Structural functionalism 1

Structural functionalism
Structural-functionalism (also called structural functionalism, functionalism or structuralism) is
a theoretical construction framework that sees society as acomplex systemwhose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability. It is referred to as the study of a social society known as
social structure or system. This approach views society from a macro level orientation, which is an approach
broad in the social structures that make up society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved,
similar to organisms.[2] This approach is seen in both the social structureas in social functions. The
functionalism directs society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements, to
to knownorms, customs,traditionseinstitutionsA common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer,
it presents these sectors of society as "organs" that work for the proper functioning of the "body", like
a whole. It assumes that the elements of a certain social structure are interdependent with each other. A
any variation of one of them affects the others. In the most basic terms, it is simplified by emphasizing
the effort to attribute, as rigorously as possible, for each characteristic, custom or practice, its
effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable cohesive system." ForTalcott Parsons, the
"structural-functionalisms" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science,
instead of a specific school of thought. The structural functionalist approach is a macro analysis
sociological, with a broad focus on the social structures that society forms as a whole. It arises
after theWorld War I, inFrancein 1919. The origins of this movement date back to the work
ofÉmile DurkheimIt was developed in thesocial anthropologyBritish byBronislaw MalinowskiyAlfred
Reginald Radcliffe-Brown In sociology, the AmericanTalcott Parsonshe is one of its greatest exponents, and
its main applications take place in the field of sociology ofculture.

Theory
Classical theories are defined by a tendency towards biological analogy and the notions ofsocial evolutionism:
Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has particularly looked towards biology as the
science that provides the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has
taken to provide a guide for the conceptualization of the structure and function of systems
social and for the analysis of processes of evolution through adaptation mechanisms ...
Functionalism places special emphasis on the preeminence of the social world through its individual parts.
(that is, its constituent actors, the human subjects).
-Anthony GiddensThe Constitution of Society1984
While functionalism cannot be considered a logical extension of organic analogies of the
society presented by political philosophers, such as Rousseau, sociology draws more firm attention to those
unique institutions to industrial capitalist society (or modernity). Functionalism also has a foundation
anthropological in the work of theorists such asMarcel Mauss, Bronisław MalinowskiyRadcliffe-BrownIt is in the use
specific to Radcliffe-Brown that emerged prefix "structural".
Structural Functionalism 2

Radcliffe-Brown proposed that, in 'primitive' societies more

stateless individuals lacking strong centralized institutions, are
based on an association of groups of corporate companies in
ascendancy. Structural functionalism also assumed the
argument ofMalinowskithat the basic block of society is
thenuclear family, and that the clan is a consequence, not the other way around.
Émile Durkheim was concerned with the question of how
certain societies maintain internal stability and survive in
time. He proposed that such societies tend to segment themselves,
with equivalent parts that are held together by values
shared, common symbols or, as his nephew argued
Marcel Mauss, systems of exchanges. Durkheim uses the
the term "mechanical solidarity" to refer to this type of "bonds"
social, based on common feelings and moral values
shared, which are strong among members of societies
industrial.[8] In modern, complex societies,
members perform very different tasks, which leads to a
strong interdependence. Based on the already mentioned metaphor
Émile Durkheim
of an organism in which many parts work together to
to uphold the set, Durkheim argues that societies
complexes are held together bysolidarityorganic, that is, "social ties, based on specialization and
the interdependence, those of us who are strong among the members of industrial societies.

These viewpoints were reaffirmed by Durkheim, who, afterCountI believed that society constitutes a
"level" different from reality, different from matter, both biologically and inorganic. Therefore, the
explanations of social phenomena had to be constructed within this level, individuals had to be
merely transient occupants of relatively stable social roles. The central concern of functionalism
Structuralism is a continuation of Durkheim's task of explaining the apparent stability and internal cohesion.
what societies need to endure over time. Societies are seen as coherent,
delimited and fundamentally a relational construction that functions like organisms, with their different
(social or institutions) working together in an almost automatically unconscious way towards achieving a
general social equilibrium. Consequently, all social and cultural phenomena are viewed as functional in
the sense that they work together, and it is considered that they effectively have 'lives' of their own. They are analyzed first
place in terms of this function. The individual is significant, not in and of themselves, but rather in terms
of their status, their position in the patterns of social relations and the behaviors associated with their condition. For
Thus, the social structure is the network of statuses connected by associated roles.

