Kotebe University of Education

College of Education and Behavioral Sciences

Department of Educational Planning and Management

Doctor of Education (DED) in Educational Policy and Strategic Management

Education Program Monitoring and Evaluation (EPSM 831)

Reading Assignment and Presentation

By : Melash Azane

Id No. CES/DR41046/17

Submitted to: Ashebir Bezabih (PhD)

November 24, 2025

Project Management Tools
 Project management tools are software applications and physical resources that help teams
plan, execute, and monitor projects efficiently.
 They organize tasks, schedules, and resources, improve communication, and track progress
to ensure projects are completed successfully, on time, and within budget.
 Critical Path Methods
 PERT chart
 PPBS
 Program Cost
 Log frame and
 Monitoring and Evaluation are some of the common tools used when planning a project.

1. Critical Path Method - CPM Chart

 The critical path is another important concept in planning projects. It was developed for project
management in the private sector at about the same time the PERT was developed.
 The critical path is the set of activities that must be completed on time for the project
completion date to be met.
 It is the sequence of schedule activities that determines the duration of the project.
 CPM charts are similar to PERT charts.
 They are used for complex, one-time projects that generally include high costs.
 CPM charts track interrelated and interdependent activities allowing the project or contract
manager to pinpoint areas (critical paths) that will have the most impact on the completion of a
project.
 Tasks that fall on the critical path should be indicated by a special designation or symbol. One
way to do this is to create a double line for critical paths.
 If a project consists of a set of tasks which need to be completed, the critical path represents the
minimum such set, the critical set.
 The critical path represents not the ideal set of tasks to be completed for a project, but the
minimum set.
 It is this path that we must traverse in order to reach completion of your project on time.
 Tasks on the critical path will affect the delivery time of the project and therefore should only be
modified in extremes.
 The critical path represents the critical sequence of events which must occur if one wants to
successfully complete a given project. Normally major 'milestones' will be represented on the
critical path and they will often occur when different threads of the project come together.
 Practical Example: Organizing a School Science Fair
1. Identify Activities & Durations:
A: Topic Approval (2 days)
B: Research (7 days)
C: Project Design/Outline (3 days)
D: Material Procurement (4 days)
E: Project Construction (10 days)
F: Display Board Creation (5 days)
 G: Judge Briefing (2 days)
H: Final Setup (1 day)
2. Identify Dependencies:
 B depends on A (Research after Topic Approval)
 C depends on A
 D depends on C (Materials after Design)
 E depends on D (Build after Materials)
 F depends on E (Display after Build)
 G depends on A (Judges briefed early)
 H depends on F & G (Setup after display & briefing)
3. Map the Paths & Calculate Duration:
 Path 1 (Main Project): A(2) -> B(7) -> E(10) -> F(5) -> H(1) = 25 Days (Note: C
& D happen in parallel/within B)
 Path 2 (Design/Build): A(2) -> C(3) -> D(4) -> E(10) -> F(5) -> H(1) = 25 Days
 Path 3 (Judge Prep): A(2) -> G(2) -> H(1) = 5 Days
4. Identify the Critical Path: The longest path is Path 1/2 (25 Days). This is your
critical path. Activities A, B, C, D, E, F, H must stay on schedule.
5. Apply CPM Benefits:
 Prioritize: Focus on ensuring timely topic approval (A) and research (B)
because delays here directly push the fair date.
 Parallel Tasks: Recognize that Topic Approval (A) allows for both Research
(B) and Design (C) to start, maximizing efficiency.
 Resource Allocation: Assign extra teacher help for students struggling with
research (B) or construction (E).
 Risk Management: If research (B) is delayed, you know immediately the fair
date is at risk.
 Characteristics of the Critical path
 Some characteristics of the critical path are:
 Longest duration path through the project network
 Activities on the Critical Path are called “Critical Activities”
 Critical activities have no float or slack
 A project can have more than one critical path
 Activities not on the Critical Path are called “Non Critical Activities”
 Advantages of using a CPM
 Helpful for scheduling, monitoring, and controlling projects.
 A project manager can determine actual dates for each activity and compare what should
be happening to what is taking place and react accordingly.
 The activities and their outcomes can be shown as a network.
 Displays dependencies to help scheduling.
 Evaluates which activities can run parallel to each other.
 Determines slack and float times.
  Widely used in industry.
 Can define multiple, equally critical paths.
 CMP determines the project duration, which minimized the sum of direct and indirect
costs.
 Disadvantages of using a CPM
 However, there are drawbacks of this technique, as estimations are used to calculate times; if one
mistake is made the whole analysis could be flawed causing major upset in the organization of a
project.
 CPM‟s can be complicated, and complexity increases for larger projects.
 It does not handle the scheduling of personnel or the allocation of resources.
 The critical path is not always clear and needs to be calculated carefully.
 Estimating activity completion times can be difficult.

