12/6/25, 12:36 AM Google Gemini
📘 Comprehensive Study Guide: Solutions
For Pharm D Students
1. What is a Solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture. This means it is mixed so perfectly that it looks the same
throughout (uniform).
The Two Main Parts
1. Solvent: The liquid that does the dissolving. It is usually the larger amount.
Example: Water.
2. Solute: The substance getting dissolved. It is usually the smaller amount.
Example: Sugar or Salt.
Key Characteristics
Clear: It is not cloudy.
Stable: The particles do not settle to the bottom if you leave it sitting.
Tiny Particles: The size is less than 1 nanometer (<1 nm).
Not Filterable: You cannot catch the particles with a normal filter.
2. Types of Solutions
A. Classified by Physical State (What are we mixing?)
Gas in Gas: Air (Oxygen mixed in Nitrogen).
Liquid in Gas: Humidity (Water vapor in Air).
Solid in Gas: Camphor or Iodine in Air.
Gas in Liquid: Soda (Carbon dioxide in water).
Liquid in Liquid: Alcohol in Water.
Solid in Liquid: Sugar in Water (Most common in pharmacy).
B. Classified by Concentration (How full is it?)
1. Unsaturated: The "hungry" solution. It can still dissolve more solute.
2. Saturated: The "full" solution. It cannot dissolve any more at that specific temperature.
3. Super-Saturated: The "overfilled" solution. It holds more than practically possible (usually
achieved by heating and slowly cooling). It is unstable and crystals can form easily.
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3. Concentration Expressions ( The Math)
How do we measure exactly how much drug is in the bottle?
Term Definition Key Note
Molarity (M) Moles of solute per Liter of Changes with temperature (because liquid expands).
solution.
Molality (m) Moles of solute per Kg of solvent. Best for physical chemistry because it never changes
with temperature.
Normality (N) Equivalents of solute per Liter. Used mostly for acid-base reactions.
Mole Fraction Ratio of moles of one part to the No units.
(X) total moles.
Percent (% Grams of solute in 100 mL Most common in pharmacy (e.g., 0.9% Saline).
w/v) solution.
PPM / PPB Parts Per Million / Billion. Used for tiny impurities or poisons.
4. Preparation of Solutions (6 Steps)
1. Select Solvent: Must be safe (chemically compatible). Purified water is #1 choice.
2. Calculate: Do the math to know exactly how much drug you need.
3. Dissolve:
Crush solids (smaller pieces dissolve faster).
Stir continuously.
Apply gentle heat (only if the drug isn't damaged by heat!).
4. Make up Volume: Add solvent until it reaches the exact line on the volumetric flask.
5. Filter: Remove dirt or undissolved particles.
6. Store & Label:
Amber Glass: For light-sensitive drugs.
Tight Cap: For volatile drugs (so they don't evaporate).
5. Raoult’s Law
Simple Definition: The vapor pressure of a solution depends on how much solvent is
present.
The 3 Statements
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1. Vapor Pressure (VP) of solution = (VP of Pure Solvent) × (Mole Fraction of Solvent).
2. The lowering of VP is proportional to the amount of solute.
3. The relative lowering of VP is equal to the mole fraction of the solute.
6. Ideal vs. Non-Ideal Solutions
A. Ideal Solutions (The "Perfect" Mix)
Rule: They obey Raoult’s Law.
Behavior: Molecule A likes Molecule B exactly the same as it likes itself.
Result: No heat released (ΔH = 0), No volume change (ΔV = 0).
Example: Benzene + Toluene.
B. Non-Ideal Solutions (The "Real" Mix)
They break Raoult's Law in two ways:
1. Positive Deviation (The "Fight")
Interaction: A and B dislike each other. They push apart.
Result:
VP Higher: They want to escape (evaporate).
Volume Expands: (ΔV is positive).
Gets Cold: Absorbs heat (ΔH is positive).
Examples: Ethanol + Water, Ethanol + Acetone.
2. Negative Deviation (The "Romance")
Interaction: A and B love each other. They hold on tight.
Result:
VP Lower: They don't want to leave (evaporate).
Volume Shrinks: (ΔV is negative).
Gets Hot: Releases heat (ΔH is negative).
Examples: Water + Strong Acids (HCl, Nitric Acid), Acetone + Chloroform.
7. Applications in Pharmacy
Why does this matter for your career?
1. Dosage Forms:
Syrups/Elixirs: Easy for kids/elderly to swallow.
IV Fluids: Must be Isotonic (same pressure as blood) to be safe.
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Eye Drops: Must be sterile and particle-free.
2. Manufacturing:
Excipients: We add preservatives (stop bacteria) and buffers (control pH).
Bioavailability: Solutions work faster than pills because the body doesn't have to dissolve
them first.
Prodrugs: If a drug won't dissolve, we make a "prodrug" version that dissolves easily and
activates inside the body.
Teacher’s Cheat Sheet (Quick Memorization)
Molarity = Liters (Temperature changes it).
Molality = Kilograms (Temperature safe).
Positive Deviation = Pushes apart, Gets Cold (Endothermic).
Negative Deviation = Pulls together, Gets Hot (Exothermic).
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