It is simplistic to equate perspective directly with theconservatismpolitical.[9] The tendency to emphasize the
"coherent systems" however, leads functionalist theories that are to be contrasted with "conflict theories",
that instead emphasize social problems and inequalities.
Structural Functionalism 3

Concepts of structural functionalism in sociology

Thesystemthe general action of dogs contains in its structure four subsystems: the biological or organic
behavioral, cultural, social, and personality. The systems are an ordered set of elements,
interdependent, remaining open to the perception of variables that can modify them. In order to maintain the
balance, they perform different functions:
The Biological is the organized type species, adaptation is the function it performs, and it is carried out by the system.
economic.
The Cultural is the set of norms, values, language, and symbols shared and accepted by society.
The function is the maintenance of guidelines, so that individuals conform to the expectations of the role.
internalize the values. In society, these functions are fulfilled by various institutions, among them
we can name the educational system and the mass media, which are responsible for the
dissemination of those norms, values, symbols, etc., that compose the cultural sphere.
He Social is composed of the ways in which individuals interact with each other. The primary function
it is integration and implies the acceptance of social goals and expectations. Legal entities have to
its role is this function, which will apply sanctions. There will be social mobility in a horizontal and vertical way,
ascending or descending. Similarly, there will be social changes and innovations.
The depersonalization goals or ends. It seeks to coordinate motivations to achieve social objectives.
Units that can channel the aspirations of individuals are political institutions. Structural
Functionalism known as positivism.

Prominent theorists

Auguste Comte
Auguste Comtethe 'father of positivism' emphasized the need to keep society united as many
traditions were declining. He was the first person to coin the term sociology. Auguste Comte suggests
that sociology is the product of development in three stages.
StatetheologicalFrom the beginning of human history to the end of the European Middle Ages, people had
a religious vision that society expressed the will of God. In the theological state, the human mind
seeks the essential nature of beings, the first and final causes (the origin and the purpose) of all effects.
in a word, absolute knowledge - assumes that all phenomena that occur are due to immediate action
of supernatural beings.
2. StatemetaphysicalPeople began to see society as a natural system in opposition to the supernatural.
It started with theIllustrationand the ideas of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. It reflects the defects of human nature.
selfish instead of the perfection of God.
3. StatescientificDescribing society through the application of the scientific method, which is based on work
of the scientists.
Structural functionalism 4

Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer(1820-1903) philosopherBritishfamous for
apply the theory of thenatural selectionto society. He was, of
many ways, the first true sociological functionalist.
In fact, while Durkheim is widely regarded
as the most important functionalist among theorists
positivists, it is well known that a large part of their analysis was
selected from the reading of Spencer's work,
especially his Principles of Sociology
Sociology) (1874-1896). Spencer refers to society by analogy
to the human body. In the same way that the structural parts
of the human body - the skeleton, the muscles, and various organs
interns - operate independently to help everyone
organism to survive, social structures work in
set to preserve society.

While most avoid the tedious tasks of reading

massive volumes of Spencer (filled as they are with long
passages explain the organic analogy, with reference to thecells,
simple organisms, theanimalyes, thehuman beingsand the
society), there are some important ideas that have influenced
Herbert Spencer
quietly in many contemporary theorists, including
Talcott Parsons, in his early works 'The Structure of Social Action'
Social" (1937). Thecultural anthropologyit also constantly uses functionalism.

Thisevolutionary model, unlike most 19th-century evolutionary theories, is cyclical, starting

with the differentiation and the increasing complexity of a body (in terms of Spencer for asocial system)
organic or 'super-organic', followed by a fluctuating state of balance and imbalance (or state of adjustment and
adaptation) and ending in the stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following the principles of population of
Thomas Malthus, Spencer concluded that society constantly faces pressures of
selection (internal and external) that requires adapting its internal structure through differentiation.