2. Program Evaluation and Review Technique or PERT

 PERT is a project management tool for planning and scheduling complex projects with
uncertain timelines.
 It uses three time estimates (optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic) for each task to calculate
a more realistic project duration and to identify the critical path.
 PERT charts provide a visual representation of tasks, their dependencies, and milestones, which
helps in coordinating team members and allocating resources effectively.
 How PERT works
 The main objective in the analysis through PERT is to find out the completion for a particular
event within specified date. The PERT approach takes into account the uncertainties. The
three time values are associated with each activity
1. Optimistic time – It is the shortest possible time in which the activity can be finished. It
assumes that everything goes very well. This is denoted by t0.
2. Most likely time – It is the estimate of the normal time the activity would take. This assumes
normal delays. If a graph is plotted in the time of completion and the frequency of
completion in that time period, then most likely time will represent the highest frequency of
occurrence. This is denoted by tm.
3. Pessimistic time – It represents the longest time the activity could take if everything goes
wrong. As in optimistic estimate, this value may be such that only one in hundred or one in
twenty will take time longer than this value. This is denoted by tp.

 In PERT calculation, all values are used to obtain the percent expected value.
1. Expected time – It is the average time an activity will take if it were to be repeated on large
number of times and is based on the assumption that the activity time follows Beta distribution,
this is given by ; te = ( t0 + 4tm + tp ) / 6
2. The variance for the activity is given by σ2 = [(tp – to) / 6] 2
 Example: Developing an Online Course
 A PERT chart can be used for an educational project like developing a new online course,
helping to visualize tasks such as content creation, video editing, and platform integration.
  For each task, a team would estimate optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely timeframes.
 These estimates are used to calculate an expected time for each task, identify the critical path of
activities that determines the project's overall duration, and ensure the project stays on schedule.
 Here is an example of how PERT could be applied to developing an online course:
 Identify Tasks: Break down the project into all necessary tasks, such as:
 A: Develop curriculum outline
 B: Create course content (write modules)
 C: Design visual aids and graphics
 D: Record and edit videos
 E: Integrate content and videos into the online platform
 F: Pilot test the course
 G: Finalize and launch the course
 Define Task Dependencies: Determine which tasks depend on others. For instance, you can't
record videos (D) until the content is written (B), and you can't integrate the videos (E) until
they are edited (D).
 Estimate Time for Each Task: For each task, estimate the optimistic, most likely and
pessimistic time.
 Task A ( Curriculum Outline)
 Optimistic (O) = 3 days
 Most likely ( M) = 5 Days
 Pessimistic (P) = 10 Days
 Task B ( Create Content)
 O = 10 Days
 M = 15 Days
 P = 30 Days
( )
 Calculate Expected Time: Use the PERT formula ; E =
 Accordingly;
( ( )
 Task A ; E = = 5.5 Days
( ( )
 Task B; E = = 16.5 Days
 Map the Network: Draw a network diagram with nodes representing tasks and arrows showing
the flows and dependencies.
 Find the Critical Path: After calculating the expected time for all tasks, identify the longest path
of dependent activities. This critical path determines the minimum time to complete the project
and has no "float" (slack). If any task on the critical path is delayed, the entire project is delayed.
 Monitor and Adjust: The PERT chart provides a dynamic plan. The team can track progress
against the chart and use the network to see where resources might be most effective or how
