The design of qualitative research

Jean-Pierre Des lauriers

Mick the Vrisit

In various disciplines, the process of scientific research is clearly the same.

and the researchers apply, as a whole, the same action principles. However, if
many argue that quantitative and qualitative follow a similar path, the
the debate is not over among researchers: quantitative and qualitative
do they proceed in the same way? Or, in other words, is there a delineation of
research specific to qualitative research?
When qualitative research made a strong comeback in the late 1960s, but,
mainly, in the mid-1970s, her supporters intended for her to
it presented particular characteristics; in the opinion of its most diligent promoters,
the qualitative research resorted to techniques that radically differentiated it from the
quantitative research. During this period, it was common to oppose the good 'qualitative' to
less good 'quantitative'. However, after this period of defense, after the
qualitative researchers have carried out 'some relevant work, it seemed that
the general research procedure they followed was essentially the same as
that taken by other researchers; the researcher poses a question and
gathers information to respond to her, he treats• the data, analyze it and try to demonstrate
how they allow to respond to your initial problem. In fact, in a design
of qualitative research, the common elements to every project of
research.
This nuance should not allow one to think that everything is similar to the same.
Effectively, qualitative research has established its own tradition, which evolves and
gives a particular coloring to your outline; if the underlying logic is
similar to any research, the design of qualitative research has aspects and
a development that distinguishes it. It is true that the similarities
allow qualitative researchers to establish a dialogue with others

* This chapter is based on a text by M. Kérisit; The

constructionof the object ofresearch in scienceandqualitative research, University of
Québec em Hull, 1992, 53p. (preparado no âmbito do projeto especial do Conselho Quebequense da
Social Research, about Qualitative Research.
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researchers, and also that the particularities of qualitative research illustrate
your contribution to methodological development in the social sciences.
This article presents the different stages of the qualitative research process and
provides a comprehensive view of what a research design is
qualitative must sing. However, it is necessary to specify that the research itself
qualitativeait divides into several currents, each having its own perspective,
which will not be examined here, since priority will be given to
general procedure in qualitative research, in which different currents, without
doubt, they may recognize themselves.
We will also be interested in the different elements of the design of
qualitative research, from the construction of the object, through data collection,
until the drafting of the report. However, the logic of the presentation is not that of the action;
in this case, and out of necessity of cause, the presentation of the different elements
qualitative research will follow a linear order that is not always found
own research practice.

The design of qualitative research

As often happens in the social sciences, no one agrees on how
in terms, to such an extent that 'outline:', 'design', 'research plan',
research protocol
designating the same thing, almost with few nuances. Generally speaking, these
terms refer to the document in which the researcher presents the research that
he intends to carry out and how he will proceed:
The research plan consists of organizing the conditions for data collection and
data analysis, in order to ensure, at the same time, its
relevance in relation to the research objectives and the parsimony of
means. What does it mean to say that research plans vary according to the
objectives of this same research (SELLTIZ; WR1GHTSMAN; COOK,
1977:90).

A broader interpretation can be given to the term outlining of

research; beyond the methodological aspect, it can also encompass the
research problem, the issue that inspired it, the research strategy and
its relevance (CONTANDRIOPOULOS et al., 1990: 15).
Several factors influence the choice and formulation of the research design.
research can aim for exploration, description, or verification; it can be conducted
in an environment that lends itself to experimentation, or, on the contrary, in a place that
researcher does not, can control, The design will vary, therefore, not only in
function of the research objective, but also according to the possibilities and the limits
in which it develops. In this sense, five outlines can be distinguished.
mainly used in social sciences: the case shield, multi-comparison

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case, experimentation in the field, laboratory experimentation, and simulation by
computer (LESSARI; HEBERT; GOYETTE; BOUTIN, 1990, 163).
The research design also varies according to the interaction of the data and the
analysis, as illustrated by the following diagram1:
Data
Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative I II
Analysis
Qualitative III IV

The first cell indicates that the quantitative data is analyzed in a way
quantitative. This is the case with surveys with closed questions, where the answers are
subjected to statistical treatment. In the second, qualitative data is analyzed
through a device intended for data quantification; we think, here,
in the automatic analysis of discourse. The third cell could be that of analysis.
criticism of the data on income, for example, as assistance from a framework of
qualitative analysis, the researcher reinterprets the data provided by Statistics
Canada, relating the issue of income to power. Finally, in the fourth cell, the
the researcher analyzes qualitative data qualitatively.
And it is in this fourth case that most research designs are situated.
qualitative. Coin effect, although many have demonstrated the possibility of
perform a statistical analysis of the resulting data; for example, from the observation
participant, most qualitative researchers dismissed this possibility and
continue to treat qualitative data qualitatively. Certainly, there are differences
between the progressive analysis of the cases of analytical induction, the comparison of groups of
grounded theory, the deepening of a case of the approach
biographical or case study, however all these procedures have in common
a similar strategy.
The privileged themes of qualitative research
Qualitative research is not suitable for all possible research topics. That said
Marshall and Rossman emphasize the usefulness and superiority of the methodology of
qualitative research in certain situations, especially when:
the research cannot be conducted experimentally, for practical reasons;

1 This scheme was suggested to me a few years ago by Richard I efrançois from Sher University.
brooke.
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 the research aims to deepen processes or phenomena
complexes;
the research contains relevant variables that have not yet been
delimited
the research aims to explore at what moment and where politicians, the good-
popular sense and the practice of failure;
the research refers to unknown societies or innovative structures;
the research refers to organizational processes, their connections
informal and unstructured;
the research refers to the actual organizational objectives, as opposed to
to those who are intended (MARSHALL & ROSSMAN, 1989: 46).
In summary, and beyond the methodological arguments, it seems
that qualitative research is better suited to certain types and themes of
research. We will examine some of them in the following paragraphs.

Descriptive and exploratory research

Qualitative research has often been used to describe

a circumscribed social situation (descriptive research), or to explore
specific issues (exploratory research), which the researcher finds it difficult to
that uses quantitative methods is able to address. Indeed, for its
Exemplary and fleeting character, several social phenomena resist measurement.
An exploratory qualitative research allows one to become familiar with
with people and their concerns. It can also serve to determine
the impasses and blockages that can hinder a research project in
large scale. A descriptive research will raise the question of the mechanisms and
of the actors (the 'how' and the 'what' of phenomena); through the precision of
details, she will provide contextual information that may serve as a basis for
more developed explanatory research. However, it is, for the most part, the
time, complete in itself, and does not necessarily need to be
continued by other researchers, through other techniques.

