Language
Every person has the ability to learn a language, but it is learned by imitation only by living in
society. According to social needs and aspirations, the capacity and use of language have been
increasing rapidly. Language is changeable and creative. Apart from humans, other animals,
even trees and plants also use their different language. Their behavior is linked to their basic
instincts. Phonemes, words, and sentences are the main components of human language. The
ultimate goal of language is the communication and comprehension of meaning. There were
many Protolanguages in the world, whose regional differences gave rise to many languages.
Based on basic vocabulary, grammar, and other similarities, world languages have been
classified into many families. The study of language takes place via linguistics,
psycholinguistics, sociology, physics, grammar, philosophy, stylistics, etc. Language also has a
major role in the establishment of national unity and integrity. In the present unit, the main issues
of the concept and field of language have been discussed.
The Concept of Language
Humans use various means to express their feelings. Sometimes they signal with their hands,
sometimes they nod and sometimes they signal with their eyes. Eyes are mostly used in
expression. Many usages of eye expression are available in the literature. Successful expression
of love, anger, sorrow, etc. can be done through the eyes.
The language which is expressed by the operation of organs is called body language. Body
language has major limitations. Through this, some limited mental expressions can be expressed.
But language or its other popular nouns like tongue etc. itself indicates that language is the
phonetic medium expressed by speech senses.
The expression made by other organs is not language in the real sense. Special emphasis has
been laid on phonetics in the definitions of language that have been given. Though some
concepts of the language are understood by the definitions of the language.
What is Language?
Language is a system for communicating. Written languages use symbols (that is, characters) to
build words. The entire set of words is the language's vocabulary. The ways in which the words
can be meaningfully combined is defined by the language's syntax and grammar. The actual
meaning of words and combinations of words is defined by the language's semantics.
In computer science, human languages are known as natural languages. Unfortunately,
computers are not sophisticated enough to understand natural languages. As a result, we must
communicate with computers using special computer languages. There are many different
classes of computer languages, including machine languages, programming languages, and
fourth-generation languages.
Definition and Concept
Western and Indian scholars have given many definitions.
According to Sweet- “Expressing ideas by phonetic words isLanguage”.
Jespersen is of the view that “man expresses his thought through phonetic words. The human
brain actually uses such words continuously to express thought. This type of activity is named
language”.
Vandriya says that language is a kind of sign. Symbols are thoseby which man expresses his
thoughts to others. These symbols are also of many types; Like eye-receptive, ear-receptive, and
touch-receptive. From the point of view of language, ear-receptive or phonetic symbols are the
best.
Sturtevant believes that 'language is such a random phonological symbol system through which
members of a social group cooperate and interact.
Chomsky's definition is different from the above definitions. He says “I regard language as a
system of sentences, each (sentence) having a finite length and being made up of finite
elements”.
Plato pointed out long ago an important fact about language. Explaining the difference between
thought and language, he said that thought is the silent or sub-phonetic interaction of the soul,
but when it appears on the lips after becoming phonetic, it is called language. Language is not
only a medium of exchange of thoughts and feelings, but thoughts are also possible in language
itself. The process of contemplation is done through language itself, even though its position
remains unspoken.
Therefore, it can be said that “Language is such a random arrangement of phonetic symbols by
which human thinks, and expresses their thoughts and feelings. Gives shape and exchanges its
thoughts and feelings in a certain llinguistic society”.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols through which humans communicate. It is
both biological and social—a product of evolution and a tool shaped by culture.
Charles Hockett (1960) lists the design features of language such as arbitrariness, displacement,
and productivity.
From the analysis of all the definitions, the following elements related to the concept of language
emerge
1. Language is an organized system of sounds.
2. Words made up of sounds are symbolic.
3. The relation between soundsymbols and the objects or expressions indicated by them is not
natural but is conventional.
4. Language is not only a medium of exchange of ideas and thoughts, it is also a medium of
thinking.
5. All the things and feelings of the world take shape only in the language.
Characteristics of Language
Characteristics mean basic characteristics. These characteristics differentiate human language
from the language used by other animals. Before considering human language, it would be
relevant to discuss non-human languages here as well. It has often been believed that language is
the heritage of the human race only. Now, as a result of scientific research and deep thinking of
linguists, it has been found that animals apart from humans also use language in one way or
another. Of course, it does not have the characteristics that are found in human language.