delays in one area might impact others. For example, if Task B is taking longer than expected, it
might be necessary to allocate more resources to it to prevent the entire project from being pushed
back.
 Example 2: Developing a New School Curriculum
 This example maps out the planning process for a new high school science curriculum using
a PERT network diagram (graphical display).
1. Tasks and Time Estimates
  First, identify the tasks and estimate their durations using optimistic (O), most likely (M), and
pessimistic (P) times to calculate the expected time (TE) with the formula: TE = (O + 4M + P)
/ 6.
Task Task Description Predecessor(s) O M P TE
ID (week (weeks) (weeks) (weeks)
s)
A Define Project Scope None 1 2 3 2
B Research Standards A 2 3 4 3
C Hire Consultants A 1 2 3 2
D Develop Content Outline B, C 3 4 5 4
E Write Curriculum D 4 6 8 6
Content
F Create Teaching E 2 3 4 3
Materials
G Review and Feedback E 1 2 3 2
H Revise Content & F, G 1 1 2 1.17
Materials (approx.
1)
I Teacher Training H 1 2 3 2
J Pilot Program I 4 6 8 6
K Final Approval & Launch J 0.5 1 1.5 1
2. Graph Display (Network Diagram)
 The PERT chart (network diagram) uses nodes (circles or boxes) to represent milestones or
tasks and arrows to show the sequence and dependencies.
 Nodes: Labeled with the Task ID and its Expected Time (TE), e.g., [A, 2 weeks].
 Arrows: Indicate the flow and dependency.
Visual Description of the Network Diagram:
1. Start Node leads to [A, 2 weeks] (Define Scope).
2. An arrow goes from [A, 2 weeks] to two concurrent tasks: [B, 3 weeks] (Research Standards)
and [C, 2 weeks] (Hire Consultants).
3. Arrows from both [B, 3 weeks] and [C, 2 weeks] converge into [D, 4 weeks] (Develop Outline),
as D requires both B and C to be finished.
4. An arrow goes from [D, 4 weeks] to [E, 6 weeks] (Write Content).
5. From [E, 6 weeks], two concurrent paths emerge:
 One arrow goes to [F, 3 weeks] (Create Materials).
 Another arrow goes to [G, 2 weeks] (Review).
6. Arrows from both [F, 3 weeks] and [G, 2 weeks] converge into [H, 1 week] (Revise Content).
7. An arrow goes from [H, 1 week] to [I, 2 weeks] (Teacher Training).
8. An arrow goes from [I, 2 weeks] to [J, 6 weeks] (Pilot Program).
9. An arrow goes from [J, 6 weeks] to [K, 1 week] (Final Approval) and then to the End Node.
(Note: Actual visual tools often use templates or software to generate these diagrams; a detailed
visual example can be found using image search queries like "PERT chart template with tasks and
tasks".)
3. Identifying the Critical Path
 The critical path is the longest sequence of dependent tasks and determines the shortest
possible project completion time.
  Path 1 (Top): A → B→ D → E → F → H → I → J → K
(Total: 2+3+4+6+3+1+2+6+1 = 28 weeks)
 Path 2 (Middle): A → → D → E → F → H → I → J → K
(Total: 2+2+4+6+3+1+2+6+1 = 27 weeks)
 Path 3 (Bottom): A → B → D → E → G → H → I → J → K
(Total: 2+3+4+6+2+1+2+6+1 = 27 weeks)
 The critical path is Path 1 (A -> B -> D -> E -> F -> H -> I -> J -> K), with a total
expected duration of 28 weeks. The tasks on this path have zero slack (float) time,
meaning any delay in these tasks will delay the entire project. Other paths have slack,
allowing for some flexibility in their scheduling.
Key benefits
PERT is useful because it provides the following information:
 Expected project completion time.
 Probability of completion before a specified date.
 The critical path activities that directly impact the completion time.
 The activities that have slack time and that can lend resources to critical path
activities.
 Activity starting and end dates
 Limitations of PERT
 Limitations include
 Time-consuming and complex implementation,
 Heavy reliance on subjective and potentially inaccurate time estimates,
 Poor handling of resource allocation, and
 Lack of flexibility for projects that require agile management.
 Its focus on time can cause non-critical tasks to be overlooked, and it becomes
unwieldy for very large, long-term, or simple projects.

