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 59
Process of Voting
Before the date of Election each qualified voter is expected to have registered. At the
registration centre he will be given a voter’s card which qualifies him for voting on the day of
election.

On election day, the electorate goes to the centre where he was registered. He presents his
voter’s card and he will be accredited for voting.

After accreditation, he is given the ballot paper where all the political parties and their logos
are written.

IMPORTANCE OF VOTING
1. Voting create avenue for people to participate in the decision – making of their
country.
2. It is an instrument for a peaceful change of bad leaders or dictatorial government.
3. Voting is the yard stick for measuring public opinion either to vote against during
election period.
4. It is an instrument for promoting national unity in a plural society like Nigeria.
5. People are given equal status or equal political opportunity to elect their
representatives.
Evaluation
1. List the importance of voting or see your work book for exercise.

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: MEANING OF ELECTION
An election can be defined as an act, or process of voting for a candidate to represent the
people of a country in the various arms of government.
The concept of election implies that the voters have wider choices and can choose among
them that will transform the country.

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTION
1. Choice of leaders: Elections give the people in a country the opportunity for choosing
their leaders into different political offices like the President, Governor, Legislators
etc.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 60
2. It promotes Democracy: Election is one of the pillars of democracy. Regular free and
fair elections help in sustaining democracy in any country.
3. Easy and peaceful change of Government: Elections provide an opportunity for the
masses to peacefully remove bad government from office and ensures peaceful
change of government from one regime to another. Thanks to peaceful removal of
Goodluck Ebele Jonathan from office and president Mohammadu Buhari comes in.
4. It checks the excesses of Leaders: Leaders with oppressive and tyrannical tendencies
tend to change knowing fully well that the electorates may not vote them in again if
they do not rule well. No thanks to the regime of late Military junta General Sanni
Abacha in Nigeria.
5. It provide opportunity for political education: Election provides a forum for political
parties to give political education to the masses. This is done through campaigns and
rallies where parties unfold their manifestoes to the masses.

Evaluation
See your work book for exercise.

WEEK FIVE
TOPIC: ELECTORAL BODIES IN NIGERIA
INDEPENDENT ELECTORAL COMMISSION (INEC)
The independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) is the main agent of democracy in
Nigeria. INEC is a permanent body created by the constitution to organize Federal, state and
Local Government council elections in Nigeria.
Functions of Electoral Commission
1. They educate Nigerian citizens about democracy and election process in Nigeria
2. Registration of voters and party candidates: They organize how voters are registered
before elections. It also provides registers for candidates contesting for various
political positions under various political parties e.g APC, PDP etc.
3. Delimitation of constituency: They demarcate constituency boundaries for elections
into Houses of Assembly, Representatives and that of the Senate.
4. They control political parties Electoral commissions monitor the activities of political
parties in Nigerian.
5. They promote Democracy: They promote an enduring democratic culture in Nigeria
through transparency.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 61
 State Independent Electoral Commission (SIEC)
Following the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the state Independent
Electoral commission has power to
i. Organize, undertake and supervise all elections to local Government within a state.
ii. Advise INEC on the compilation and Register of voters for Local Government
election.
The SIEC has its own chairman and seven other persons that are normally appointed
by INEC

Evaluation
See your work book for exercise.

WEEK SIX
FREE AND FAIR ELECTION
Over the years, electoral malpractices have been a major problems confronting the country.
Nigeria. Hence, the need for free and fair elections in Nigeria.
1. The free and fair election is inevitable because it enhances peaceful co-existence of
people in a country.
2. It allows for visionary and dedicated leaders to emerge at all level in the country that
will contribute positively to the growth and development of the country.
3. The need to project the country’s name in the international community across the
globe.
4. Free and fair election helps to strengthen the democratic institution such as
Legislature, Independent National Electoral commission, Judiciary, press etc.
5. It foster democracy.

Evaluation
See your work book for exercise.