The study of the everyday and the ordinary

The objective of a qualitative research may be to account for the

concerns of social actors, as they are experienced in everyday life. The
emphasis falls on "all social proximity, that is, all places and
moments when social relations take shape in their concreteness, and no longer the
what could be called the constructed social" (SOULET, 1987b: 14). The object
of research refers to, then, 'social history of the most ordinary objects of
ordinary existence: [...] all these things have become so common, therefore, so
evident, that no one pays attention to them, the structure of a court, the space
from a museum, the workplace accident, the voting booth..." (BOURDIEU &
WACQUANT, 1992: 209.
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 The daily life of the classroom, that of the organizational culture of a company,
the work of women or men, for example, are the objects
privileged by a qualitative approach: This everyday life constitutes the
multiple and ephemeral constructions of everyday life, that is to say, the
exuberance of everyday life, whose heterogeneous aspect cannot be reduced
by the formalized logic of duty-being" (SOUEET, 1987b: 16). Thanks to its
instruments, such as life history, participant observation, or analysis
of content, qualitative research allows for a more particular study of
these privileged moments, from which the meaning of a phenomenon emerges
social.
The study of. Transitional
The researcher locates in time and space the moments when the
the strategies of the actors are evidenced together, and also retain the
perspectives that had been expressed so far as individual intentions. Since
So, it's no longer just the regularities that catch attention, but the crises.
that establish themselves as revealing signs of the moment when the order
The old social structure no longer exists, and in which social change operates. The
phenomena of marginality, change, the unprecedented, transition, cannot
to be explained by regularity, as they mark a break with the
dominant norms, if they have the social structure from which it is set against as a backdrop
they are born, it is generally impossible to withdraw a broad sampling of cases, in
the very nature of the variable that makes a census impossible
of the population. Hence the importance of three elements that constantly emerge.
in qualitative studies: the context, history (or diachrony), and change
social.
The study of the meaning of action

Scientific research refuses to be swayed by the proposed common sense.

by social actors, and also refuses to reduce itself to a theoretical fiction that
would annihilate the lived experience of these actors. The theoretical construction can, however, be the
fact of the individual-researcher, or contribute to the research subjects,
as is the case in action research and feminist research. One of the objects
the privileged of qualitative research is, therefore, the meaning that action acquires
of society in life and the behaviors of individuals, as well as the
meaning of individual action when it translates into collective action.
To affirm that qualitative research privileges the lived experiences of social actors.
it does not mean, however, that it would be reduced to a detailed description of actions
or observable phenomena. In this, one can say that the object par excellence
the qualitative research is the action interpreted, simultaneously, by the
researcher and by the subjects of the research; hence the importance of language.
and the conceptualizations that must account for both the 'lived' object and the
"analyzed" object. 131
The evaluation of the policies

A few years ago, researchers discovered the virtues of the approach

qualitative in evaluative research; the works of Patton (1980 1982; 1986; 1987)
they created a school and offered an option for a qualitative approach. From
in the same way,they rediscovered themselvesthe advantages of qualitative research applied to
analysis of social or organizational policies. Certainly, this field is
quite diversified and covers a variety of practices; however, as
As the work accumulates, what characterizes the research is better defined.
qualitative about social policies. As Majchrzak points out:
Although research on policies may present various facets,
Globally, several particularities differentiate it from other types of research:
she has a multidimensional object;
she is of an empirical-inductive orientation;
it refers to the future, as well as to the past;
she is sensitive to the users of the results; '
it explicitly recognizes the values it conveys (MAJCHRZAK, 1984:
18).
The characteristics of qualitative research make it bring a
substantial contribution to research on social policies. Let us note, in this
sense, its proximity to the field in which decisions are made and where
they experience the regional, family, and individual repercussions of social policies
global; its ability to consider the different aspects of a case
specific and relate them to the general context; your ability to formulate
propositions related to action and practice. These advantages make the research
qualitative is increasingly used when it comes to analyzing policies
social and assess their concrete effects.
The research object
The research object is generally defined as a gap that is
A research problem is conceived as a separation
aware, wanting to overcome, between what we know, judged unsatisfactory, and
what we wish to know, judged desirable" (CHEVRIER, 1993: 50). It is
therefore, inserts itself into a problematic of the advancement of knowledge: the researcher
choose your object based on the flaws it detects in the corpus constituted of
social sciences. At the beginning, therefore, before the researcher moves on to the construction
properly speaking of its research object, a question arises regarding its
spirit. It can be general or specific, simpler at first and more complex later
later, but it does not have the precision that will involve the research object, in the end.
In certain cases, the question remains as it was initially proposed, the
researcher exploring one or another of its facets; in other cases, the issue
will be completely transformed throughout the process. The fact is that in all
types of research, but

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mainly in qualitative research, the research object is, at the same
time, a starting point and an ending point.
The tradition of qualitative research has often insisted on its personal nature.
of the works. The researcher's involvement with their object is, therefore, emotional.
it would constitute the starting point. Thus, according to Marshall and Rossman (1989: 21), the
the chosen object must be an object of concern or curiosity. It is then,
It is important that the epistemological issue of the relationship with the other is inserted in
individual psychology of the researcher or in their belonging to a social group
to which he is linked, or which he rejects. The researcher would therefore construct his object
from a network of interests that guide your choice. In this way, Silverman
escreve:
I suspect that the initial stages of the research are too far away
in accordance with logic and chronology, as evidenced by the communications
scientific. Most of the research is linked to chance and
circumstances concerning the researcher themselves, in the context
economic, social and political, in which he operates (SILVERMAN, 1985:
4).
This perspective should be nuanced. Effectively, the qualitative research project
The hypothesis is not developed only in the silence of the researcher's office, or in the excitement
from the field procedure; it is also constructed in the State agencies—
especially when installing research programs or presenting
research grant applications (SOULET, 1987a: 57). Comparing the strategies
of research conducted by social action practitioners and that of the centers
university students, Soulet shows that the research object is constructed differently by
some and others. For the former, "the conduct of a research process [...] presupposes
as a minimum condition, the respect for reality. The research object is, in this sense,
assimilated to the problem-object and resembles an empirical data that is convenient
describe as faithfully as possible" (p. 56). The object then presents itself, under the
angle of professional investigation. On the contrary, "the university centers and,
above all, research associations specify the object as a space of
work. Both recognize in it the moment when their identity is represented in
relation to the imposition, real or imaginary, that the limited partner makes to consider" (p. 56).
There would, therefore, be two ways to conceive and construct the research object:
for some, it is necessary to know in order to modify; for others, it is necessary to know in order to
to know better. Qualitative research can overcome this divergence by associating-
to the practitioners of social action and to the members of social movements. In tradition
from action research, for example, practitioners are closely associated with
research projects, when they are not the ones who start them' in your
institutions. This point of view is even more evident in feminist research, which,
alias, usually based on qualitative research. According to Smith (1987), a sociology
truly feminist would not transform the subjects she researches into
"objects", but it would retain, in its analytical procedures, the presence of the
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subject as actor. It does not matter that the research object derives from an interest
people of the researcher, or that he results from biographical accidents, or that he
comes from a critical movement that seeks to find its place in a social confrontation
either political, or still, that he is situated at the junction of the interests of the networks (political,
economic and social) that involve the researcher, this object will be primarily,
a negotiated object, which depends, at the same time, on particular circumstances and
of structural factors.