 Similarities and Differences between CPM and PERT

 The methods are essentially network-oriented techniques using the same principle.
 PERT and CPM are basically time-oriented methods in the sense that they both lead to
determination of a time schedule for the project.
 The significant difference between two approaches is that the time estimates for the
different activities in CPM were assumed to be deterministic while in PERT these are
described probabilistically. These techniques are referred as project scheduling
techniques.
 In CPM activities are shown as a network of precedence relationships using activity-on-
node network construction
 Single estimate of activity time
 Deterministic activity times
 USED IN: Production management - for the jobs of repetitive in nature where the
activity time estimates can be predicted with considerable certainty due to the
existence of past experience.
 In PERT activities are shown as a network of precedence relationships using activity-on-
arrow network construction
 Multiple time estimates
 Probabilistic activity times
 USED IN: Project management - for non-repetitive jobs (research and
development work), where the time and cost estimates tend to be quite uncertain.
This technique uses probabilistic time estimates.
 Basic Steps in PERT and CPM
 Project scheduling by PERT / CPM consists of four main steps
1. Planning
 The planning phase is started by splitting the total project in to small projects.
 These smaller projects in turn are divided into activities and are analyzed by the
department or section.
 The relationship of each activity with respect to other activities are defined and
established and the corresponding responsibilities and the authority are also stated.
 Thus the possibility of overlooking any task necessary for the completion of the
project is reduced substantially.
2. Scheduling
 The ultimate objective of the scheduling phase is to prepare a time chart showing
the start and finish times for each activity as well as its relationship to other
activities of the project.
 Moreover the schedule must pinpoint the critical path activities which require
special attention if the project is to be completed in time.
 For non-critical activities, the schedule must show the amount of slack or float
times which can be used advantageously when such activities are delayed or
when limited resources are to be utilized effectively.
3. Allocation of resources
 Allocation of resources is performed to achieve the desired objective. A resource
is a physical variable such as labor, finance, equipment and space which will
impose a limitation on time for the project.
 When resources are limited and conflicting, demands are made for the same type
of resources a systematic method for allocation of resources become essential.
 Resource allocation usually incurs a compromise and the choice of this
compromise depends on the judgment of managers.
4. Controlling
 The final phase in project management is controlling. Critical path methods
facilitate the application of the principle of management by expectation to identify
areas that are critical to the completion of the project.
 By having progress reports from time to time and updating the network continuously,
a better financial as well as technical control over the project is exercised.
 Arrow diagrams and time charts are used for making periodic progress reports. If
required, a new course of action is determined for the remaining portion of the project.
 Framework for PERT and CPM
 Essentially, there are six steps which are common to both the techniques.
1. Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project (made up
of several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a single finish activity.
2. Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities must precede
and which must follow others.
3. Draw the "Network" connecting all the activities. Each Activity should have unique
event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required to avoid giving the same
numbering to two activities.
4. Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
5. Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the critical path.
6. Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the project.
 The Key Concept used by CPM/PERT is that a small set of activities, which make
up the longest path through the activity network control the entire project.
 If these "critical" activities could be identified and assigned to responsible persons,
management resources could be optimally used by concentrating on the few activities
which determine the fate of the entire project.
 Non-critical activities can be re-planned, rescheduled and resources for them can be
reallocated flexibly, without affecting the whole project.
 Five useful questions to ask when preparing an activity network are:
 Is this a Start Activity?
 Is this a Finish Activity?
 What Activity Precedes this?
 What Activity Follows this?
 What Activity is Concurrent with this?
 Network Diagram Representation
 In a network representation of a project certain definitions are used
1. Activity: Any individual operation which utilizes resources and has an end and a
beginning is called activity. An arrow is commonly used to represent an activity with
its head indicating the direction of progress in the project. These are classified into
four categories
a. Predecessor activity – Activities that must be completed immediately prior to
the start of another activity are called predecessor activities.
b. Successor activity – Activities that cannot be started until one or more of other
activities are completed but immediately succeed them are called successor
activities.
c. Concurrent activity – Activities which can be accomplished concurrently are
known as concurrent activities. It may be noted that an activity can be a
predecessor or a successor to an event or it may be concurrent with one or more
of other activities.
d. Dummy activity – An activity which does not consume any kind of resource
but merely depicts the technological dependence is called a dummy activity.
 The dummy activity is inserted in the network to clarify the activity pattern in the
following two situations
  To make activities with common starting and finishing points distinguishable
 To identify and maintain the proper precedence relationship between activities
that is not connected by events.
 For example, consider a situation, where „A‟ and „B‟ are concurrent activities. C is
dependent on A and D is dependent on A and B both. Such a situation can be handled by
using a dummy activity as shown in the figure.

2. Event: An event represents a point in time signifying the completion of some

activities and the beginning of new ones. This is usually represented by a circle in
a network which is also called a node or connector. The events are classified in to
three categories
1. Merge event – When more than one activity comes and joins an event such
an event is known as merge event.
2. Burst event – When more than one activity leaves an event such an event is
known as burst event.
3. Merge and Burst event – An activity may be merge and burst event at the
same time as with respect to some activities it can be a merge event and with
respect to some other activities it may be a burst event.