WEEK SEVEN
TOPIC: Electoral Malpractice
Sub Topic: Forms of Electoral Malpractices in Nigeria.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 62

1. Compilation of fictitious names
2. Illegal compilation of separate voter’s list.
3. Falsification of election figures.
4. Abuse of voter’s list exercise
5. Allowing under age to vote
6. Harassment, intimidation and victimization of candidates, agents and voters.
7. Manipulation of the process by the ruling party
8. Corruption and bias at various election tribunals

Causes of Electoral Malpractices

One of the causes of Electoral Malpractice in Nigeria is to perpetuate one ethnic group or
party in office at the detriment of other ethnic groups. This is done primarily for selfish and
parochial interest i.e.

Ethnic/Cultural Hegemony in office forever. This has been the bane of Nigeria political
scene since independence.

No thanks to PDP that wanted to impose itself on the populace since May 29th 1999. Thanks
to coming to power of Buhari. APC led government in 2015 April election in the presidential
election.

Long years of Military rule in Nigeria coupled with external influence are traceable factors to
electoral malpractice in Nigeria.

WAYS OF PREVENTING ELECTORAL MALPRACTICES IN NIGERIA

1. There should be proper delimitation of constituency on equal population basis to give
room for equal representation.
2. The electoral body must be a true independent body and non-partisan
3. The electoral commission must take make proper compilation of names of eligible
voter’s list.
4. The voter’s registers must be displayed to remove dead one’s name and as well
include qualified ones
5. Proper and adequate security must be put in place to create conducive atmosphere for
electorates to exercise their voting rights.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 63
Evaluation
see your work book for exercise.
WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: Planning for Results
NEED FOR PLANNING
1. To ensure and increase the rate of economic development. Planning assist in
increasing the rate of capital formation by raising the levels of income, saving and
investment.
2. To remove widespread unemployment
3. To remove high level of poverty and bring about even distribution of resources to the
people
4. To promote risk management in executing public project and enhance organizational
and individual learning.
5. Planning would enhance proper growth and development so that we would be able to
measure our performance with other Advanced Democracies of the west as well as
“Asian Tigers – China, Malaysia, Singa pore and South Korea as well.

BENEFITS OF PLANNING
1. Planning enable us to know what should be done, when, without proper planning,
projects or programmes may be implemented at the wrong time or in the wrong
manner and result in poor outcomes.
2. Planning helps us to manage crises and ensure smoother implementation.
3. Planning improves focus on priorities and lead to more efficient use of time, money
and other resources.
4. Planning helps to determine what success will look like.
A proper plan helps individuals and units to know whether the results achieved are
those that were intended and to assess any discrepancies.

CONSEQUENCIS OF NOT PLANNING

1. Lack of planning or inadequate planning may lead to wastage of materials and human
resources.
2. It may lead to vicious circles of poverty. If people are backward and illiterate, lack in
technical skill, knowledge and entrepreneurial activity. The natural resources will
tend to remain unutilized, underutilized or even misutilized.
MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 64
3. There will be low rate of capital formation in the country low productivity leads to
low real income, low saving, low investment and to low rate of capital formation.
4. Lack of planning hindered economic growth and development in the society.
5. Unplanned economy may lead to state of anarchy, chaos, kidnapping, acrimony,
killing, harassment and intimidation of innocent citizens in the society. No thanks to
problems of kidnapping and militancy in Niger Delta, Boko Haram in the Northern
Nigeria etc.

MEANING OF PLANNING
Planning can be defined as the process of setting goals, developing strategies, outlining the
implementation arrangements and allocating resources to achieve those goals.

Evaluation
see your work book for exercise.

WEEK NINE
TOPIC: The Current Nigerian constitution.
Meaning
The Constitution is the Fundamental law of the land. The constitution also states the rights,
duties and obligations of the citizens e.g The 1999 constitution in Nigeria.