Linguistic properties are inferred even in plants. In non-human languages, in addition to the
language of honey bees, the language of different types of birds and its effect is seen. For
example, they work as a group, warning with a special type of sound at the time of danger; which
appears as linguistic signals. Experiments have also been conducted on some species of birds.
Such as language teaching and their response to the taught sound. Another example of a
posthuman language is the language of a primate. Primates include mammals including lemurs,
langurs, baboons, gibbons, gorillas, and apes. After some effort, these primates can learn
expressions like Mumma and Papa. These creatures can instinctively learn some words of their
language due to their articulation system. The monkey named Verbat of African species
expresses about 36 types of sounds and 22 different [Link] in general, monkeys are
often seen making many fearful expressions and sounds out of their facial expressions to scare.
The third example of non-human language is the language of dolphins. It is believed that
dolphins have highly sensory glands that emit special signals and sounds to transmit ultraviolet
sounds to their nearby companions. Somewhat radar-like systems have been observed in
dolphins. Some people also believe that the tendency of trees to release chemicals is a kind of
warning against insect attack and it is a kind of signal communication that is a symbol of
language. The Touch Me Not and Ghataparni are also some such plant species. Language used
by humans is different from non-human language in terms of its nature. Along with randomness,
creativity, and duality of patterns in human language, Chomsky, MacNeil, and Hackett have
explained many features like structural and functional through their ideas. The following nine are
considered features of language:
- Randomness - Randomness means that language is arranged irrationally by society. The
practice of a word symbol for an emotion, idea, or object is not due to any natural
relationship between the two but is imposed on it by the social mind. Inthe 5th century
BCE Greece, there was a debate about whether the language was nature-governed or
custom-governed. Naturalists believed that the origin and meaning of words should be
known from their [Link] confirm his idea, they gave examples of imitative words like
knock-knock, and koo-koo. Some other types of words are not sound-indicative but are
indicative of acousticity; Like- crow. The principle of the naturalness of words and the
things signified by them could not explain all kinds of words. Therefore this theory was
not universally accepted.
- Creativity - The distinctive feature of human language is its creativity. Humans
continuously create new words, sentences, etc. based on the rules of language. By
changing the premises of words, by changing their shape, the processing of new
meanings in them continues. Not only this, the process of creation creates pressure to
change the grammatical structure of the language over time. Creativity is based on
analogy and sometimes proportionality. For example, the root form of the verb 'read'
generates itself into many forms. The possibility of the creation of new words by
applying suffixes, prefixes, etc. is possible only because of the creativity of the language.
- Simulation Capability- Language is learned by imitation (imitation) in a language society.
Language is not inherited like ancestral property. Ifthe newborn is cut off from family
and society as soon as he/she is born and does not have contact with any human
language. He/She cannot learn the language. Humans can learn multiple languages
through imitation and can become members of many language societies.
- Volatility -Being imitative, language changes. The person is not able to follow the
sounds, words, sentences, etc. of the prevalent language. As a result, there is a slight
change in the language according to the convenience. This change becomes more
apparent after a long time. If there is contact from one language society to another
language society then the speed of change is faster due to mutual influence. The rapid
change in the nature of Hindi due to contact with the English language is an example of
this. The development of languages is also due to this process.
- Discreteness -Language is made up of many components. Words are formed by the
arrangement of sounds, sentences are formed by the arrangement of words. By breaking
up the sounds, they can be distinguished. Similarly, words within sentences can also be
dismembered. For example, in the word Ram, there are “R –A- M -A” twoVowel sounds,
and two consonant sounds in total. There are three words in the sentence “Mohan walks
daily”.
- Duality -The levels of sentences in a language are made up of two units. Words, roots,
suffixes, prefixes, and inflections are meaningful units in a sentence, but it is to be noted
that these units are also meaningful only by chance. “Ram motivatedMohan to read” in
this sentence ‘to’ is meaningful at the level of use, not alone. Similarly, the sounds from
which words are made are meaningless in themselves. The word 'Ram' is formed from R–
A- M -A. The consonants and vowels used in these are meaningless in themselves.
Phonemes have an important role in forming and changing the shape of words. The
change of one phoneme changes the meaning. Languagesare formed as a result of
stratigraphic structures. Some experiments are signifiers of meaning and some
experiments play the role of interpreter.