The literature review and the construction of an object

The construction of the research object in qualitative research is very

frequently, considered one of the basic criteria of its originality, not
by the aspect that qualitative research proceeds in a radically different way from that of
other research methodologies, but rather, because the emphasis is placed on aspects that
they are private. Thus, the object of qualitative research is constructed
progressively, in connection with the field, from the interaction of the data collected
with the analysis extracted from them, and not only in light of the literature on the subject,
differently from an approach that would be hypothetical-deductive. In fact, the review
The bibliographic research in qualitative research does not aim so much at the operationalization of the concepts.
that allow to initiate the research (GRINNELL & WILLIAMS, 1990), as to
progressive delimitation of the object.
It is possible to build a research object purely empirically,
baseando-se unicamente nos dados do campo? A resposta é usualmente negativa: é
I need to read what others wrote before us; in a way, to rise above their
shoulders to see further, a little like they intended to do
modern romantics, in their struggle against the ancient classics. This practice
fundament about a conception of knowledge considered as cumulative, according to
to which the progress of one serves as a starting point for the other. Following such a
perspective, the researcher usually dedicates themselves to conducting bibliographic research
revised and exhaustive. Within the scope of a hypothetico-deductive approach, it is about
so, to produce a theoretical model, and then, a hypothesis, verifying its
foundation according to defined variables, all of this before the investigation begins.
In this context, the literature review is the mode par excellence of construction.
of the object. Another option is to read as little as possible, and sometimes,
absolutely nothing. In this more open strategy influenced by anthropology it is
I need to listen attentively to the field, questioning myself completely and
primarily on the data from which the research object will emerge.
Even though practices vary greatly, ranging from the absence of literature review to
more thorough review, qualitative researchers adopted a position
strategic. First of all, you need to read to get informed; no one suffers from ex
knowledge process. The more the researcher has in-depth knowledge about
your theme, but he will be able to construct his object and to delimit a sample
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relevant However, qualitative research gives the review a shade that is
own; the qualitative researcher hesitates to trust it completely and blindly, as the
Experience proves that scientific literature can remain surprisingly
changes on evident matters. From this perspective, the literature review,
instead of contributing to eliminate biases, it can, on the contrary, reinforce them: a
a researcher very dependent on literature becomes dependent on others
researchers and may reach the same impasses.
This is the reason why qualitative researchers have adopted an attitude
flexible about this issue. First of all, most of them review the
pertinent scientific literature: it is necessary to read what has been written about the topic and explore the
theoretical domains that can clarify the issue. Then, they commit to
acquire topological knowledge; know the history of the researched social environment,
its structure, its ideology. Finally, they conduct some interviews with the
informants aware of the issue; going to the field allows the researcher to acquire a
knowledge closer to your topic and also provide more accurate guidance
Your research. For example, old age is experienced differently according to gender: the
researchers who are satisfied with general data run the risk of moving to
margin of the problem. Thus, some field interviews allow for clarification.
differences that literature doesn't even mention. In summary, if it is important to know, it is not
It is necessary to know everything. As recommended by a veteran of qualitative research:
Use the literature review, but do not become dependent on it.
1986: 149).
As qualitative research is anchored in the dialectic of representations, actions and
interpretations of social actors in relation to their environment, it will be usual for the researcher
refer to texts that do not belong to the scientific corpus specific to your domain
investigation. Given that a qualitative research requires direct contact with the
the researched phenomenon, its object is constructed not only from a corpus, but
sometimes restricted, from research reports whose results are verified and
confirmed, but also from a set of texts that weave like a web
of the resonances around the object. Conduct a qualitative research on
certain issues of the black ghettos in the large American cities, without
to know the novels of Toni Morrison2, means depriving oneself of a source of
information, a gap that prevents an intimate knowledge of its subject—what
constituted the marked qualitative research.
The theory and the postulates in qualitative research

From the beginning, it is necessary to define what is meant by theory. On one side, there is
what Silverman (1985: 5) calls large-scale theory

