Conditions under which learning takes place

(A) Motivation
Motivation involves the processes that energize, direct and sustain behaviour (that is motivated
behavior is behaviors that is energized, directed and sustained). Students would learn more when
they are motivated. They learn to put more effort in where they have a lot of interest. A strong
and continuous desire always leads to good learning. Learners have interests and needs which
continually speed their attention. It is necessary that teachers arrange work which permits
students to satisfy intellectual needs which they learn ideas.
How to motivate students
 By the teacher being competent and motivated- Being an expert in the subject matter,
showing enthusiasm when you teach and presenting yourself as a model who is intrinsically
motivated.
 Create an optimal match- Give students work which is appropriate to their level of skills
 Raise confidence- Providing students with both instructional and emotional support that
encourages them to tackle learning with confidence and minimum of anxiety.
(Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde and Whalen 1993)
 Capitalizing on students existing needs (that students bring into the class)
 Make students active participants in learning- doing, making, writing, designing, creating,
solving etc) inactivity dampens students motivation
 Incorporating instructional behaviours that motivate students
 Hold realistic expectations for your students e.g. expecting them to be motivated,
hardworking, interested in the course
 Avoid creating intense competition among students-but to work co-operatively
 Work from students strength or interests
 Increase the difficulty of the material taught with time
 Vary your teaching methods
 Give students feedback as quickly as possible
 Reward success- e.g. praise which builds students self confidence
 Avoid demeaning comments
(B) Psychological security
For learning to take place, participation of the learner is essential. The learner would not
participate freely unless he feels secure. The teacher cannot teach the child through threats. The
learner must be given the stimulating the environment- in which the pupil is encouraged to try
and therefore, more likely to learn
_ The teacher should not be authoritarian as he does not inspire confidence, gives no chance to
trial, make errors etc
(D) Feedback
A student should be given information about how he is learning. Immediate feedback is
that which is given immediately after the student has been thought. Revision tests and papers
promptly and reward successes publicly and immediately. Give students some indications of how
well they have done and how to improve
Delayed feedback is one given after a long time after teaching
- Good teaching relays immediate feedback
(E) Practice: Practice makes perfect. Repetition is important in bringing certain habits up to a
point where they can come naturally to the student

Factors that affect teaching and learning

1. Individual motivation
Communicating information is a necessary but not sufficient condition for workable knowledge to be
created. The success of the learning process ultimately depends on the learner himself or herself.
2. Resource base of the school: School resources constitute an important aspect in creating an enabling
teaching and learning environment. Schools with few financial resources tend to perform poorly
compared to schools with greater financial resources. Good budget means adequate teaching resources,
pleasant, comfortable surroundings.
3. Class size: this impact on the teaching and learning environment with larger classes performing poorly
in comparison to classes with fewer learners. There is no total agreement about the optimal class size
but classes with over 50 students are detrimental to proper teaching and learning.
4. Formal contact hours: This denotes the amount of time educators spend on educational activities,
especially teaching and learning in the classroom. If the formal contact hours are less, then it means that
in relative terms, little is done at school.
5. Assessment
There is need for assessment of performance. Mechanisms to assess the learner's progress should be
sought. Some scholars stress that it is important to fix learning objectives and test learners to see if
objectives have been reached. Testing could also be an ingredient for motivating learners and staff to
learn.
6. Extent of parental involvement: The parents’ level of involvement in school academic affairs is
important. Parents’ involvement may include checking learners’ notes.
7. Student characteristics: Special education students may need modifications. Blind and hearing
impaired students may need special treatment. This may affect the amount of material learnt by other
students.

Levels of Learning: Blooms Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a framework for categorizing educational goals and objectives. It consists
of six levels, which range from lower-order thinking skills to higher-order thinking skills. Here
they are, from lowest to highest:

 Remembering: Recall facts and basic concepts (e.g., defining terms, listing items).
 Understanding: Explain ideas or concepts (e.g., summarizing information, interpreting
data).
 Applying: Use information in new situations (e.g., solving problems, implementing
concepts).
 Analyzing: Break down information into components and examine relationships (e.g.,
comparing, contrasting, organizing).
 Evaluating: Make judgments based on criteria and standards (e.g., critiquing, assessing
the validity of arguments).
 Creating: Put elements together to form a new whole (e.g., designing, constructing,
producing original work).

Affective Domain

The affective domain in which objectives which emphasizes feelings and emotion such as
attitude, interests, appreciation and methods of adjustments. An objective here might require a
student to show increased interest or motivation in a subject or activity or demonstrate some
change in attitude or values. The domain is divided into 5 hierarchical levels ranging from the
lowest to the highest level.

i. Receiving: refers to the student willingness to respond to a particular phenomenon or

stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music etc.). An ability of the student to listen
carefully to the speaker falls under receiving.