However, each solution creates a new series of selection pressures that threaten the viability of the
society. It should be noted that Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that:
The Selection pressures will be felt at the time of changing them;
2. They will feel and react to, or
3. The solutions will always work.
In fact, he was in many ways a political sociologist, and he recognized that the degree of centralized authority and
consolidada en una comunidad política podría hacer o romper su capacidad de adaptación. En otras palabras, él vio
a general trend towards the centralization of power leading to stagnation and, ultimately,
pressing to decentralize.
More specifically, Spencer recognized three functional needs or prerequisites that create pressure for
selection: they are regulatory, operational (production), and distributive. He stated that all societies need
solve control problems andcoordinationproduction of goodsservicesandideaand finally, to find
ways to distribute these resources.
The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill more specialized functions, so that
a chief or 'great man' emerges, quickly followed by a group of lieutenants and, subsequently, kings and
administrators. The structural parts of society (e.g.: families, work) function interdependently to
Structural Functionalism 5

help the social function, which as mentioned earlier, help to preserve society.
Perhaps the greatest obstacle for Spencer, which was being widely discussed in modern sociology, was the
fact that a large part of itssocial philosophyhad its roots in the social and historical context of theAncient Egypt.
Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittestby discussing the simple fact that small tribes or
societies tend to be defeated or conquered by the larger ones. Of course, many sociologists still do so.
they use (knowingly or not) in their analyses, especially due to the recent reappearance of evolutionary theory.

Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsonswas strongly influenced by Émile Durkheim andMax Weber, synthesizing much of your work
in his theory of action, which is based on the theoretical-system concept and the methodological principle of action
voluntary. He argued that 'the social system is made up of the actions of individuals.'[16] Consequently, his
the starting point is the interaction between two individuals facing a variety of options about how
they could act,[17]the options that are influenced and limited by a number of physical and social factors.[18]
Parsons determined that each individual has expectations of the actions of others and reacts to their own
behavior, and that these expectations could (if successful) be 'derived' from accepted norms and values
of the society they live in. As Parsons himself emphasized, in a general context, there would never be any 'adjustment'
perfect between behaviors and norms, which is why this relationship is never complete or "perfect".
Social norms were always problematic for Parsons, who never said (as has been alleged) that the
social norms were generally accepted and agreed upon, if this prevents any kind of universal law. If they are accepted
Social norms were not, for Parsons, simply a historical issue.
As behaviors are repeated in more interactions and these expectations are deeply rooted or
institutionalized, a creation is made of arollParsons defines a "role" as the normatively regulated participation "of
a person in a specific process of social interaction with specific socio-roles and concrete ones.
that any person, in theory, can fulfill no function is expected for the individual to adjust to the norms
that govern the nature of the function they fulfill.
On the other hand, a person can or cannot fulfill many different roles at the same time. In a sense, a person
it can be seen as a 'composition' of the roles he inhabits. Certainly, nowadays, if they were asked to
if they were to describe themselves, most people would respond with reference to their social roles.
Subsequently, Parsons developed the idea of roles in complementary role collectivities.
mutually in the fulfillment of functions for society. Some functions are linked in the
institutionsand social structures (economic, educational, legal, and even gender-based). These are functional.
in the sense that they help society in its functioning and in meeting its functional needs
for society to function smoothly.
Contrary to the prevailing myth, Parsons never spoke of a society where there was no conflict or some type of
perfect 'balance'. The system of cultural values of a society was never, in the typical case, completely
integrated, it was never static and most of the time, as in the case of American society, in a state
transformation complex with respect to its historical starting point. To reach a 'perfect' equilibrium does not
I was not in any serious theoretical question in Parsons' analysis of social systems; in fact, the societies more
dynamics generally had cultural systems with significant internal tensions, such as the USA and India.
These tensions were (quite often) a source of his strength according to Parsons instead of
contrary. Subsequently, Parsons never thought about the system of institutionalization and the level of the strains (tensions,
conflicts) in the system as opposing forces in themselves.
For Parsons, the key processes for the reproduction of the system are socialization andsocial control. The
Socialization is important because it is the mechanism for the transfer of accepted norms and values of the
society to individuals within the system. Parsons never spoke of 'perfect socialization' - at any
Structural Functionalism 6