2. Woman of Letters, American, and Nobel Prize in Literature (1993).

135
that accounts for social, economic, and political phenomena, permeating a society
determined; this type of theory merges with an explanation of the world, and
Same, a philosophy. On the other hand, there is a theory said to have a limited scope.
(middle-range theory), which can be defined as 'a set of postulates'
logically interconnected, understanding a greater or lesser number of facts
observed, and forming a network of generalizations, from which can be derived
explanations for a certain number of social phenomena” (GiNGRÁS, 1993: 115).
The proponents of qualitative research formulated a severe critique in
regarding the grand theory: this type of explanation would be too broad to be
empirically verified, as well as very far from particular situations to be
of some utility to qualitative researchers. When it is possible to decompose this
theory in verifiable parts, proceeds by prioritizing the whole, so that
subsequent research runs the risk of being just valuations of the model
theoretical, To counterbalance this trend, qualitative research emphasizes the
actors and in direct contact with the research field; at the same time, it resorts to,
above all, to the theory of limited scope. This does not mean that qualitative research
immediately recuse the grand theory and macrosociology, even if it is insensitive
to the structural dimensions; on the contrary, it allows to show how the marks of
social structures are found in the most circumscribed and particular situations. In
meanwhile, qualitative research does not usually aim at the development of a theory of
large scale to explain the social structure.
The preceding theory
Is it possible to conduct research without any theoretical a priori and based on
only in induction to produce the theory? Even though researchers
qualitative assign less importance to theoretical notions to support their
research, authors like Deutscher (1984) place the fitting title on the impossibility of
the researcher abstracts from their previous knowledge and the preceding theories that
they inform their readings; by their own profession, the researcher cannot make a table
race of your past. However, these qualitative researchers make a use
specific to the theory. In general, in the stream of emerging theory, they are more interested
by the exploration and construction of new theories, rather than by their verification; the field of
research attracts them more than the constructed theory. Indeed, in the eyes of several members of the
scientific community, this attitude attests to an anti-theoretical bias. If such an assertion
it may have some basis, but it certainly does not correspond to the general opinion of
qualitative researchers, who immediately recognize the theoretical support of
any research, even qualitative. The fact is that one should not confuse the criticism of
pre-established theory with the refusal of any theory that can guide the research
From this point of view, Strauss and Corbin echo the general trend in research.
qualitative; when they write:
The researcher refers to various documents before conducting the research.
both to get an idea and to base your work on.
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 The texts are also useful during research, helping it to progress.
summary, throughout the entire research, it is necessary to keep reviewing the
set of documentation (and not just technical works) and alternate
reading and analysis of data. The researcher thus consults all types
of documents at each stage of the research. However, it should be
remember that the categories and their relationships must be constantly
confronted with the data. Thus, it is possible to refer to all the texts
considered relevant, with the condition of not becoming captive to any
themselves (STRAUSS & CORBIN, 1990: 56).

In summary, qualitative research generally avoids taking as a starting point

asimplifyingtheory,ofwhichrealitywouldbecomeaslave:thetheoryseenasa
maritime map, and not as a railway. Therefore, no one will be surprised that the base
the theory of qualitative research does not always have the formal refinement of research
hypothetical-deductive, even though theoretical questions may also be
fundamental.
The formulation of postulates

Qualitativeresearchersusethepostulatesinthesamewaytheyuse
the theory; that is to say, as a starting point, and not as a finishing point.
Traditionally, the researcher begins their work by expanding their concepts and
Formulatinghishypotheses,hefavorscausalhypotheses,whichwillexplainthevariation.
[Link],theresearchergoesto
field, to verify your assumptions. In qualitative research, it is about postulates,
[Link]
initialsshouldbeformulatedasclearlyasinquantitativeorexperimentalresearch:
very generally, they are, first, stated from the perspective of the initial questions, and
even the intuitions to be verified; however, they can be formulated precisely,
beforethestartoftheresearch.
The postulates in qualitative research are not hypotheses of the same order as
those issued in a hypothetical-deductive type of research, and that orchestrate the
operationalization of the research procedure. Just as the theory is developed
progressively,theissuesbecomeprecise,andthepostulatestakeshape
thatthedataareanalyzed;inqualitativeresearch,thepostulatedoesnotcomeonlyfrom
theoreticalknowledgeoftheresearcher,butalso,andaboveall,oftheirsensitivityto
datathatisgathered,[Link]
advancethesimultaneousworkofinformationcollectionandanalysis,theresearchobject
itbecomesmorespecificandtheissuesbecomemoreselective:thefunnelnarrowsandallows-
if the researcher formulates a provisional explanation that will be gradually
consolidated. Its postulates will simultaneously become exclusive (eliminating the
elementsofinformationthat
137
they are not part of the same category) and inclusive (encompassing all elements of
informationthatshouldbepartofaspecificcategory)aswellasmoredetailed.
It is common for the most interesting postulates to appear later, during the collection of
data, on the condition that the researcher works with their data, manipulates it, knows it,
analyzethem,andcombinepracticalworkofdatacollection-treatment-analysisandtheoreticalreflection.
Ifthepostulatedoesnotnecessarilyhavethesameprecisioninqualitativeresearch,as
inthehypothetico-deductivemodel,thisdoesnotmeanthatallpropositionsarevalid:itmay-
todistinguishagoodpropositionfromabadone,byitsabilitytoorganizethedataandto
explain the researched situation (BECKER, 1970: 23). A good postulate "walks"; it is
effective, accounts for information, and allows for understanding and action. It gains space,
gradually,intheproducedtheory.
Not all qualitative research aims to verify postulates, even if they do.
propose initial questions: very often, your goal is to reconstruct the
developmentofsocialprocesses,orindescribingthetotalityofasocialenvironmentandits
[Link];consequently,the
Theresearchoutlinewillcontainpropositionswithouttheusualprecision—which,infact,isnot
alwaysnecessary(inthisregard,itisgoodtorememberthat,ingeneral,usefulknowledgehasbeen
producedinthesocialsciences,eventhoughtheresearchershadastheirultimategoalonly
to understand and explain a certain phenomenon, and not to predict it). On the other hand,
when qualitative research aims to verify a theory, it can then
to present hypotheses of such great precision, as those that characterize the hypothetical model-
deductive.
The sample

Contrary to what some researchers think, qualitative research also

[Link]
Itisconstitutedbychance,butratherbasedonprecisecharacteristicsthattheresearcherintends.
[Link],suchas:theaccidentalsample,theintentionalsample,the
byquotas,thetypicalone,thevoluntaryone,orthe"cascade"sample,alsocalled"snowball"
"neve" (MAYER & OUELLET, 1991: 386). Patton (1980: 105) adds the sample of cases
deviant,typical,critical,politicallyimportant,orsimplythemostaccessible.
Non-probabilistic, or theoretical, sampling is not a strategy that is resorted to.
[Link],countlessphenomenacannot
toberesearchedinanotherway,beingthetheoreticalsample,ingeneral,[Link]
researchconductedinthenaturalenvironment,addressingtopicssuchasthosementioned
At the beginning of this article, certain phenomena can only be understood through an analysis.
accurate,accordingto

138
they allow case studies, monographs, participant observation, life history.
In these cases, non-probabilistic sampling remains the most effective, if not the only one.
possible. On the other hand, theoretical sampling has its specific logic and its
own purposes.
If the regularity and the size of the probabilistic sample allow us
to know general aspects of social reality, the exemplary and unique character of the sample does not
probabilistic gives us access to detailed and contextual knowledge of life
social. It is, therefore, in relation to the results it produces, as well as its relevance,
that the non-probability sample is justified.