3. Sequencing: The first prerequisite in the development of network is to maintain

the precedence relationships. In order to make a network, the following points
should be taken into considerations
 What job or jobs precede it?
 What job or jobs could run concurrently?
 What job or jobs follow it?
 What controls the start and finish of a job?
 Since all further calculations are based on the network, it is necessary that a network
be drawn with full care.
 Rules for Drawing Network Diagram
Rule 1: Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network

Rule 2: No two activities can be identified by the same end events

Rule 3: In order to ensure the correct precedence relationship in the arrow diagram,
following questions must be checked whenever any activity is added to the network
 What activity must be completed immediately before this activity can start?
 What activities must follow this activity?
 What activities must occur simultaneously with this activity?
 In case of large network, it is essential that certain good habits be practiced to draw
an easy to follow network
 Try to avoid arrows which cross each other
 Use straight arrows
 Do not attempt to represent duration of activity by its arrow length
 Use arrows from left to right. Avoid mixing two directions, vertical and
standing arrows may be used if necessary.
 Use dummies freely in rough draft but final network should not have any
redundant dummies.
 The network has only one entry point called start event and one point of
emergence called the end event.
 Common Errors in Drawing Networks
 The three types of errors are most commonly observed in drawing network
diagrams
 Dangling: To disconnect an activity before the completion of all activities in a
network diagram is known as dangling. As shown in the figure activities (5 – 10)
and (6 – 7) are not the last activities in the network. So the diagram is wrong and
indicates the error of dangling

 Looping or Cycling: Looping error is also known as cycling error in a network

diagram. Drawing an endless loop in a network is known as error of looping as
shown in the following figure.

 Redundancy: Unnecessarily inserting the dummy activity in network logic is

known as the error of redundancy as shown in the following diagram
  Critical Path in Network Analysis
 Basic Scheduling Computations
 The notations used are
(i, j) = Activity with tail event i and head event j
Ei = Earliest occurrence time of event i
Lj = Latest allowable occurrence time of event j
Dij = Estimated completion time of activity (i, j)
(Es)ij = Earliest starting time of activity (i, j)
(Ef)ij = Earliest finishing time of activity (i, j)
(Ls)ij = Latest starting time of activity (i, j)
(Lf)ij = Latest finishing time of activity (i, j)
The procedure is as follows
 Determination of Earliest time (Ej): Forward Pass computation
 Step 1: The computation begins from the start node and move towards the end node.
For easiness, the forward pass computation starts by assuming the earliest
occurrence time of zero for the initial project event.
 Step 2
i. Earliest starting time of activity (i, j) is the earliest event time of the tail end
event i.e. (Es)ij = Ei
ii. Earliest finish time of activity (i, j) is the earliest starting time + the activity
time i.e. (Ef)ij = (Es)ij + Dij or (Ef)ij = Ei + Dij
iii. Earliest event time for event j is the maximum of the earliest finish times
of all activities ending in to that event i.e. Ej = max [(Ef)ij for all
immediate predecessor of (i, j)] or Ej =max [Ei + Dij]
 Backward Pass computation (for latest allowable time)
 Step 1: For ending event assume E = L. Remember that all E‟s have been computed
by forward pass computations.
 Step 2: Latest finish time for activity (i, j) is equal to the latest event time of event j
i.e. (Lf)ij = Lj
 Step 3: Latest starting time of activity (i, j) = the latest completion time of (i, j) – the
activity time or (Ls)ij =(Lf)ij - Dij or (Ls)ij = Lj - Dij
 Step 4: Latest event time for event „i‟ is the minimum of the latest start time of all
activities originating from that event i.e. Li = min [(Ls)ij for all immediate successor
of (i, j)] = min [(Lf)ij - Dij] = min [Lj - Dij]
 Determination of floats and slack times
 There are three kinds of floats.
 Total float – The amount of time by which the completion of an activity could
be delayed beyond the earliest expected completion time without affecting the
overall project duration time.
Mathematically,
(Tf)ij = (Latest start – Earliest start) for activity ( i – j)
(Tf)ij = (Ls)ij - (Es)ij or (Tf)ij = (Lj - Dij) – Ei
  Free float – The time by which the completion of an activity can be delayed
beyond the earliest finish time without affecting the earliest start of a subsequent
activity. Mathematically,
(Ff)ij = (Earliest time for event j – Earliest time for event i) – Activity time for ( i, j)
(Ff)ij = (Ej - Ei) – Dij
 Independent float – The amount of time by which the start of an activity can be
delayed without effecting the earliest start time of any immediately following
activities, assuming that the preceding activity has finished at its latest finish
time. Mathematically,
(If)ij = (Ej - Li) - Dij
 The negative independent float is always taken as zero.
 Event slack - It is defined as the difference between the latest event and earliest
event times.
Mathematically,
Head event slack = Lj – Ej, Tail event slack = Li – Ei
 Determination of critical path
 Critical event – The events with zero slack times are called critical events. In
other words the event i is said to be critical if Ei = Li
 Critical activity – The activities with zero total float are known as critical
activities. In other words an activity is said to be critical if a delay in its start will
cause a further delay in the completion date of the entire project.
 Critical path – The sequence of critical activities in a network is called critical
path. The critical path is the longest path in the network from the starting event to
ending event and defines the minimum time required to complete the project.
 Practical Example on CPM
 Example 1: Determine the early start and late start in respect of all node points and
identify critical path for the following network.
 Solution: Calculation of E and L for each node is shown in the network.