The socialization of society was only partial and 'incomplete' from a comprehensive point of view.
Parsons states that "at this point [...] it is independent of the sense in which [the] person is concretely autonomous.
or creative, instead of 'passive' or 'compliant', through individuality and creativity, are largely phenomena
of the institutionalization of expectations";[22]that are culturally constructed.
Socialization is supported by the application of positive and negative sanctions of role behaviors that
they carry out or do not meet these expectations. A punishment could be informal, like a giggle or gossip,
more formal, through institutions such as prisons and mental homes. If these two processes were perfect,
society would become static and unchangeable, but in reality this is unlikely to happen for a long time.
Parsons recognizes this, stating that he treats 'the structure of the system in its problematic and subject to changes,'
and that their concept of the tendency towards equilibrium 'does not imply the empirical dominance of stability in the
change."[25] He, however, believes that these changes occur relatively smoothly.
Individuals interacting with changing situations adapt through a process of 'roles of
negotiation.[26] Once the roles are established, they create norms that guide further action and therefore
are institutionalized, creating stability in social interactions. When the process cannot be adjusted
adaptation, due to acute crises or immediate radical change, structural dissolution occurs and either new
structures (or therefore, a new system) are formed, or the society dies. This model of social change has
is described as a "mobile balance," and emphasizes the desire for social order.

Theory of action
Talcott Parsons developed the system of structural functionalism, for which he developed the scheme.
AGIL. The acronym AGIL corresponds to what Parsons considered four functional imperatives that are necessary.
in any system:
A: Adaptation. Every system must be able to address external situations. It must adapt to its environment and
adapt the environment to their needs.
G:(Goal Attainment): Capacidad para alcanzar las metas. Sistema finalista o que se encarga de definir y alcanzar las
fundamental goals.
I: Integration. The system must regulate the integration between its components and among the other imperatives.
functional: A, G and L.
L: Latency (Pattern Maintenance). A system must maintain, provide, and renew motivation.
individuals as well as the cultural norms that integrate them.
Every social system tends towards equilibrium and stability. It is believed that the disturbing forces of the social system
it is the individuals and conflicts that originate from the ideology or psychology of men. It is considered that the
The state should be an organization for aid and administration that benefits all of society. According to the analysis of
Talcott Parsons, psychology focuses on the study of the personality system, biology on the organic,
anthropology to the cultural system and sociology to the social system, exclusively sociology will be "the structure of
the institutional guidelines that define the roles played by individuals.
Structural Functionalism 7

Davis and Moore

Kingsley DavisyWilbert E. Moore(1945) provided an argument for social stratification based on the idea of
functional necessityDavis-Moore hypothesis These authors argued that the
the hardest jobs in any society have the highest salaries, in order to motivate people to
fill out the necessary paperwork for the division of labor. Therefore, inequality serves social stability.
This argument has been criticized as a fallacy from a number of different angles: it is also argued
that individuals with more merit are the ones who receive the highest reward, and that a system of
Unequal rewards are necessary; otherwise, individuals would not do what is necessary for society.
It works. The problem is that these rewards are supposed to be based on objective merit, rather than subjective.
"motivations." The argument also does not clearly establish why some positions are worth more than others,
even when they benefit more people in society, for example, teachers compared to athletes and
movie stars. Critics have suggested that thestructural inequality(hereditary wealth, family power,
etc.) is in itself a cause of individual success or failure, not a consequence of it.

Robert Merton
Robert K. Mertonmade important improvements to functionalist thought. Fundamentally, he agrees with the
Parsons' theory. However, he recognized that it was a problem, believing that all of that was widely finished.
Merton tended to emphasize theintermediate range theory, instead of agrand theory, what
It means that he was able to specifically address some of the limitations of Parsons' theory. Merton
I believed that any social structure probably has many functions, some more evident than others.
He identified 3 main limitations: functional unit, universal functionalism, and indispensability [Ritzer in
Gingrich, 1999]. He also developed the concept of deviation and made the distinction betweenmanifest functions and
latentManifest functions refer to the recognized and intended consequences of any pattern.
social. Latent functions refer to the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any pattern.
social.
Merton criticized functional unity, saying that not all parts of a complex modern society work.
for the functional unit of society. As a consequence, there is a social dysfunction that refers to a pattern
social issues that can disrupt the functioning of society. Some institutions and structures may have other
functions, and even some can generally be dysfunctional, that is, functional for some, but
dysfunctional for others. This is because not all structures are functional for society in its
set. Some practices are only functional for a dominant individual or a group [Holmwood, 2005:91]
Merton also pointed out that there may be functional alternatives to institutions and that currently the structures
fulfill the functions of society. This means that the institutions that exist today are not
indispensable for society. Merton asserts that "just as the same object can have multiple functions, so too
that the same function can be fulfilled differently by alternative elements" [cited in Holmwood, 2005:91].
This notion of functional alternatives is important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply the
approval of the status quo.
Merton's theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim's idea of anomie. It is central to explaining how...
they can produce internal changes in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between goals
cultural and the accepted methods to reach them.
Merton believes that there are 5 situations that an actor faces.