SOURCES OF THE CONSTITUTION

i. History of the People
The history of the people had to be consulted in enacting a constitution past political
developments do form a part of their history
ii. Acts of Parliaments
The laws made by the parliament form the constitutional frame work.
iii. Customs and Traditions.
In a plural society like ours, customs and Traditions, beliefs, norms and values are
important when preparing a constitution.
iv. Past constitutions of the United States of America served as a model of the 1979
constitution.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 65

v. Books written by Chief Obafemi; Awolowo, Path to Nigeria Freedom also served as a
guide in the constitution. Others include Books written by Nnamdi Azikiwe,
Myodyssey and Chiefy Anthony Enahoro among others.

Evaluation: See Akwa Past Questions papers for more practice

WEEK TEN
TOPIC: FEATURES OF THE 1999 CONSTITUTION
SUB TOPIC: Functions of the 1999 constitution
1. The Preamble:
A constitution contains a preamble which declare its aspiration
2. The political structure
It states the structure of government; whether unitary or Federal and at the same time
defines the division of powers among the component units in the state.
3. The political institutions
The constitution also defines the powers and functions of there institutions such as the
executive, Legislative and Judicial, Arms of government.
4. The Party System
The constitution also reveals the type of party system to adopt – one party, two-party
or multi party systems.
5. Fundamental Human Rights
It defines the rights of citizens, their duties and obligations to the state.
6. Tenure of Office of government
The 1979 constitution states that a government should stay in office for four years.

FUNCTIONS
1. It allows for proper documentation and entrenchment of Fundamental human rights.
2. It allays the fear of domination by the majority over the minority groups.
3. Procedure for amendment is clearly stated i.e 2/3 majority of both houses.
4. It served as easy reference for judges at the law courts while deciding cases.
5. It ensures political stability.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 66

The 1999 constitution maintained the Executive presidential system of government in which
the president is the Head of State, the Head of Government in Chief of the Armed Forces. It
provides for clear separation of powers among organs of government.

Under the 1999 constitution, the executive powers of a state shall be vested in the Governor
of that state and may be exercised by him either directly or through the Deputy Governor and
commissioners of the Government of that state or officers in the public service of the state,
while the Judicial powers of the Federation and the state are vested in the courts established
for the federation and the states and the supreme court of Nigeria remains the highest court of
Appeal for Nigeria.

The National Assembly shall remain Bicameral in nature with 109 members in the House of
Senate (3 senators per state, and 1 for Abuja) while the house of Representatives has 360
members, each representing the 360 Federal constituencies.

The long list of local Government functions are state there

1. It defines the educational qualification, therefore it reduces illiteracy and inexperience
in government
2. There is greater political awareness through local government administration
3. It paves ways for civilian administration in Nigeria
4. It states the rights and duties of citizens
5. It upholds the principle of checks and balances which checks the excesses of those in
authority.

DEMERITS OF THE 1999 CONSTITUTION

1. The constitution was imposed by the Military head of state
2. It is difficult to amend due to the rigidity nature of the constitution
3. The constitution was drafted to favour Abacha’s and Abdulsalam’s the then Military
helmsmen.
4. The constitution vested too much power on the president and the Federal government.
5. There is too much centralization of the Judiciary which negates the principle of
Federalism

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 67

 SECOND TERM ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS :SS.1
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK 1: WORD FORMATION PROCESS – AFFIXATION [PREFIX AND
SUFFIX]
WEEK 2: COMPREHENSION- NOSEC. HOME AND FAMILY LIFE.
WEEK 3: COMPOSITION/ LETTER WRITING- FORMAL LETTER
WEEK 4: VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT- SYNONYMS
WEEK 5: COMPREHENSION- READING [SCANNING]
WEEK 6: WORDS ASSOCIATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHY
WEEK 7: GRAMMAR –ADVERBS AND TENSE
WEEK 8: ANTONYMS
WEEK 9: COMPOSITION –MORE ON ESSAY TYPES
WEEK 10: GENERAL REVISION CLASS [GRC]