- Lowest level in the domain. Associated verbs-

Accept,differentiate,listen,separate,select,agree,share etc.

ii. Responding:
Refers to active participation on the part of the students to particular phenomenon, reflecting
interest but not commitment. Associated verbs-
Approve,applaud,comply,follow,discuss,volunteer,practice etc

iii. Valuing:

Refers to perception of worth or value in phenomenon. Here students show some commitment
or become involved in some experience e.g. students to value reading as an important skill.
Associated verbs-Argue,debate,deny,help,protest,participate,praise etc

iv. Organization:

Refers to bringing together different values, resolving conflicts between them and beginning the
building of an internally consistent value system. E.g. An objective could be:- to have students
participate in a book club. Associated verbs-Discuss,compare,define,formulate,organize etc.

Value characterising

Example:Secondary school chemistry students(audience) will demonstrate an increased interest

in chemistry by coming to class early(behaviour).The teacher will leave the room
open(condition) so that they may come and enter [Link] teacher will not ask them to do so or
give any rewards for any student who comes in early(condition).The objective will be considered
achieved if an average of 1/3 of the students cone in early round the year and if 80% of the
students come early at least once(degree)

The Psychomotor Domain

This domain involves physical movement,coordination and use of the motor skill areas. Skills in
this domain describe the ability to physically manipulate things such as [Link]’s
psychomotor objectives include the following:

 Reflex movements: Students respond involuntarily without conscious thought to a

stimulus. For example, students blink when an object unexpectedly comes their way.
Associated verbs-blink,stretch,relax,straighten up, etc
 Basic fundamentals:Students make basic voluntary movements that are directed toward a
particular [Link] example a student grasps a microphone knob and correctly turn
[Link] verbs- walk,run,push,pull,manipulate,catch,stand
  Perceptual abilities:Students use their senses such as seeing,hearing,or touching to guide
their skill efforts. For example students watch how to hold an instrument in science and
listen to instructions on how to use it. Associated verbs-
Follow,dodge,maintain,read,write,list,pronounce etc
 Physical abilities:Students develop general skills of endurance,strength,flexibility and
agility. For example, students develop an ability to run long distances or hit a ball. .
Associated verbs-Hop,skip,jump,touch,lift,throw etc
 Skilled movements:Students perform complex physical skills within some degree of
proficiency. For example, students effectively sketch a drawing. Associated verbs-
Draw,dance,paint,build,volley,match,sketch etc
 Non discussive behaviours:Students communicate feelings and emotions through bodily
actions. For example, students dance to communicate a musical piece. Associated verbs-
mimic,direct,perform,communicate,gesture,use body movement etc

MAIN APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teacher-centered teaching and learning refers to an instructional approach where the teacher
plays the dominant role in the learning process. The teacher controls the content, pace, and
methods of instruction, while learners take a more passive role, mainly listening, taking notes,
and responding when called upon.

Features of Teacher-Centered Teaching

 Teacher as the authority:

The teacher is the main source of knowledge and directs all classroom activities.
 Passive learners:
Students are mostly listeners and recipients of information rather than active participants.
 Emphasis on content mastery:
The focus is on covering the syllabus and transmitting factual knowledge.
 Lecture-based methods:
Common strategies include lecture, demonstration, and recitation.
 Limited interaction:
Communication is mainly one-way—from teacher to student.
 Assessment-focused:
Learning is evaluated mainly through tests and exams to measure knowledge retention.

Advantages

 Efficient for covering a large amount of content in a short time.

 Suitable for large classes.
 Teacher maintains strong classroom control.
  Helps beginners grasp basic foundational knowledge.

Disadvantages

 Learners become passive and less engaged.

 Limits creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
 Does not cater for individual learning differences.
 Encourages rote learning rather than understanding.

Examples of Teacher-Centered Methods

 Lecture method
 Demonstration method
 Drill and practice
 Question and answer (when dominated by teacher

Learner-Centered Approach

The Learner-Centered Approach is a teaching and learning philosophy that places the learner at
the center of the educational process. It focuses on the needs, abilities, interests, and learning
styles of students rather than on what the teacher wants to teach.

Features

 Active participation: Learners take an active role in their learning rather than passively
receiving information.
 Collaboration: Emphasizes teamwork, group work, and peer learning.
 Personalization: Instruction is tailored to learners’ individual differences, needs, and
goals.
 Critical thinking and problem solving: Encourages learners to analyze, evaluate, and
apply knowledge.
 Teacher as facilitator: The teacher guides, supports, and provides resources instead of
merely delivering content.
 Use of feedback: Continuous feedback helps learners reflect and improve.
 Experiential learning: Learners gain knowledge through experiences, projects, and real-
life situations.