Conformity occurs when an individual has the means and the desire to achieve cultural goals.
socialized in it.
Innovation occurs when a person strives to reach accepted cultural goals but decides
do it in the new method or not accepted.
Structural Functionalism 8

Ritualism occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but loses the
achievement of the objectives.
Retreat is the rejection of the means and objectives of society.
Rebellion is a combination of the rejection of social goals and means and a substitution of other objectives.
and means.
It can be seen, therefore, that change can occur internally in society through an innovation or
of rebellion. It is true that society will try to control these people and nullify the changes, but how it wins
Innovation impulse or rebellion, eventually society adapts or shows dissolution.

Almond and Powell

In the 1970s, thepolitical scientistsGabriel AlmondyBingham Powellthey introduced an approach
structural-functionalism for comparison political systemsThey argued that, in order to understand a system
Political, it is necessary to understand not only its institutions (or structures), but also their respective functions.
They also insisted that these institutions, to be correctly understood, must be placed in a context.
significant and dynamic history.
This idea was set in stark contrast to the prevailing approaches in the field of comparative politics - theory
of the state-society and of dependency theory. These were the descendants of thesystems theoryby David
Easton in international relations, a mechanistic view that saw all political systems as
essentially the same, subject to the same laws of 'stimulus and response'—or inputs and outputs—
paying little attention to unique characteristics. The structural-functional approach is based on the idea that
the political system is made up of several key components including,stakeholders, political partiesand branches
of the government.

In addition to structures, Almond and Powell showed that a political system also consists of various functions.
among those who highlight political socialization, recruitment, and communication: socialization refers to the
the way in which societies pass their values and beliefs to successive generations, and in
political terms describe the process by which a society instills civic virtues, or the habits of
effective citizen; recruitment denotes the process by which a political system generates interest, commitment
and the participation of citizens, and communication refers to the way a system promotes its values
and information.

Structural functionalism and unilineal descent

In their attempt to explain the social stability of 'primitive' stateless societies in Africa where they conducted their
fieldwork,Evans-Pritchard (1940) andMeyer Fortes(1945) argued that thetallensiand thenuerit
they are mainly organized around groups ofunilineal affiliationThese groups are characterized by having purposes.
common ones, such as property management or defense against attacks, also form a structure
a social establishment that persists long beyond the lifespan of its members. In the case of the Tallensi and the Nuer, these
Business groups are based on kinship, which in turn fits into the larger structures of descent.
unilineal, consequently the Evans-Pritchard and Fortes model is called "descent theory." On the other hand, in
In this African context, territorial divisions were aligned with lineages, so the theory of descent
synthesize both blood and soil as the two sides of the same coin (cf. Kuper, 1988:195). The ties of
affinity with the parents through whom the descent is not counted, however, they are considered as
merely complementary or secondary (Fortes created the concept of "complementary affiliation"), with the computation
of kinship by descent is considered the main organizing force of social systems. Due to
due to its strong emphasis on unilineal descent, this new theory of kinship came to be called 'theory of the'
ascendancy.
Structural Functionalism 9

Without delay, the theory of descent found its critics. Many African tribal societies seemed to fit.
this model is quite well organized, despite the Africanists, likeRichards, they also argued that Fortes and
Evans-Pritchard had deliberately minimized the internal contradictions, and they put too much emphasis on the
stability of local lineage systems and their importance for the organization of society. [33] However, in
In many places in Asia, the problems are even more [Link] New Guineathe descendant groups
patrilineal locales were fragmented and contained large amounts of non-agnates. The distinctions of
statuses did not depend on the decline, and the genealogies were too short to account for solidarity
social through identification with a common ancestor. In particular, the phenomenon of cognatic kinship (or
bilateral) posed a serious problem to the proposition that descent groups are the main element
behind the social structures of 'primitive' societies.
Leach's (1966) critique came in the form of the classic Malinowskian argument, noting that 'in studies of
Evans-Pritchard on the Nuer and also in the studies on unilineal affiliations Tallensis turned out to be, in
to a large extent, an ideal concept so that empirical facts are adapted only through fictions." (1966:8). The
self-interest, the maneuver, manipulating and the competition had been ignored. On the other hand, the theory of
descent neglects the importance of marriage and ties of affinity, which was highlighted by theanthropology
structuralof Lévi-Strauss, at the expense of placing excessive emphasis on the role of descent. To quote Leach: "The
evident importance linked to kinship and matrilineal relationships by affinity is not so much to explain how it
explain far.