Thedatacollection
In the tradition of qualitative research, Zelditch (1969: 9) proposes two main
criteria for judging the validity of data collection instruments. The first refers to
the ability of instruments to bring the desired information. Most of the
time, qualitative researchers choose the instruments that will provide them
maximum information on the research topic. The other criterion is the effectiveness of
instruments; their use is profitable in terms of the time required, the cost, and
Is accessibility allowed and possible?
Marshall and Rossman (1989: 75) add a third criterion, that of ethics.
As qualitative research is conducted in the research field, it is necessary to respect the
characteristics of the social environment. A bibliographical survey on the theme of
negotiation in qualitative research reveals that, very often, the researcher
worries, from the beginning, about making contact and managing roles, in the field of
the resistance of the people or groups to be researched, the choice of
informants, the psychological reactions to certain situations and the roles that can
performingtheresearcherinthefield,areperceivedasmanyoftherealitieswithwhich
[Link]
abroader,morehonest,[Link],thestatednegotiationis
articulatesanethicalquestion,doestheresearcherhavetherighttointerveneinthefield?In
in the case of a participant observation, should it become part of all actions, even
reprehensible, of the social group in which he lives? Is it moral for the researcher to disguise the
truereasonforyourpresence?Whatarethelimitsofconfidentialityincollectingreportsof
life?Dothemeansusedrespecttheprivatelivesofthepeopleandgroupsresearched?They
Canwemeasuretheconsequencesofyourparticipationintheresearch?Theresearcherhimselfisin
positionofassessingtherisksthatparticipantsmayface;andwhatdoeshedotoeliminatethem?
Forexample,thepublicationofanextremelyrigorousresearchreportonagroup
a community member in a difficult situation risks destabilizing this group, and
even undermine your morale, and immobilize you. From a perspective of social change, will it
Isitworthit?
139
 This implication of the researcher in the lived experiences of people, thanks to which he
obtém um conhecimento, adquire um valor epistemológico na medida em que o
the knowledge of the researcher and the knowledge of the group in which he is absorbed fertilize each other
mutually. There is, thus, reciprocity of knowledge that is built within
a practice of craft, and not in an artificial way. Marshall and Rossman recommend
that the researcher, who owes his knowledge to the subjects he researched, invents
ways to reward the social actors who allowed you to extend your
knowledge: "The researcher is indebted to the social environment and needs to find
ways to thank him: dedicate time to him, make comments, invite the
people for a coffee, greet them, help them, or communicate any trait to them
of appropriate evaluation" (MARSHALL & ROSSMAN, 1989: 69).
Generally, for the collection of information, qualitative research relies on
participant observation and the interview. These basic techniques are complemented by the
questionnaire, photography, audiovisual documents (film, video), observation
two public places, the life story, the content analysis. Wishing fervently
gather as much relevant information as possible, researchers combine,
usually several of these techniques.
The analysis of the data

The analysis stage consists of finding meaning in the collected data.

and in demonstrating how they respond to the research problem that the researcher
progressively formulated. Therefore, the analysis occupies a prominent place.
in all research, but mainly in qualitative research. It is possible to even
to say that the renewal that qualitative research has undergone in recent years
years is due to the progress made in data analysis, which constituted the
weak point of the qualitative procedure. In this sense, rooted theorization
(GLASER & STRAUSS, 1967: GLASER, 1978) certainly had a wide in-
fluency. Briefly summarized, the qualitative approach to analysis would be characterized
asked for the elaboration of a theory based on a process of induction and about the
opening to data. Once the research field is defined, the researcher organizes
your data with the help of a quite broad descriptive and interpretive framework, to
light of topological concepts supported by structural elements and processes
specific to the phenomenon researched.
The design of qualitative research cannot accurately predict the re-
results that the qualitative analysis will produce; however, it is expected to find, in a
research design, a description of the analysis procedure that the
the researcher intends to continue. If the research problem guides the data collection and
the possible results, it happens that surprising categories impose themselves and that the
research object radically changes during the data collection stages
data and analysis. In this case, "the central problem may be reformulated during

140
the research, if it no longer corresponds to the observed reality" (CHEVRIER, 1993:
69).
The literature review and the analysis

Given the importance of interpretations in qualitative research, the review

bibliographic research leads the researcher to choose a theoretical foundation. During the
stages of data collection and analysis, reading will facilitate the development of the process
analytical
The literature review [...] helps to formulate an explanation both during the
data collection, as in your analysis, allowing to clarify and evaluate the data,
as well as establishing connections between the data at different times. A
As the rooted theorization progresses, the literature review provides the
theoretical constructions, categories and properties that serve to organize the
data and discover new relationships between theory and the real world (MARSHALL &
ROSSMAN, 1989: 41).

Reading theoretical works provides the concepts and metaphors through which
one can interpret an opaque data. The use of metaphors taken from scientific texts,
from literature, or from the social environment, is undoubtedly one of the most 'secret' procedures
and more fruitful that can assist the researcher in satisfactorily conducting an analysis,
as well as to build your research object. The image, the implicit comparison, the
analogy, determine this moment of intuition that causes the object to change
suddenly from one place to another, or appear from another perspective. Generally passing
unnoticed in the research report, or in the scientific article, the analogical reasoning and
metaphorical allows to establish relationships between concepts and between particular cases.
Thus, the literature review in qualitative social sciences cannot avoid
a reflection on the sociopolitical nature of the metaphors used, mainly
about its sexist content. As Harding points out: 'The historians of science
pointed out to us the persistent presence of sexist metaphors in
official and unofficial thinking of scientists since the emergence of modern science
up to our days" (HARDING, 1986: 233).
The literature review also reveals structural homologues between fields of
different research. Bourdieu offers a choice option to thought
homological in analysis:
This way of thinking is realized entirely logically, in and by
appeal to the comparative method, which allows for relational thinking, a
particular case constituted in a particular case of the possible, relying on the
structural homologous between different fields (the field of power
university student and the field of religious power, through the homology of relationships
professor/intellectual and bishop/theologian), or of the different states of the same
field (or the religious field of the Middle Ages and today) (BOURDIEU &
WACQLIANT, 1992: 205.

141
 A literature review in qualitative research will not be limited, therefore, to a
field of specific knowledge, but will gradually be expanded into other areas
domains, fertilizing the first one. This procedure requires of the researcher not only
a deepening of your research field, but also knowledge of
connected fields. The transition from the particular case to the general case, both defined under the
relationship ofcomparative methods, or based on knowledge of the contexts,
requires that the collected data be contextualized within a set
broader theoretical framework. The issue of interpreting disciplinary fields constitutes a
essential dimension in a reflection on qualitative research.
Ultimately, the literature review plays, in qualitative analysis, a
strategic and theoretical paper at the same time.