WEEK 1 SS1
TOPIC: AFFIX (AFFIXATION)
Affix : An element that is added to a base or root word to form another word. Affixes can be
in the form of prefixes or suffixes.
A PREFIX: is an affix that is added to the beginning of a word e.g. “audio” in “audio-visual”
is both a prefix and an affix.
“lA SUFFIX: is an affix that is added to the end of a word. Thus, aholic” in ”workaholic “is
a suffix and an affix. Here are some common prefixes with their meaning.

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

a- on afloat, above
ab- away, from absolve, abnormal
ante- before ante-natal, ante-room
anti- against ante-aircraft, anti-body
con- with, together confederation, conjunction
de- down, below, opposite defreeze, depress
di- two, twice, double disyllabic, detractive
en- in, make enclose, enlarge
bi-, two, twice, double bicycle, bilingual
ex- out, away export, exhale
ex- former ex-wife, ex-student
fore- before forehead, forever on
hyper- more, greater hyperactive, hypertension
inter- between, among international, interchange.

SUFFIXES: examples are

1. Some suffixes make the new words adjective. They include –any, -evy, -en, -ish, -
less, -ly, -ous, -ic, like, -y, -ful, e.g dangerous, useless.
2. Those which make the words verbs include, -ing, -ed, -ude, -em, -ure, -ise, -ize, -yse,
e,g nationalize, lighten.
3. Suffixes which two words into nouns include: -er, -or, -ar, -er, -ship, -hood,-ness, -
ance,-ism,-dom,-tion, -ity, -ure, e.g punishment, friendship, childhood.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 68

A ROOT: is the smallest or basic part of a word which is joined by a prefix or suffix. E.g
happy – unhappy, solve –dissolve, come – welcome. We can also add suffixes to these words
such as happiness, solvent, comes/comedy

EVALUATION: Complete the following by supplying suitable prefixes, using these: (dis,
ex, il, im, in, ir, fore, de, mis, un)
(a) ------- port, (b) ------ legal (c) ----- take (d) -----quality (e) ----- press (f) -----manage
(g) ----safe (h) ----rail (i) ------sufficient (j) ---- moral (k) ---- direct (l) ---- polite.

Complete the following by supplying suitable suffixes using these: (ful, ness, able, less,
ment, er, ant, al, or)
(a) Happy (b) accident (c) profession (d) harm (e) hope (f) engine (g) fair (h) attend (i)
miser (j) enjoy (k) judge (l) farm

ASSIGNEMT: Give 2 examples of words that have the following prefixes in them: mat,
ploy, post, pro, re, sub, super, tele, tri, trans, uni, dis, in, mis, non, un, im, il

WEEK 2
TOPIC: COMPREHENSION (THE QUEST FOR HEALTH) page 68 -69
Reading for Details and inference.
1. The word “key “as used in the first paragraph in the passage refers to a fuller degree
of physical Health.
2. Health is being in a perfect state and where the body and mind are active.
Disease is when there is no health, and where one does not maintain perfect health,
one welcomes attack by different types of diseases.
3. The five (S) things that a nurse must be taught are: (i) giving attention to diet (ii)
cleanliness (iii) fresh air (iv) rest (v) exercise
4. A person needs to correct certain injurious habits because bodily healthy must be
restored.
5. A physician fights disease by seeking to maintain and restore health
6. The right method for avoiding disease is to concentrate on resting or maintaining
positive health.

EVALUATION: Give the meaning context or contextual meanings of these words as

used in the passage:
1. Endeavour
2. Afflicted
3. Ailment
4. Concentrating
5. Adhere
6. Restoration
7. Nutrition

Summarizing the story: (page 70) use the questions that follow to make up a list of points
for writing a summary of the passage.
Use appropriate linking words and verbs like the ones in these lists
Linking words reporting verbs

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 69

 Consequently noted
Apparently observed
Furthermore explained
Finally maintained.