- Role reversal –The communication or exchange of ideas, and expressions is done through
language, so the speaker and the listener have two different roles. If one person speaks,
another responds or reacts and if another speaks, the first reacts. In this way, the role of
the speaker and listener keeps changing. In the language of communication, its position is
quite clear. In the language of contemplation and monologue, one person speaks, and the
rest only listen. It would be more appropriate if the characteristic of verb-response in the
language is considered.
- Time transfer - Language transcends time and country. Non-human language often
contains instantaneous information, but in human language, information can be given
about all the past, present, and future. Uncomfortable Instincts - Human language is not
used by instinct only. Far beyond the pronunciation of sounds related to hunger, thirst,
fear, and sex, the language is rich in and developed forms of intelligence, contemplation,
conscience, etc.
Speech and Writing: Two Modalities of Language
Language exists in two major modalities: speech and writing. Though they both serve the
fundamental function of communication, they are not equivalent in terms of origin,
development, structure, and function.
Speech: The Primary Modality
Key Characteristics:
1. Innate and Natural Acquisition:
o Children acquire speech naturally through exposure and interaction without
formal teaching.
o Noam Chomsky’s theory of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) supports
the idea that humans are biologically predisposed to learn spoken language.
2. Paralinguistic Features:
o Speech includes intonation, pitch, stress, rhythm, pauses, and non-verbal cues
(e.g., facial expressions, gestures).
o These features aid in meaning-making and emotional expression—elements often
lost in writing.
3. Universality:
o All human societies have spoken languages, even if they lack a written form.
o According to David Crystal (2003), “Of the approximately 7,000 languages
spoken today, only a minority (about 3,000) have a written tradition.”
4. Ephemeral and Context-dependent:
o Spoken language is transient, reliant on context, tone, and shared knowledge
between speaker and listener.
o Meaning is co-constructed in real-time.
Writing: The Secondary Modality
Key Characteristics:
1. Cultural and Learned:
o Writing is not innate; it must be taught through formal instruction and practice.
2. Permanence and Precision:
o Writing allows for recording, editing, and transmission across time and space.
o It is detached from context, so it requires greater clarity, structure, and
completeness.
3. Lack of Paralinguistic Cues:
o Writing lacks non-verbal cues; therefore, punctuation, formatting, and lexical
choice are used to convey tone or emotion.
o Marshall McLuhan’s idea of “the medium is the message” (1964) emphasizes
that writing creates a different cognitive and communicative environment
compared to speech.
4. Cognitive Impact:
o Writing demands reflective thinking, linear organization, and metalinguistic
awareness.
Comparison Table: Speech vs. Writing
Feature Speech Writing
Acquisition Natural, innate Learned, formal education
Medium Auditory/gestural Visual
Present (intonation, Absent; replaced by
Paralinguistics
gesture) punctuation
Permanence Temporary Permanent
Context-
High Low
dependence
Universality Universal Culturally specific
Creativity Spontaneous Structured
Animal versus Human Communication
Systems of communication are not unique to human beings. Other animal species communicate
in a variety of ways.
- One way is by sound: a bird may communicate by a call that a territory is his and should
not be encroached upon.
- Another means of animal communication is by odor: an ant releases a chemical when it
dies, and other ants then carry it away to the compost heap.
- A third means of communication is body movement, for example used by honeybees to
convey the location of food sources.
Although primates use all three methods of communication: sound, odor, and body movement,
sound is the method of primary interest since it is our own primary means of communication. A
topic of persistent debate in linguistic anthropology is whether human communication (verbal
and nonverbal) is similar to nonhuman primate communication, such as seen in apes and
monkeys. Linguistics and primatologists have searched for a common thread running through the
communication systems of humans and nonhuman primates.
Certain scholars argue that our language capabilities are not unique and point to various aspects
of non-human primate communication as evidence. Other scientists remain unconvinced. Today
there continues to be a significant amount of debate concerning this area of linguistic
anthropology.
Communication can be defined to include both signals and symbols. Signals are sounds or
gestures that have a natural or self-evident meaning [example of someone crying (=emotion),
laughing (=emotion), animal cries (=indicating fear, food, or hunt). In this regard, we can
consider that most animal communication is genetically determined and includes hoots, grunts,
or screams that are meant to mean only one thing and are used every time in the same situation.