Decline of Functionalism
Structural functionalism reached the peak of its influence in the1940sy1950, and by the 1960sbe
was in rapid decline. In 1980, in Europe, its place was taken by more oriented approaches to
conflict[36] and more recently by the " structuralism[37]While some critical approaches also
they gained popularity in the United States, instead, the mainstream of the discipline has shifted to a large
number of empirically oriented theories ofintermediate scopewithout any general theoretical guidance. For the
the majority of sociologists now believe that functionalism is 'dead as a dodo.'
How the influence of both functionalism and the began to decreaseMarxismin the1960sthe twists
Linguistic and cultural factors led to a great number of new movements in the social sciences: "According to
Giddens, the orthodox consensus ended in the late 1960s and 1970s as the shared midpoint by
competing perspectives gave way and were replaced by a bewildering variety of perspectives
opposite. This third "generation" of social theories included phenomenologically inspired approaches,theory
criticism, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, structuralism, poststructuralismand the theories written in the
tradition of thehermeneuticsand thephilosophy of ordinary language.
Although absent from empirical sociology, they remained detectable in functionalist themes of the theory.
sociological, especially in the work ofLuhmannand Giddens. However, there are signs of an incipient reactivation,
functionalist claims have recently been reinforced by the evolution of selection theory
multilevel and in empirical research on how groups solvesocial dilemmasThe recent
events in theevolutionary theoryespecially by the biologistDavid Sloan Wilsonand theanthropologistsRobert
BoydyPeter Richersonthey have provided strong support for structural functionalism in the form of
theory of themultilevel selectionIn this theory, culture and the socialist structure are seen as aadaptation
Darwinian(biológica o cultural) al nivel de grupo.
Structural functionalism 10

Criticism
In the 1960s, functionalism was criticized for being unable to account for social changes, or for
structural contradictions and conflicts (and therefore it is often called "consensus theory").[40]
In addition, inequalities are ignored, including race, gender, class, which causes tensions and
conflicts. Previously, the refutation of the second criticism of functionalism has been expressed, which is static and
does not have a concept of change, reaching the conclusion that although Parsons' theory allows for change, this
it is an orderly process of change [Parsons, 1961:38], a mobile equilibrium. Therefore, reference is made to the theory
describing Parsons' society as something static is inaccurate. It is true that it emphasizes balance and the
maintenance or the rapid restoration of social order, but rather it is a product of the era in which
Parsons was writing (post World War II, and the beginning of the Cold War). Society was in
shock and fear abounded. At that moment, social order was crucial, and this is reflected in the trend of
Parsons promotes the balance and social order, rather than social change. Therefore, it refers to the
Parsons' theory of society as static is inaccurate. It is true that it emphasizes balance and the
maintenance or the quick restoration of social order, but rather it is a product of the time in which
Parsons was writing (post-World War II, and the beginning of the Cold War). Society was in
shock and fear abounded. At the moment when social order was crucial, this is reflected in the trend
from Parsons to promote equilibrium and social order, rather than social change.
On the other hand, Durkheim favored a radical form ofguild socialismtogether with the explanations
functionalists. Additionally, theMarxism, while recognizing social contradictions, continues to use the
functionalist explanations. Parsons' evolutionary theory describes the systems and subsystems of differentiation and
reintegration and therefore the conflicts, at least temporary before reintegration (ibid). "The fact that the
Functional analysis can be seen by some as something inherently conservative and by others as something
inherently radical suggests that it may be neither one nor the other.
The strongest criticisms are the discussionepistemologicalthat functionalism istautological, that is to say it deals with
explain the development of social institutions exclusively through the effects that are attributed to
they and, therefore, explains both circularly. However, Parsons directly called many concepts of
Durkheim in the creation of his theory. Undoubtedly, Durkheim was one of the first theorists who explain a
phenomenon with reference to the function that serves society. He said, "the determination of the function is... necessary
for the complete explanation of phenomena" [cited in Coser, 1977:140]. However, Durkheim made a clear
distinction between historical analysis and functional analysis, saying: 'When... the explanation is carried out of a
social phenomenon, we must separately seek the efficient cause that produces it and the function it fulfills" [cited in
Coser, 1977:140]. If Durkheim makes this distinction, then it is unlikely that Parsons does not make it. However,
Merton does not explicitly state that functional analysis does not attempt to explain why the action occurred in the
first case, but yes why it continues or reproduces. He says that the 'latent functions... go a long way in explaining the
continuity of the pattern" [cited in Elster, 1990:130, emphasis added]. Therefore, it can be argued that the
Functionalism does not explain the original cause of a phenomenon with reference to its effect, and therefore, it is not teleological.