The produced theory

Usually, the objective of data analysis is to produce a theory. However,
not all research has sufficient scope to produce a theory; besides
thus, the majority is content to propose concepts that, it should be said, confirm
the value of a theoretical work. From this perspective, qualitative analysis can be
articulate around concepts already defined in the scientific literature and that the researcher
consider for the needs of your research. However, most of the time, the
qualitative researcher formulates new concepts, or assigns a new meaning to
old, or takes concepts from its informants, including in common language.
As one of the characteristic traits of qualitative research is to link to
interpretation that social actors make of the phenomena that are inscribed in their
Means, a particularly critical aspect for cultural anthropology, derive from that.
results in which the specific concepts of the research subjects combine with
of the researcher. However, not all of these concepts present the same degree of
abstraction, just as they do not appear in the analysis, at the same moment.
In this regard, Geertz takes up a definition proposed by the psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut.
that distinguishes between the concepts extracted from immediate experience (experience-near
concepts), and those that are farther from it (experience-distance concepts),
A concept extracted from experience is, roughly speaking, a concept that a
individual - a patient, a subject, or, in the case of research, informant -
uses, himself, spontaneously and naturally, to define what he or his
pairs see, feel, think, imagine, etc.; a concept that he can
quickly understand when others use it. A concept distant from
experience is a concept that different specialists - a psychoanalyst, a
researcher, an ethnographer, or even a priest, or an ideologue - employ
in a scientific, philosophical, or practical sense (GEERTZ, 1983: 57).

142
 These two types of concepts represent, in a way, the two poles of
understanding. In one case, the concept is so intertwined with the life of the informant and
In his particular situation, which is sometimes incomprehensible outside of his text.
on the other end, the concept is quite general and applies to so many different situations, that
he cannot adequately explain the specific situation being researched. Geertz describes
this dilemma: "The confinement to concepts extracted from experience leaves the
researcher immersed in the immediate and sunk in the daily life. The concept distant from the
experience leaves him entangled in abstractions suffocated in jargon" (GEERTZ, 1983: 57)
The task of the qualitative researcher thus consists of interpreting the concepts
coming from the field of research, to give them a form that is inscribed, it
own, in the scientific tradition. This patient construction work goes through
establishment of the relationship between the everyday, and even banal, detail and the structure
global which gives it a meaning.
Between these two poles lies the operative concept (sensitizing concept),
proposed by Blumer (1954). It is a kind of provisional category here,
indicating in which direction to look, without definitively fixing the real. Also referred to
"local concept" (GLASER & STRAUSS, 1967: 45), it enables the researcher
to form provisional categories during data collection. Situated between common sense
And scientific work, this concept allows for the classification of data and makes it intelligible.
However, it is necessary to avoid making a bad use of this type of concept, according to Blumer.
or it indicated cautiously:
The greatest flaw in the use of this operational concept, and also the most
widespread, it is to be considered as acquired, and to be satisfied with the element of
plausibility that he presents. Under these circumstances, this concept is no longer
than a vague stereotype, becoming merely a means to organize or
organize the empirical data (BLUMER, 1954: 9).

In turn, Patton (1980: 306-309) recommends the use of "typologies

"indigenous" and of typologies constructed by the researcher-analyst. Thus, a study
The semantic of the language of the research participants allows to reveal a semiology.
of the 'indigenous' discourse. At the same time, the researcher examines distinctions made by the
social actors, which do not obscure scientific categories. From the comparison between the two,
it would result in the meaning of the phenomena, creating a bridge between the interpretation of the
subjects about a phenomenon and the interpretation built by the researcher-observer.
The tradition in which the researcher is embedded and also their theoretical work practice.
should allow him to go beyond the concepts of his informants; thus, he
could you reinterpret your experience and place it in a context that gives it another
dimension. However, since the researcher does not have the monopoly on the creation of
knowledge, it often happens that he is unable to carry his analysis further
in front of what your interlocutors can do to you. It's no drama: democracy
that's it too.

143
 To conclude this part about data analysis and the theory produced,
let's say that qualitative research became much closer to the theory of reach
restricted. First of all, as we had seen, the researcher refers to this type
from theory to clarify your research problem: on one hand, it guides the
term that the researcher chose within a problem that will delimit the
boundaries of the object; and, on the other hand, it gives the definition of object a filiation
disciplinary or theoretical, allowing the researcher to expose their biases
regarding its object (MARSHALL & ROSSMAN, 1989: 33). In the end, the theory
produced results from the confrontation of empirical data with a diversity of
theoretical fields. This theory then proposes analytical categories and a framework
explanatory of the interrelations of the observed facts, as well as allowing to conceptualize
again the field of investigation, shifting the boundaries of the object.
The report
The production of knowledge goes through the writing of a text, which everyone
those who are interested in the issues explored may consult.
stage of transformation from known to some (the researchers) into known
for everyone also has a decisive importance. This moment of preparation of
The research report is currently the subject of lively debates in the disciplines.
traditionally more inclined to adopt a qualitative methodology in
particularly anthropology.
In order to protect oneself from possible disapproval for subverting the truth,
thanks to reconstruction work, researchers usually adopt a
transparency strategy in the writing of the report, as described by Marshall
and Rossman (1989: 148):
the data collection and the methods used are explained;
The data are used to document the theoretical constructions;
negative results are exposed and taken into account;
biases are examined, including personal and professional interests,
politicians, as well as theoretical biases and assumptions;
the strategies for data collection and analysis are revealed;
the decisions made in the field, which influenced the strategies of
research or on the object of research are documented;
the opposing hypotheses are presented and analyzed
the confidentiality of the information is preserved;
the sincerity of the participants is established;
The theoretical significance and the generalization of the results are made explicit.