So there is only one way to express one thing and it never changes. Animal communication tends
to consist primarily of signals.
In contrast, human communication is dependent on both signals and symbols. Symbols are
sounds or gestures that have meaning for a group of people-it is the cultural tradition that gives it
meaning (e.g. green light=go; teaching a child letters (see Faces of Culture video). Symbols have
to be learned and are not instinctive; the meanings are arbitrary. Some of the debate regarding
human versus primate communication stems from observations by scientists in the field. For
example, scientists who have observed vervet monkeys in the wild consider at least three of their
alarm calls to be symbolic because each of them means a different kind of predator- eagles,
pythons, leopards-monkeys react differently to each call. Interestingly, infant vervets often make
the "eagle" warning call when they see any flying bird and learn the appropriate call as they grow
up. This is similar to human infants who often first apply the word "dada" to all adult males,
gradually learning to restrict it one person. It is possible, therefore, to consider such calls as
symbolic. So-if monkeys and apes appear to use symbols as least some of the time, how can we
distinguish human communication? For one thing, all human languages emply a much larger set
of symbols.
Another and perhaps more important difference is that other primate's vocal systems tend to be
closed (different calls are not often combined to produce new, meaningful utterances). In
contrast, human languages are open systems (capable of sending messages that have never been
sent before and the ability to combine symbols in an infinite variety of ways for an infinite
variety of meanings).
Many animal and even plant species communicate with each other. Humans are not unique in
this capability. However, human language is unique in being a symbolic communication system
that is learned instead of biologically inherited. Symbols are sounds or things which have
meaning given to them by the users. Originally, the meaning is arbitrarily assigned. For instance,
the English word "dog" does not in any way physically resemble the animal it stands for.
All symbols have a material form but the meaning can not be discovered by mere sensory
examination of their forms. They are abstractions. A word is one or more sounds that in
combination have a specific meaning assigned by a language. The symbolic meaning of words
can be so powerful that people are willing to risk their lives for them or take the lives of others.
For instance, words such as "queer" and "nigger" have symbolic meaning that is highly charged
emotionally in America today for many people.
Meanings can be changed and new symbols created. This is evidenced by the fact that new
words are invented daily and the meaning of old ones change. For example, the English word
"nice" now generally means pleasing, agreeable, polite, and kind. In the15th century it meant
foolish, wanton, lascivious, and even wicked.
Languages evolve in response to changing historical and social conditions. Some language
transformations typically occur in a generation or less. For instance, the slang words used by
your parents were very likely different from those that you use today. You also probably are
familiar with many technical terms, such as "text messaging" and "high definition TV", that were
not in general use even a decade ago
Varieties of Language
Language is not a monolithic or uniform system; it exhibits variation across regions, social
groups, individual speakers, contexts, and communicative purposes. These variations reflect the
dynamic and adaptive nature of language as it interacts with social, cultural, and personal
dimensions of human life. The study of these varieties helps linguists understand how language
evolves, how identities are shaped, and how social hierarchies manifest through speech.
1. Dialects: Regional Variations
A dialect is a regional or geographical variation of a language that differs from other forms in
terms of pronunciation (accent), grammar, and vocabulary. Dialects emerge due to geographical,
political, and historical factors, and they often carry strong cultural and social identities. For
example, British English and American English, though mutually intelligible, differ significantly
in lexicon (e.g., lorry vs. truck), spelling (e.g., colour vs. color), and syntax (e.g., at the weekend
vs. on the weekend).
Understanding dialects is crucial in fields like education, translation, media, and language
planning, as they play a central role in cultural representation and inclusivity. Some dialects are
considered prestigious, while others may be stigmatized, affecting the social mobility and
acceptance of their speakers. Linguists emphasize that all dialects are linguistically valid and
rule-governed.
As Chambers and Trudgill (1998) explain, dialects are shaped not only by geography but also by
“social processes and attitudes embedded in speech.”
2. Sociolects: Social Group Language
A sociolect is a language variety associated with a specific social group, such as those defined by
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, profession, gender, or age. For instance, working-class speech in
London, such as Cockney, contrasts with Received Pronunciation, traditionally linked with the
British upper class. Sociolects serve as linguistic markers of group identity and solidarity, but
they can also reinforce social divisions.