ASSIGNMENT: summarize the passage in six (6) sentences.

WEEK 3
TOPIC: COMPOSITION/ WRITING: LETTER TO THE CHAIRMAN OF YOUR
LOCAL GOVERNMENT ARAE REQUESTING FOR SOME AMENITIES NEEDED
IN YOUR COMMUNITY (CDA)
CONTENT:
Formal letter is an official letter or business letter, written to those in places of authority
to lodge a complaint, make a request, make a recommendation or even express your
concern or any negative development that may be hindering progress of a place or
community.
Question: write a letter to the chairman of your local government area requesting for
some amenities needed in your community.

Answer:
7 Olarenwaju Street,
Oke-odo,

Agege.
Lagos State.
30thJanu
ary, 2018.
The Chairman,
AgbadoOkeodo Local government,
Area ,
P.O. Box 4219.
Dear Sir,
A REQUEST FOR SOME AMENITIES NEEDED IN MY COMMUNITY
Since you assumed office about a year ago, there had been rapid development that has
been experienced by the citizens of our local government, keep up the good work sir.
I use this medium to request for some amenities that are needed in my community
which are: street lights, public toilet and a functional hospital.
Our roads are now good and the only facility that we need is the installation of street
light. This is because my community is densely populated hence, the crime rate is high. If
we have functioning street lights, it will aid the security of life and property.

MR OSHO/2ND TERM/GEOGRAPHY/SS 1 Page 70

 There are no functioning public toilets and the ones that are available are being over
stretched. They are not being maintained property. Some people do defecate all around
the environment and as a result, there might be an outbreak of cholera and any other
serious ailments attached to this.
We also need two or three functioning hospital because health is wealth. As you have
promised us in your manifesto, that the total well-being and comfort of the people will be
your top priority.
We will be very grateful if all our requests are given thoughtful consideration. Our
people also want to enjoy the dividend of democracy that you party stands for.

Yours Faithfully,

Signature of Writer,

Olanrewaju Abraham.
EVALUATION:
Write a letter to the chairman of your local government area, suggesting some ways by which
proper sanitation and cleanness of your surrounding / environment can be maintained. (450
words)
ASSIGNMENT: Compare and contrast formal letter and an informal letter (writing).
TOPIC:
STRUCTURE : TENSE (simple, present, tense, simple past tense, present perfect tense,
past perfect tense, present continuous present perfect continuous tense.
CONTENT
TIME AND TENSE
The words time and tense are not synonymous. Time stands for a concept with which all
humans are familiar. Time is divided into past, present, and future. Time is independent of
language. Tense stands for a verbs form or series of verb forms used to express a time
relation. Tense vary in different languages. Tense may indicate whether an action, activity, or
state is past, present, or future.
1. THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: This is used to show an action that occurs
always or an occupation. (a) They work hard (b) she sells rice
2. THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE: Is used for an action that took place in the past. (a)
They worked hard (b) She sold bead a year ago
3. THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: Is used for an action which has just finished.
It is formed by using has orhave and a past participle. No definite time such as
yesterday, last year, orat 4 o’clock should be used with has or have. (a) They have
really worked hard (b) She has just sold some bread
4. THE PAST PERFCT TENSE: Is used to indicate than an action took place before
another in the past. It is formed by using had and a past participle. (a) When she had
sold bread she went home. (b) Before the supervisor arrived, they had worked very
hard.
5. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: Is used for an action that is going on
now. Now that you should always show that the action is still going on as at the time
of reporting in ïng”. (a) She is selling bread to a customer now. (b) They are working
hard.

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 6. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: Is used to show an action
that began sometime ago and is still going on. (a) She has been selling bread for three
years. (b) They have been working hard.