144
 The report should allow other researchers to resume the research, from
way to detect your failures, or reconsider the results obtained; in addition to having to
to enable a reconstruction of the object by the reader, according to their reading.
At the same time, the researcher bets that his argumentation will convince the reader.
For Soulet (1987a: 44), "the rationalization of the research production process
structure the document in such a way that most parts are numbered
"inevitable". Introduction and conclusion are precisely the most important moments.
of this rationalization of the research production process. If, as we saw,
the construction of the object is done progressively, the conventions of the text, on the other hand
side, impose the researcher to present, from the beginning, an object already constructed,
overlaid with theoretical and methodological choices that were made throughout the
research, without having been anticipated.
The introduction proposes a reconstructed logic of the research and requires, for
times, long developments that, in a way, set the tone and the justification of
research (SOULET, 1987a: 44). Likewise, the conclusion, just like the
sections on the methodology employed, the literature survey, the formulation
of the postulates and the analysis of the data, followed by an interpretation of the results,
They close constitutive moments of a qualitative research, dissociating them
according to conventional modalities and a conventional logic. The chronology of the process
subverted by a formulation logic, whose objective would be to expose the problem
sought after. The concern for clarity and objectivity prevails, then, the
formulation, separated from the abundance of the real and the perceived contradictions, or
real, from the search field.
This research writing practice was, however, questioned: for some,
the mentioned report does not really reflect the true development of
research, of the problems encountered, of the role of the researcher and their emotions and
hesitations, from the practice of your craft, which are many of the ways of entry into
analysis and in the text. This type of report hides the work of creation and reconstruction
of reality. The transparency strategy in the formulation of results and also
the development of the research would eliminate the dark areas, where they hide, to
at the same time, the myth, the ideology, the power, and the desire (of the researcher, or of
reader). If the research is truly based on everyday life and experience of the
social relations, the research object of the qualitative approach will never be neutral.
The elucidation of this circuit of interpretations is fundamental for the project.
qualitative. Expose social practices according to a language or a rhetoric that
it assumes that one can objectively describe the reality of a social group
for Barthes, 'to dissimulate a reality, which, even being the one in which one lives,
it is not less historically determined" (BARTHES, 1959: 11), It makes one believe
that the word sticks to the thing, and that the formulated product constitutes itself as real.
This dominant realism in the social sciences (mainstream realism, according to the
denomination of Rabinow [1986]), denies the author's intervention in the text; the
given reality and the conclusion of the research report provides an outcome that concludes the
adventure
145
from the research. This dominant realism was once again questioned in the research
qualitative, by anthropology certainly more touched by the accidents of language,
due to the uprooting it imposes on itself, but also because of feminism
(particularly the work of LAURENT1S, 1987), by post-structuralist criticism and
postmodern, A few years ago, ethnographic-type research, mainly in
anthropology has been tending to abolish the borders between scientific production and
artistic production. The ethnologist becomes an author, not a photographer:

In a discursive paradigm, more than visual, the dominant metaphors in

ethnography distances itself from the observing eye and shifts to expression
of gesture and word. The voice of the writer dominates and situates the analysis and the objective;
one renounces critical distance (CLIFFQRD, 1986: 12).

A report of this type is generally closer to the humanistic essay of

of the scientific article (DENZIN, 1989: 134). The presence of the author is directly there.
expressed, with the help of the 'I' or the anecdote. This report values a style
specific to the author who sees their writing work as a work of creation
literary (BECKER, 1986: 105). In such research practice, the writing of the object is
placed in the center of its construction. It is no longer just a matter of making it seen.
social phenomenon as if we were there, but rather describing the relationship of
researcher with the social actor researched; whether through an exposure of the dialogue that is
establishes between them, either by a writing that approaches the novel or the
poetry. Such a conception leads to a large number of works that take as
object a historical reflection on the way past ethnographers
formed our vision of the exotic, or: of the Other (FABIAN, 1983; MARCUS &
FISCHER, 1986). This return to oneself and one's discipline is, in our opinion, a
the most evident characteristics of the change of the object in anthropology
contemporary.
This "observer's observation," through a reformulation of the project.
ethnographic, is strongly criticized by Bourdieu, who considers this procedure
suicidal horn
[It is primarily] a fad among some anthropologists
Americans who, having apparently exhausted the charms of work
"field", they start talking more about themselves than about their object of study.
When it becomes an end in itself, this kind of denunciation
falsely radical of ethnographic writing as "poetic and political" [...] opens
path to a form of very little veiled nihilistic relativism, that I
fear [...], is situated at the exact opposite of a truly social science
reflexive (BOURDIEU & WACQUANT, 1992: 52).

The positions are therefore defined. It should also be noted that most
two reports; in the qualitative approach, it conforms to the conventional model
described above, with all that it entails in terms of reformulation to
later object of research, and therefore, of reconstruction. However, the debate
it is far from being closed.
146
The specificity of qualitative research design
Qualitative research would have its own way of designing a layout.
Of research? Here we return to the initial question, which now needs to be answered.
Let’s say that the qualitative research design revolves around
axioms, postulates, and a practice that make qualitative research
may claim to occupy a place that is rightfully theirs, as well as produce results
that only she can produce. There are even some elements that can be
presented as being specificities of qualitative research, they were exhaustive
minados ao longo de todo o texto, mas nós os retomamos, aqui, para resumir nosso
point of view.
The nature of the data
One aspect of qualitative research is to analyze qualitative data.
tivos. These data appear to be resistant to statistical shaping. They are the
data from the experience, the representations, the definitions of the situation, the opinions,
words, the meaning of action and phenomena. Even though they escape the
established standard, and yet it is important that the social sciences can
analyze them, since they describe a large part of social life, neglecting them is
to deprive oneself of essential knowledge.
The contact with the field

Another characteristic of qualitative research is the contact with the field.

This renewal originates from the dissatisfaction experienced by many pes-
researchers facing the limits of a social science based exclusively on
experimental methods and adopting the corresponding epistemology as a basis for
knowledge of the real. The history of the evolution of the qualitative approach
(LAPERRIÈRE, 1982; PIRES, 1982; KURTZ, 1984; HAMMERSLEY, 1989) us
teaches that anthropology had already explained the field observation methods;
Furthermore, the Chicago School of the 1920s had also established the
principles of an approach that prioritized direct contact with the groups
social issues that the sociologist was willing to research. The contemporary trend of
qualitative research relates to this position, granting greater space to the field of
research, to the authors, to the social movements. This researcher-environment articulation
practitioners generally reconcile the practices of researchers with what it entails
of contradictions, and of power or influence disputes. However, the
recognition of citizens as a source of knowledge and bearers of a
Power has repercussions on the development of qualitative research.
To put it frankly, merely contact with the countryside is not enough to characterize the
qualitative research. Effectively; many empirical studies rely on this
procedure.