Basil Bernstein's theory of elaborated and restricted codes (1971) illustrates how sociolects
influence educational access and cognitive development. Restricted codes, commonly used in
working-class communities, are context-bound and implicit, while elaborated codes, typical of
middle-class environments, are more explicit and valued in formal institutions like schools and
the workplace.
Sociolects thus play a pivotal role in discussions about linguistic equity, language education, and
societal bias. Understanding sociolects can help reduce miscommunication and discrimination in
diverse social settings.
3. Idiolects: Individual Language Use
An idiolect is the unique and distinctive language system of an individual speaker. Every
person's idiolect is shaped by their life experiences, education, social environment, region, and
even psychological disposition. It encompasses specific patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary
choice, intonation, rhythm, and habitual expressions.
Idiolects are significant in various fields, especially forensic linguistics, where they are used to
identify authorship in criminal investigations or anonymous texts. According to David Crystal
(2003), an idiolect functions as “the linguistic fingerprint of a speaker,” offering insight into
personality, identity, and sociocultural background.
Recognizing idiolects allows for a deeper appreciation of linguistic diversity and helps
differentiate between individual and group language characteristics. In literature and
performance, for instance, characters are often developed through their idiolects, contributing to
realism and authenticity.
4. Registers: Contextual Variation
A register refers to the variety of language used in a specific social context or communicative
situation. Registers change depending on factors such as the topic, the relationship between the
participants, and the mode of communication (spoken or written). For example, the language
used in a courtroom differs markedly from that used in a text message or a classroom discussion.
Halliday (1978) categorized registers based on three variables: field (subject matter), tenor
(relationship between participants), and mode (medium of communication). Registers can be
formal, informal, consultative, casual, or intimate. A speaker’s ability to shift registers
appropriately—known as register shifting—demonstrates linguistic competence and social
awareness.
Register variation is essential in professional, academic, and interpersonal communication. It
helps maintain decorum, convey clarity, and reflect speaker intention. Misuse of register can
result in misunderstanding or social awkwardness.
5. Styles: Degrees of Formality and Personal Expression
Style refers to an individual's linguistic choices across contexts, shaped by their personality,
purpose, mood, and social expectations. While related to register, which is context-bound, style
reflects the speaker’s personal tone and preferences. For instance, two people may write
formal academic essays, but one may favor complex, erudite syntax, while the other employs
concise, direct prose.
Stylistic variation can be observed in diction (word choice), syntax (sentence structure),
figurative language, and rhetorical devices. In literary studies, stylistics examines how these
choices contribute to the aesthetic and communicative power of texts. According to Roger
Fowler (1981), style is “the particular way in which language is used in a text or context.”
Understanding style is essential in rhetoric, authorship, branding, and public speaking. It
enhances effectiveness and audience engagement, enabling communicators to adapt tone and
expression for impact and resonance.
Languages in Contact
1. Borrowing
Borrowing refers to the process by which one language adopts words, phrases, or even
grammatical structures from another. This linguistic phenomenon typically occurs through
cultural exchange, colonization, trade, or technological advancement. Borrowing enriches
vocabulary and allows speakers to express new ideas, objects, or experiences not previously
named in their native tongue. For instance, English has borrowed ballet from French, yoga from
Sanskrit, and algebra from Arabic. Such borrowings often undergo phonological and
morphological adaptations, aligning with the host language’s structures (Hock & Joseph, 2009).
There are different types of borrowing: lexical borrowing (words), semantic borrowing
(meanings), and syntactic borrowing (sentence structures). Lexical borrowing is most common
and visible in daily usage. Languages in multilingual settings often borrow to fill lexical gaps or
enhance prestige. Borrowing may also reflect socio-political dynamics; for example, colonized
nations often exhibit a significant influx of colonial language terms in law, education, and
administration (Thomason & Kaufman, 1988).
While borrowing demonstrates linguistic flexibility and adaptability, excessive or uncontrolled
borrowing may lead to concerns over language purity and identity. Nonetheless, borrowing is a
testament to the dynamic and evolving nature of human language.