Other critics describe the argumentontologicalthat society cannot have "needs" like a being
human, and even if society had needs, they will not be [Link] Giddensargues that all the
functionalist explanations can be rewritten as historical accounts of human actions and the
individual consequences (seeStructuring).
Another criticism directed at functionalism is that it lacks a sense of agency, that individuals are seen as
puppets, which act according to what their role demands. However, Holmwood asserts that the more sophisticated forms of
functionalism is based on 'a very developed concept of action' [2005:107], and as has been explained
Previously, Parsons took the person and their actions as a starting point. However, his theory does not articulate
how these actors exercise their agency in opposition to socialization and the inculcation of accepted norms. How
as previously demonstrated, Merton addressed this limitation through his concept of deviation, and thus it can be
Structural functionalism 11

to observe that functionalism allows agency. However, it cannot explain why people decide
to accept or reject accepted norms, why and under what circumstances they choose to exercise their free will, and this continues
being a considerable limitation of the theory.
Other critiques have been directed against functionalism by proponents of other social theories, especially the
theoretical conflict, theMarxiststhefeministsand thepostmodernistsConflict theorists criticized the
the concept of functionalism of systems giving too much importance to integration and consensus, and leaving out
aside from independence and conflict [Holmwood, 2005:100]. Lockwood [Holmwood, 2005:101], in line with
with conflict theory, it suggested that Parsons' theory lost the concept of system contradiction. It was not given.
cuenta de aquellas partes del sistema podrían tener tendencias a la mala-integración. Según Lockwood, fueron estas
trends emerged to the surface, such as the opposition and the conflict between the actors. However, Parsons believed
that in its model, the themes of conflict and cooperation were very intertwined and tried to explain them to
both [Holmwood, 2005:103]. In this, however, he was limited by his analysis of an 'ideal type' of society
that was characterized by consensus. Merton, through his critique of functional unity, introduced in the
functioning of an explicit analysis of tension and conflict.
Marxism, which was revived shortly after the emergence of conflict theory, criticized professional sociology.
(functionalism and conflict theory alike) for being a supporter of advanced welfare capitalism
[Holmwood, 2005:103]. Gouldner [in Holmwood, 2005:103] believed that Parsons' theory was specifically the
expression of the dominant interests of welfare capitalism, which justifies institutions in relation to
function they fulfill in society. It may be that Parsons' work implies or articulates that they are needed to
certain institutions fulfill the functional requirements of society, but whether it is the case or not, Merton states
explicitly that institutions are not indispensable and that there are functional alternatives. That he does not identify himself
no alternative to the current institutions reflects a conservative bias, which as mentioned before is a
product of the specific time he was writing.
At the end of the prominence of functionalism, feminism increased and it was a radical critique of
functionalism. It is believed that functionalism overlooked the oppression of women in the family structure. Without
embargo, Holmwood [2005:103] shows that Parsons had, in fact, described the situations where there existed the
tensions and conflicts or when they were about to occur, even if such conflicts are not articulated.
Some feminists agree, suggesting that Parsons provided accurate descriptions of these.
situations. [Johnson in Holmwood, 2005:103]. On the other hand, Parsons acknowledged that he had simplified his analysis.
functional of women in relation to work and family, and focused on the positive functions of the family
for society and not in its dysfunctions for women. Merton also, although in the face of situations in which
they produced function and dysfunction simultaneously, lacking a "feminist sensibility" [Holmwood,
2005:103.
Postmodernism, as a theory, is critical of claims to objectivity. Therefore, the idea of the
Any grand theory that can explain society in all its forms is treated at least with skepticism. This criticism is
important, as it exposes the danger that the grand theory can pose when it is not seen as a perspective
limited, as a way of understanding society.
Jeffrey Alexander (1985) considers functionalism as a broad school rather than a method or system.
specific, like Parsons, who is able to take balance (stability) as a point of reference, instead of
hypothesis and addresses structural differentiation as an important form of social change. "The name
'Functionalism' implies a difference in method or interpretation that does not exist.
determinism criticized earlier. Cohen argues that a society, instead of needs, has facts
dispositional: characteristics of the social environment that support the existence of certain social institutions,
but they do not provoke them.
Structural Functionalism 12