147
On its part, qualitative research emphasizes the field, not just as a reservoir
of data, but also as a source of new questions. The researcher
qualitative does not go to the field just to find answers to its questions,
but also to discover issues, surprising in some aspects, but,
generally, more relevant and more suitable than those he placed himself
at the beginning. Furthermore, the very logistics of the qualitative approach (field of
research, participant observation, unstructured interviews, life stories) forces the
researcher has a direct contact with the lived experiences and representations of people who
he/she researches.

The repetitive nature of the qualitative research process

The flexibility of the rules regarding the implementation of the project is one of
particularities of qualitative research. While the hypothetico-deductive approach
make the definition of the research object and the outline primordial, if
constitutes a technical instrument to delimit it, qualitative research
it presents a repetitive and retroactive character: it contains the simultaneity of
data collection, analysis (coding and categorization, conceptualization) and the elaboration
ration of the research problem, which some have referred to as an adaptation model
The action continues. This feedback is not the ingrained characteristic of qualitative research.
And the following observation well describes the usual experience of researchers:
According to the experience of experts in social sciences, we are rarely, or
never, in the face of a series of automatically consecutive procedures, in the
during which a stage of the research should be entirely completed beforehand
that the following would begin"(SELLTIZ; WRIGHTSMAN; COOK, 1977:13) No
meanwhile, the particularity of qualitative research is that it is linked to this character
retroactive and repetitive of the research process and includes it in its methodology.
To employ an analogy, traditional research would resemble music.
European, in which the composer presents a theme on which he elaborates, while inventing
melodic variations. Qualitative research would preferably compare to
jazz, in which the musician, based on a melodic line containing a set of
determined chords, one launches into an improvisation bringing their personal touch.
Certainly, the musician cannot allow himself everything, as he remains, in any case
way, limited by the chords that support its theme, but it has, however,
a large margin of maneuver. The research outline both, the written part
from the research, on which the qualitative researcher will base themselves, similar to the
jazz musician, who is infused with the chords of the theme. However, in parallel,
there will be room for accommodations and improvisation.

The literature review

In qualitative research, the literature review is not limited to the initial stage,
but plays an important role throughout the entire research. The researcher

148
will continue your readings, based on the movement of your object, and will explore this or
that path, in order to simultaneously delimit provisional categories of and
assign clues for interpretation. The progressive definition of the research object,
as well as the simultaneity of data collection and analysis, lead the researcher
qualitative to write, usually, the problem of your research at the end! So
Thus, the literature review evolves throughout the entire research.
For the qualitative researcher, the literature review remains a
an instrument to which he does not intend to subordinate himself: without neglecting it, nor ignoring it
its advantages, the qualitative researcher resorts to it to construct their object and
elucidate the analysis of the data, trying to maintain a balance between the work
empirical and theoretical work.
The progressive construction of the research object

The research object is developed as data collection and analysis are conducted.
we carry out. In qualitative research, the construction of the research object is done pro-
progressively, the researcher focusing their attention on the object and delimiting gra-
Dual contours of your problem. This is because the qualitative researcher
will tend to build its object in contact with the field and with the data that it co-
He will let you know. More generally, the researcher will first pose questions to himself.
general that he will transform into a more specific object as he progresses in
your work. The process of data collection and analysis forces the researcher to
systematically scour the field of research to build its object. This
the back and forth movement rhythms the chronology of the act of research and constitutes one of the
main characteristics of qualitative research.
The postulates
In a hypothetical-deductive approach, the emphasis falls on the need for
formulate a hypothesis that will need to be tested. The object and the research problem
are, therefore, developed from the beginning, based on a pre-existing corpus of
research that should be examined, to find gaps there. To employ a
metaphor, the construction of the research object is thus seen as a stone that,
placed in a good spot, it will strengthen the outline. The opposite occurs for the research.
qualitative: first of all, hypotheses are generally replaced by
postulates indicating more of a trend than a cause-and-effect relationship; in
secondly, the postulates are open, less predetermined, and can arise in
at any moment of the research, the most interesting ones appearing, by the way, during the
process.
Conclusion
The proximity between social actors and the researcher, in research
qualitative, led to the possibility of considering these same actors as
defined objects
149
for a set of properties that the researcher can vary at will.
When seeking to describe the 'game of real life' (ERICKSON, 1986: 163), under a
holistic and interpretative perspective, the qualitative researcher seeks the real in
function of a relational problem that fits into a specific context.
Segundo Poupart,“nesse tipo de pesquisa, o campo de estudo não é pré-
structured, nor operationalized in advance. The researcher must yield to the
specific field conditions and being aware of the dimensions that may arise
relevant to reveal" (POUPART, 1981: 46).
However, qualitative research is not built solely on what
it is given, as radical empiricism intends: authors (SILVERMAN, 1985;
SOLUET, 1987a; GUBRIUM & SILVERMAN, 1989) showed that the
the construction of the object was, in fact, a political choice. This political dimension of
research, qualitative or quantitative raises the question of the role of the researcher in
social world and reconsider the distinction fact-value, science-ideology, theory-practice.
Starting from Foucault's analyses of the relationships between knowledge and power;
Gubrium and Silverman (1989) state that all research is, above all, a
discursive practice that bases power and knowledge in appropriate places, where the
scientific disciplines are confused with moral discipline. The construction of
the object does not fall upon a reality of the social world problematized by its
actors (regardless of the position they hold), nor about an intention
individual of the researcher, or of a group of researchers, but rather, about a
set of discursive practices, which, even though they are neither true nor
false, in themselves, produce an effect of truth" (p. 8). These issues
are supported, especially by two branches of research in the sciences
social, which more frequently (but not always) adopts an approach
qualitative: action research and feminist research.
The qualitative approach in social sciences composes its objects in a
at the local level, through a kind of creative tinkering, according to Lévi's expression,
Strauss. The object of the research is constructed both from the data collected,
explored, translated, and reconstituted" (MORVAN, 1989: 95), that the researcher
deals through a methodological and theoretical instrument, as from
disciplinary fields that are constituted sociologically (the recognition of
disciplines and issues of power), through a trade corporation in
negotiation with peers, with the social world to which the research refers, and with
the institutions that enable its practice. Since then, the focuses of a
reflection on the preparation of qualitative research design does not pass
but uniquely by the methodological pole, but also by a political pole, that
defines the choices of the object and the techniques, and assesses the repercussions that
These choices determine all the actors of the research.

150
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