2. Code-Switching
Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a
single conversation, sentence, or even utterance. It is common in bilingual or multilingual
communities where speakers have proficiency in multiple linguistic codes. This phenomenon
reflects the speaker’s identity, context, audience, or emotional tone and is considered a natural
and strategic form of communication rather than linguistic confusion (Poplack, 1980).
There are various forms of code-switching: inter-sentential (between sentences), intra-
sentential (within a sentence), and tag-switching (insertion of a tag phrase from one language
into another). For example, a Tamil-English bilingual might say: “I finished my work, aana ippo
ennaku neram illai” (I finished my work, but now I have no time). This mixing often reveals
nuanced social meanings, including solidarity, authority, or cultural alignment.
Sociolinguists argue that code-switching is a form of linguistic resourcefulness and social
navigation, especially among immigrant and minority communities. However, it is sometimes
stigmatized due to prevailing notions of linguistic purity or standardization (Myers-Scotton,
1993).
Ultimately, code-switching highlights the fluid and context-sensitive nature of language. It
allows speakers to access multiple identities and domains of expression, reflecting linguistic
dexterity in multilingual contexts.
3. Pidgin
A pidgin is a simplified, non-native language that arises when speakers of different native
languages need to communicate for purposes such as trade, labor, or colonial administration. It is
characterized by limited vocabulary, simplified grammar, and a lack of complex morphological
structures. Importantly, pidgins are not anyone’s first language; they serve as auxiliary or contact
languages (Holm, 2000).
Pidgins typically emerge in colonial and trade contexts, such as West Africa, the Caribbean, and
the Pacific. For example, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea began as a pidgin based on English,
incorporating local linguistic elements. A pidgin may draw vocabulary from the dominant
(superstrate) language, while its syntax may be influenced by the native (substrate) languages of
its users.
Although pidgins are often viewed as “broken” or inferior, linguists recognize them as rule-
governed systems with their own internal logic. Their development reflects human creativity and
adaptability in linguistic innovation (Mühlhäusler, 1997).
While many pidgins are short-lived, some persist and expand, leading to creolization. Studying
pidgins allows us to understand early language formation processes and socio-historical
dynamics between linguistic groups.
4. Creole
A creole language evolves from a pidgin when it becomes the native language of a speech
community, typically over one or two generations. Creolization involves the expansion of
vocabulary, the development of a consistent grammar, and the acquisition of a full range of
expressive capabilities (Bickerton, 1981). Unlike pidgins, creoles are fully developed languages
used in all spheres of life, including family, education, and governance.
Creoles often arise in colonial settings, especially in plantation societies where speakers of
multiple languages were brought together under oppressive conditions. Examples include Haitian
Creole (based on French), Jamaican Patois (based on English), and Krio in Sierra Leone. These
languages often retain vocabulary from the dominant colonial language (superstrate) but reflect
grammatical patterns influenced by various African or indigenous languages (substrates).
While once stigmatized as “corrupt” forms of European languages, creoles are now recognized
as distinct and legitimate languages with rich oral traditions, literature, and cultural significance.
Linguists argue that creoles provide key insights into language evolution, acquisition, and
sociopolitical identity formation (DeGraff, 2005).
Today, many creole-speaking communities strive for recognition and integration of their
languages into education and public life, reflecting ongoing efforts to reclaim linguistic heritage.
5. Language Convergence and Shift
Language contact may result in language convergence, where two languages become
structurally similar due to prolonged interaction. This can happen in multilingual regions where
communities share geographical space, such as the Balkans, where languages like Albanian,
Greek, and Bulgarian have adopted similar syntactic features despite belonging to different
language families (Thomason, 2001). Convergence can affect phonology, vocabulary, and
grammar, resulting in a Sprachbund—a linguistic area where unrelated languages share features
due to contact rather than genealogy.
On the other hand, language shift occurs when a community gradually abandons its native
language in favor of another, often due to socio-political or economic pressures. For instance,
many indigenous languages have seen drastic declines due to colonial imposition of dominant
languages and globalization. The shift from Gaelic to English in Scotland or from Native
American languages to English in the U.S. are well-documented examples (Fishman, 1991).
While convergence reflects mutual influence and coexistence, shift often signals marginalization
or language loss. The latter raises concerns about the erosion of cultural knowledge, oral
histories, and identity. Efforts at language revitalization—through education, media, and policy
—seek to counteract language shift and preserve linguistic diversity.