EVALUATION: Select the right option from these questions

1. Are you deaf? I asked you… (a) how old are you (b) how old is your age (c) how old
you were (d) what is your age.
2. We would have many geniuses if students ….(a) are always reading (b) can read more
often (c) are willing to read always (d) would read more often
3. Sometimes I wish my husband ------(a) doesn’t snore so badly (b) didn’t snore so
badly (c) won’t snore so badly (d) will stop snoring when he sleeps.
4. Would your parents like it --- (a)if I am to visit you more often? (b) you are to visit
me more often? (c) I visited you more often? (d) if I visit you less often?
5. Who ----? Because now we can’t use it to hold water (a) had broken the jug (b) has
broken the jug (c) could break the jug (d) wanted to break the jug.

ASSIGNMENT: With two examples (each) in sentences explain yhe following tenses
1. The present perfect continuous tense
2. The present continuous tense
3. The past perfect tense.

WEEK 4
TOPIC
: VOCABULARY DEVELOPNMENT; SYNONYMNS (WORDS EXACTLY THE
SAME INMEANING AND WORDS THAT ARE NEARLY THE SAME)
CONTENT
SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words that are nearest in meanings for example, odour, smell, scent,. Note
that it is very rare indeed for two words to have exactly the same meaning. If it does
happen, the tendency is for one to drop completely out of use and be totally forgotten.
Consider these examples
Painting, drawing, portrait, print, and sketch.
These are all words for a scene, person, or thing that has been represented on paper by
drawing, painting e.t.c
Picture: a scene, person or thing that has been represented on paper using a pencil, a pen
or paint. Sentence: The children were drawing pictures of their pet
Drawing: A picture that has been made using pencil or pen, not pant Sentence: This is a
pencil drawing/ charcoal drawing.
Portrait: a painting, drawing or photograph of a person, especially of the head and
shoulders. Sentence: The portrait of Nelson Mandela.
Note :A self –portrait (is a painting that you do yourself)
Paint :A picture that has been copied from a painting using photography. Sentence: The
printed copy is out.
Sketch:A simple picture that is drawn quickly and does not have many details. Sentence:
I usually do a few very rough sketches before Istart on a painting.
EVALUATION:

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 The following exercise contain synonymous expression. Keep them apart by choosing the
appropriate one in each context
Synonyms ( Arrange, organise, plan)
We were taught that to write a good essay, we must first organize our ideas logically.
And, darling, before we buy anything, let’s plan the kitchen on paper. I shouldn’t be
telling you that because as a Librarian, you are familiar with how to arrange books in
alphabetical order. But could you arrange a meeting with the members of my family for
Monday, please?
ASSIGNMENT
Give the meaning of the following words and use them in sentences
1. Hide
2. Great
3. Funny
4. Floor
5. fabric

WEEK 5 SS1
TOPIC: (WRITING AND LISTENING) THE HINDING PARTH OF STEEL
DEVELOPNMENT
CONTENT:
READING FOR FACTS (SCAMMING)
REFERENCE BOOK INTENSIVE ENGLISH (PAGE 133 – 136) ANSWER THE
QUESTIONS

ASSIGNMNET: READ THE COMPR EHENSION AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

THAT FOLLOWS ON PAGE 136 -137

WEEK 6
TOPIC: VOCABULARY DEVELOPNMENT (SEXUALITY AND RELIGION) WORDS
ASSOCIATED WITH PHOTOGRAGHY
CONTENT:
WORDS ASSOCIATED WITH SEXUALITY AND RELIGION
Do you believe in life of the spirit and in one or more 1? if you believe that there is only one
God, it means you are 2 (a monotheist) but if you believe that there is more than one good,
you are 3 .
In ant case, some people belief that God does not exist. They are referred to as 4 . Some
others, are however, not sure whether or not God exists, they are called 5 . Every form of
religion has its own 6 and particular mode of 7 .