Activity(i,j) Normal time Earliest Time Latest Time Float Time

(Dij) Start (Ei) Finish Start Finish (Li-Dij)-Ei
(Ei+Dij) (Li-Dij) (Li)
(1,2) 10 0 10 0 10 0
(1,3) 8 0 8 1 9 1
(1,4) 9 0 9 1 10 1
(2,5) 8 10 18 10 18 0
(4,6) 7 9 16 10 17 1
(3,7) 16 8 24 9 25 1
(5,7) 7 18 25 18 25 0
(6,7) 7 16 23 18 25 2
(5,8) 6 18 24 18 24 0
(6,9) 5 16 21 17 22 1
(7,10) 12 25 37 25 37 0
(8,10) 13 24 37 24 37 0
(9,10) 15 21 36 22 37 1
Network Analysis Table
 From the table, the critical nodes are (1, 2), (2, 5), (5, 7), (5, 8), (7, 10) and (8, 10).
 From the table, there are two possible critical paths
i. 1 → 2 → 5 → 8 → 10
ii. 1 → 2 → 5 → 7 → 10
  Practical Example on PERT
Example 2: A project has the following characteristics. Construct a
PERT chart. Find the critical path and variance for each time.
Activity Most optimistic time(a) Most pessimistic(b) Most likely time(m)
(1-2) 1 5 1.5
(2-3) 1 3 2
(2-4) 1 5 3
(3-5) 3 5 4
(4-5) 2 4 3
(4-6) 3 7 5
(5-7) 4 6 5
(6-7) 6 8 7
(7-8) 2 6 4
(7-9) 5 8 6
(8-10) 1 3 2
(9-10) 3 7 5
 Solution
Activity (a) (b) (m) (4m) te v
(a+b+4m0/6 [(b-a/6]2
(1 – 2) 1 5 1.5 6 2 4/9
(2 – 3) 1 3 2 8 2 1/9
(2 – 4) 1 5 3 12 3 4/9
(3 – 5) 3 5 4 16 4 1/9
(4 – 5) 2 4 3 12 3 1/9
(4 – 6) 3 7 5 20 5 4/9
(5 – 7) 4 6 5 20 5 1/9
(6 – 7) 6 8 7 28 7 1/9
(7 – 8) 2 6 4 16 4 4/9
(7 – 9) 5 8 6 24 6.17 ¼
(8 – 10) 1 3 2 8 2 1/9
(9 – 10) 3 7 5 20 5 4/9
The network is constructed as shown below.

The critical path = 1 → 2 → 4 → 6 → 7 →9 →10

4. Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System(PPBS)

 PPBS is a strategic management tool used to align an organization's goals with its resources
through a three-step process: planning, programming, and budgeting.
 It is not a traditional project management tool like a Gantt chart but rather a high-level system for
program analysis, resource allocation, and performance evaluation, often used in government and
large organizations.
 PPBS focuses on achieving strategic objectives by analyzing alternatives, costing them out, and
allocating budgets accordingly, with the goal of maximizing social advantage with scarce
resources.
 How PPBS works as a management tool
 Planning: Define clear organizational goals and objectives. This involves understanding
the mission and establishing a strategic plan to achieve it.
 Programming: Develop detailed action plans for all programs and identify the resources
needed to achieve the objectives. This step involves analyzing alternatives and identifying
the most efficient way to achieve the goals.
 Budgeting: Allocate the necessary funds to implement the programs. This step includes
projecting future costs and ensuring that the budget supports the strategic plan.
 Evaluation: PPBS also includes a performance evaluation component to assess how well
programs are achieving their stated objectives, integrating this feedback into future
planning cycles.
 Key differences from traditional project management tools
 Level of detail: PPBS operates at a higher, more strategic level, focusing on long-term
programs and objectives. Traditional project management tools, like the work break down
structure (WBS) work at a more tactical level, breaking projects into smaller, manageable
deliverables and tasks.
 Focus: PPBS is a comprehensive system for resource allocation and strategic decision-
making. Project management tools are designed for the day-to-day execution and tracking of
specific projects.
 Goal: PPBS's primary goal is to ensure that limited resources are used effectively to
achieve overall organizational objectives. Project management tools' primary goal is to
deliver a specific project on time and within budget.
 Limitations of PPBS
 Complexity: PPBS can be very complex and difficult to apply uniformly across a large
organization.
 Emphasis on quantitative data: It can emphasize quantitative performance metrics over
qualitative aspects of a program.
 Lack of uniformity: The system can lack uniformity, making it difficult to apply across
different departments or agencies.