Principles of Learner-Centered Approach

  Learning is an active process — students construct knowledge through engagement.
 Learning is social — interaction with others enhances understanding.
 Learning is meaningful — connected to real-life experiences and prior knowledge.
 Learning varies among individuals — instruction must accommodate diversity.
 Learning involves reflection — students are encouraged to think about their learning
process.

Advantages

 Promotes deep understanding rather than rote memorization.

 Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
 Builds self-confidence and autonomy in learners.
 Encourages lifelong learning habits.
 Enhances motivation and engagement.

Examples of Learner-Centered Methods

 Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

 Project Work
 Inquiry-Based Learning
 Collaborative Learning
 Case Studies
 Peer Teaching

Role of the Teacher

 Acts as a facilitator, guide, and mentor.

 Designs learning experiences that engage students.
 Encourages reflection, dialogue, and inquiry.
 Provides feedback and scaffolding.

Integrated Approach to Teaching and Learning

The integrated approach to teaching and learning is a method that connects different subject
areas or learning experiences to help learners make meaningful connections and apply
knowledge holistically rather than in isolated fragments.

An integrated approach is a teaching method that combines concepts, skills, and attitudes from
multiple disciplines or learning areas to promote comprehensive understanding and real-world
application.

Features

 Interdisciplinary links: Combines knowledge and skills from different subjects (e.g.,
integrating science, mathematics, and technology in a single lesson).
 Learner-centered: Focuses on learners’ experiences, interests, and problem-solving
abilities.
 Thematic organization: Lessons are often structured around a theme or real-life
problem rather than a single subject.
 Collaborative learning: Encourages group work, projects, and discussions across
subject boundaries.
 Application of knowledge: Promotes critical thinking and application of knowledge in
real-world contexts.

Types of Integration

Multidisciplinary integration: Subjects are taught around a common theme but retain
their distinct boundaries (e.g., “Water” as a theme in Science, Geography, and English).
Interdisciplinary integration: Combines content and skills from different subjects to
create new understanding (e.g., using mathematics in science experiments).
Transdisciplinary integration: Goes beyond subject boundaries to solve real-world
problems (e.g., community-based projects).

Advantages

 Promotes critical and creative thinking.

 Helps learners see connections between ideas and subjects.
 Encourages collaboration among teachers and students.
 Makes learning relevant and meaningful to learners’ lives.
 Enhances retention and transfer of knowledge to new situations.
Challenges

 Requires extensive planning and collaboration among teachers.

 May face curriculum rigidity or lack of administrative support.
 Teachers need adequate training to integrate content effectively.
 Assessment may be complex, as learning outcomes span multiple disciplines.

Implications

 Encourages curriculum flexibility and team teaching.

 Supports competency-based education by focusing on real-life skills.
 Fosters holistic development—intellectual, emotional, and social.

Constructivist Approach to Teaching and Learning

The constructivist approach is a learner-centered theory that emphasizes that learners actively
construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things
and reflecting on those experiences. It is based on the idea that learning is not simply the
transmission of knowledge from teacher to student, but an active process of meaning-making.

Principles of the Constructivist Approach

Active Learning
Learners are actively involved in constructing their own understanding rather than passively
receiving information.
Example: Students engage in experiments, discussions, or projects rather than memorizing facts.

Learning by Doing
Knowledge is built through experience and interaction with the environment.
Example: Role-playing historical events or performing scientific investigations.

Prior Knowledge
Learners bring existing knowledge and experiences that influence how they interpret new
information.

Role of the Teacher in Constructivism

 Acts as a facilitator or guide rather than a transmitter of knowledge.

 Designs learning environments that promote exploration and discovery.
  Encourages questioning, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
 Provides scaffolding—temporary support to help learners progress to higher levels of
understanding.
 Assesses learning through authentic assessments such as portfolios, projects, and
presentations.

Instructional Strategies in the Constructivist Approach

 Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Learners work on real-world problems and find solutions collaboratively.
 Project-Based Learning
Students design and complete projects that integrate multiple skills and knowledge areas.
 Inquiry-Based Learning
Students investigate questions or problems and construct their own understanding.
 Collaborative Learning
Small groups of learners work together to achieve shared learning goals.
 Discovery Learning
Learners explore and uncover concepts on their own with guidance.

Advantages of the Constructivist Approach

 Promotes deep understanding rather than rote memorization.

 Encourages critical thinking and creativity.
 Develops problem-solving and teamwork skills.
 Fosters lifelong learning attitudes.

Limitations

 Can be time-consuming to implement.

 May be challenging for large classes.
 Requires skilled teachers who can design and manage active learning environments.
 Assessment can be subjective if not well structured.

Major Theorists

 Jean Piaget: Emphasized cognitive development through active discovery.

 Lev Vygotsky: Highlighted the role of social interaction and the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD).
 Jerome Bruner: Advocated discovery learning and spiral curriculum