Influential theorists
• Kingsley DavisyWilbert E. Moore
• Michael Denton
• Émile Durkheim
• David Keen
• Niklas Luhmann
• Bronisław Malinowski
• Robert K. Merton
• Wilbert E. Moore
• George Murdock
• Talcott Parsons
• Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
• Herbert Spencer
• Fei Xiaotong

Note
[1] ^ Macionis, Gerber, Sociology 7th Canadian Edition (Pearson Canada Inc., 2010), pg. 14
^DeRosso,Deb The Structural Functional Theoretical Approach,[Link]
2003. (Consulted on February 24, 2012)
Talcott Parsons, "The Present Status of 'Structural-Functional' Theory in Sociology." In Talcott Parsons, Social Systems and The Evolution
of Action Theory New York: The Free Press, 1975.
Bourricaud, F. 'The Sociology of Talcott Parsons' Chicago University Press. ISBN 0-226-06756-4. p. 94
[5] Macionis, GerberSociology 7th Canadian edition (Pearson Canada Inc., 2010) pg. 19
[6] Giddens, Anthony "The Constitution of Society" in The Giddens Reader Philip Cassell (eds.) MacMillan Press pp.88
Department of Anthropology of the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Alabama: anthropological theories([Link]
edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/[Link]
[8] Macionis, John J. 'Sociology'. (Toronto: Pearson, 2011), 97
Fish Jonathan S. [Link] the Durkheimian Tradition. Religion, Emotion and MoralityAldershot: Ashgate Publishing.
[10] Gerber, L., Macionis, J. (2011). Sociology: Seventh Canadian Edition. pp. 13-14.
[11] Gerber, L., Macionis, J. (2011). Sociology: Seventh Canadian Edition. pp. 10.
Gertrude Lenzer, ed., Auguste Comte and Positivism: The Essential Writings (New York: Harper, 1975). pp. 71-86.
[13] Turner, 1985
[14] Macionis, Gerber, Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. (Pearson Canada Inc., 2010), pg. 14
See Turner 1985
Parsons y Shills, 1976:190
Parsons, 1961:41
[18] Craib, 1992:40
1961:43-44
Cuff y Payne, 1984:44
[21] Gingrich, 1999
1961:38
Cuff y Payne, 1984:46.
1961:37.
1961:39.
[26] Gingrich, 1991
[27] Gingrich, 1991.
Davis, Kingsley and Wilbert E. Moore. (1970 [1945]) "Some Principles of Stratification."American Sociological Review,10 (2), 242-9.
[29] de Maio, F. (2010) Health & Social Theory. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 29-30.
30Tumin, M. M.(1953). "Some principles of stratification: a critical analysis."American Sociological Review,18, 387-97.
[31] ^ ^ Macionis, Gerber, Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. (Pearson Canada Inc., 2010), p. 14
In sociology, another term to describe a positive function, in opposition to dysfunction, iseuphoria
[33] see. Kuper, 1988:196, 205–6
Kuper, 1988:196, p. 208
[34] see also.

[35] Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, Handbook of Sports Studies

Structural functionalism 13

[36] Slattery, Martin. [Link] Ideas in Sociology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes, Ltd.
Giddens, Anthony "The Constitution of Society" in The Giddens Reader Philip Cassell (eds.) MacMillan Press pp.89
Barnes, B. 1995. The Elements of Social Theory. London: UCL Press. Cited in Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning, Handbook of Sports Studies
Cassell, Philip The Giddens Reader (1993) The Macmillan Press Ltd, pp. 6
[40][Link]

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