A B C D
1. Wizards witches beings
goods
2. Monotheist monotheistic polytheist polytheistic
3. Multitheistic bilingual polytheist polycap
4. Athiest atheist atheism polythene
5. principle rules dogma agnostics
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6. principle rules dogma doctrine
7. praises worship sacrifice rituals

EVALAUTION: Use the options to fill in the blank spaces.

The 1you use when taking photographs has a2 . This button is pressed in order to take a
photogragh. When you press the botton or ---- 3--- the switch, the –4—allows light to pass
through the –5—of the camera on to the –6—inside it producing a chemical change on the
film. The –7—(amount of time during which you allow the light in) can make or mar your
photograph.
A B C D
1. Lens camera phone photo
2. Shutter button shutter release shutter shutter release button
3. Switch snap tab cassette
4. Shutter crank darkroom exposure
5. camera lens lentor button
6. Cartridge movie film crank
7. Shutter level shutter speed shutter rate shutter hight
ASSIGNMNET:
Transcribe the following words and give their various meanings
1. Apostasy
2. Ablutions
3. Immersion
4. Confirmation.

WEEK 7
TOPIC:
GRAMMAR: ADVERBS AND TENSE
SUB TOPIC: (FEATURES AND FUNCTION, USING ADVERBS IN SENTENCES
AND PRESENT TENSE.
CONTENT:
ADVERBS: An adverbs is a word that adds to our intonation about a verb, about an adjective
and about another adverbs.
E.g Work (verb) rapidly (adverbs)
Extremely (adverbs) beautiful (adjective
Sleeping (verb) soundly (adverb)
FEATURES OF ADVERBS
Frequently adverbs in the category of (adverbs of manner) are formed by adding ly to an
adjective.
Examples of these include:
ADJECTIVE ADVERBS
Anxious anxiously
Bad badly
Cautious cautiously
Elegant elegantly
Unwilling unwillingly
Vain vainly
Weak weakly
Quick quickly

TENSE (PRESENT TENSE)

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What is Tense? This is the form of a verb that is used to show the time at which the action of
a the verbs takes place. One of the tenses in English is the present tense.
What is present tense? The present tense is used to indicate an action now going on or a state
now existing.
A distinction can be made between the habitual present which works habitual or repeates
actions or recurring events, and the staure present, which indicates something that is true at
all times.
Examples:
1. He works long hours
2. She walks to work
3. The world is round

The simple present tense is used to show an action that occurs always or an occupation.
I eat rice every day.
She sells bread.
EVALUATION: Make each of these an adverbs
1. QUICK 2. BRIGHT 3. CAREFUL 4.
BAD
4. GOOD 5. DEEP 6. CLEARER 7. HARD

8. TRUE
ASSIGNMENT: PROGRESIVE ENGLISH (PAGE 69) EXERCISE 3A QUESTION 1 – 10
WEEK 8: ANTONYMS –WORDS THAT ARE OPPOSITE IN MEANING
Antonyms is a concept used to describe oppositeness of meaning. Unlike Synonyms, there
are true Antonyms. In Natural languages, there are different types of oppositeness and their
various types of oppositeness and these various types are :
GRADABLE ANTONYMS which are antonyms used in comparative construction and they
are usually comparative Adjectives either ending in –er or occurring with more- . e.g older,
younger, more brilliant e.t.c
COMPLIMENTARITY is a type of oppositeness that exhibits incompatibility in that the
items are usually complementary to each other.e.g
Mr Lanre is married -implies that Mr Lanre is not single.
ASSIGNMENT:
Explain the following types of ANTONYMS with adequate examples in words:
a. Gradable
b. Complimentarity

WEEK 9 :
TOPIC : COMPOSITION : MORE ON ESSAY TYPES
THE DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY
THE EXPOSITORY ESSAY
THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
THE NARRATIVE ESSAY.
ASSIGNMENT :
1. Teachers are more essential to a community than Doctors
2. Benefits of self discipline among today’s youths

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