5. Program costs
 Program cost serves as a critical project management tool by acting as a framework
for financial planning, control, and decision-making throughout the project lifecycle.
 It involves estimating, budgeting, tracking, and controlling costs to ensure the
project stays within its financial limits and achieves its financial goals.
 How program cost is used as a tool
 Planning and Estimation: Project managers use cost as a tool to estimate the
total financial resources required for a project and to develop a detailed budget or
"cost baseline". This baseline serves as the project's financial map.
 Budgeting and Funding: Once costs are estimated, a project budget is
created. This budget is used to secure funding and allocate financial resources to
different project activities.
 Tracking and Monitoring: The project manager continuously tracks actual costs
against the budget, using cost management software for accurate and up-to-date
data. This allows for real-time monitoring of financial performance.
 Controlling and Adjusting: By comparing planned costs to actual spending,
project managers can identify any variances. They can then take corrective
actions, make adjustments, and create forecasts to keep the project on track
financially.
 Decision-Making: Cost data provides a basis for key project decisions. For
example, if costs are rising, a project manager can use this information to decide
whether to adjust the scope, find cost savings, or request additional funding.
  Risk Management: Effective cost management helps mitigate the risk of
overspending, which can lead to project failure, reduced profitability, and a
negative impact on the business.
 Resource Optimization: By carefully managing costs, a project manager can
ensure that resources are used efficiently and that the project delivers value for
money.

6. A log frame (logical framework)

 Log frame is a project management tool that uses a matrix to structure and summarize the key
elements of a project, such as goals, outputs, and activities.
 It links these elements logically and includes columns for indicators to measure progress and
assumptions/risks to consider.
 This approach improves project planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation by creating
a clear, coherent overview of a project's structure and expected results.
 Logic Network;
 Shows the sequence of activities in a project across time.
 Shows which activity logically precedes or follows another activity.
 Can be used to identify the milestones and critical path of a project.
 Will help to understand the dependencies in a project, timescale and its workflow.
 How log frame is used as a project management tool?
 Planning and design: The process of creating a log frame starts with a problem analysis,
leading to the definition of the project's goal, purpose, outputs, and activities. The matrix
provides a structured way to link these components, ensuring they are logically connected.
 Implementation: It serves as a roadmap during implementation, ensuring that activities are
completed to achieve the planned outputs, which in turn are expected to lead to the overall
purpose and goal.
 Monitoring and evaluation: The log frame helps in monitoring progress through its
indicators of achievement and means of verification. It allows project managers to assess
whether the project is on track and to measure its success against predefined criteria.
 Risk management: By identifying potential risks and assumptions, the log frame helps
project managers anticipate challenges and develop strategies to mitigate them.
 Key components of a log frame
 The most common format is a 4x4 matrix with the following columns:
 Project Summary (Intervention Logic):
 This vertical column outlines the hierarchy of objectives:
 Goal: The overall impact the project contributes to.
o Purpose (or Outcome): The specific change the project aims to achieve for its
target beneficiaries.
o Outputs: The tangible results or products delivered by the project's activities
(e.g., a training course, a new facility).
o Activities: The specific tasks that must be performed to produce the outputs.
 Indicators of Achievement: Measurable criteria for each level of the project summary
to assess progress and success (e.g., a percentage increase, the number of participants).
  Means of Verification: The sources of information for checking the indicators (e.g.,
reports, surveys, attendance records).
 Important Risks and Assumptions: External factors that are outside the project's direct
control but could affect its success.
 Benefits of using a log frame
 Clarity and coherence: Provides a clear and concise overview of the project's structure,
logic, and expected results.
 Accountability: Creates a basis for accountability by defining specific objectives and
the means to measure them.
 Communication: Helps communicate the project's plan and progress to stakeholders,
including donors, funders, and team members.
 Strategic alignment: Ensures that activities are aligned with the project's purpose and
overall goal.
 Limitations of a log frame
 Limitations include;
 Rigidity and static nature, which can make it difficult to adapt to project changes.
 It also suffers from a lack of a time dimension, which hinders effective progress
monitoring and task scheduling.
 Furthermore, it can oversimplify complex realities; lead to vague planning if not
properly constructed, and may overlook the perspectives of important stakeholders,
particularly in participatory contexts.

7. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E)

 M & E is a crucial project management tool that provides a systematic process for tracking a
project's progress and assessing its overall performance against its objectives.
 It involves monitoring the continuous, day-to-day activities to ensure projects are on track and
allow for immediate corrective action, while evaluation is a periodic assessment that measures
the project's overall success, impact, and long-term effectiveness.
 M&E helps with accountability, continuous improvement, and informed decision-making
throughout the project lifecycle.
 Why Monitoring and Evaluation?
◦ To improve implementation
◦ To identify problems early before they become crisis.
◦ To assess new components.
 ◦ To track progress towards achieving objectives
◦ To derive lessons from experience
◦ To test conservation and development hypotheses
◦ To measure impacts, effectiveness and efficiency, and identifies lessons for future
projects.
 How M&E functions as a project management tool?
 Planning: An M&E plan specifies schedules, resources, and responsibilities for all M&E
activities, guiding data collection, analysis, and reporting.
 Accountability and transparency: It ensures projects are accountable for their results and
transparently communicate progress to stakeholders, including funders.
 Risk mitigation: By tracking progress and performance, M&E helps identify and mitigate
risks that could impact the project.
 Improvement: It provides a framework for continuous improvement by using data from
monitoring and evaluation to inform decisions and adapt strategies.
 Resource management: M&E helps ensure that resources are used efficiently and
effectively to achieve project goals.
 Monitoring
 Focus: Tracks the progress of day-to-day activities, inputs, and outputs.
 Question: "Are we doing things right?"
 Process: Continuous data collection and analysis to identify problems and make
immediate adjustments.
 Role: Provides real-time feedback to the project team, ensuring activities stay within
scope, timeline, and budget.
 Monitoring is part of implementation.
 It involves collection of activity progress information, analyzing it and feeding it back into
the implementation process.
 It is therefore a management tool useful at all levels of the project‟s organizational
hierarchy
 Getting Information for Monitoring
 Use of simple report format: Formats are useful in making progress reports.
 A very simple format will have project title and activity, reporting period, on time, behind
time or ahead of time (in terms of implementation status)
 Narrative reports: These are report used in project activity.
 Reports could be on weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or annually.
 Meetings: Meeting of stakeholders could be daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, etc.
 Other monitoring tools: these are records at the activity site which are useful for
monitoring and evaluation
◦ Daily activity records
◦ Production records
 Visits to operational sites- observesiion
 Provide on the spot accurate information and assessment.
 Participatory appraisal tools
 Surveys
  Based on the information available:
 Change the duration of individual project activities
 Change described structure of project schedule
 Change entire nature of the project especially if matters are extremely serious (project
may likely face total failure).
 Change the objective function of the project (if project is valid for something else
other than what was originally intended).
 Evaluation
 Focus: Measures the overall success, outcomes, and long-term impact of the project.
 Question: "Are we doing the right thing?"
 Process: Periodic, in-depth assessments conducted at key points, such as the mid-point or
end of the project.
 Role: Provides insights for strategic planning, helps determine the project's overall.
 Evaluation can be defined as a systematic and periodical gathering, analyzing and interpreting of
inputs, information to see the effects and impacts of a development program/ project in order it
may be adjusted where necessary.
 Once a project has been carried out, it is often useful to look back over what took place, to
compare actual progress with the plans, and to judge whether the decisions and actions taken
were reasonable and useful. This is what we call evaluation.
 This kind of analysis can help not only in the management of the project after the initial
construction phase, but will also help in the planning of future project.
 Generally evaluation of a project helps to determine whether the objectives sets were realistic,
given the capacities with which and the circumstances in which they had to be fulfilled, to assess
the impact of the project activities.
 The most important variables to be considered in evaluation have been discussed as follow:
 Relevance: The appropriateness of project objectives to the problems that it was supposed to
address, and to the physical and policy environment within it operated, and including an
assessment of the quality of project preparation and design-i.e. The logic and completeness
of the project planning process, and the internal logic and coherence of the project design.
 Efficiency: The fact that the results have been achieved at reasonable cost, i.e. how well
inputs/ means have been converted into results, in terms of quality, quantity and time, and
the quality of the results achieved.
 This generally requires comparing alternative approaches to achieving the same outputs, to
see whether the most efficient process has been adopted.
 Effectiveness: An assessment of the contribution made by results to achievement of the
project purpose, and how assumptions have affected project achievements.
 Impact: The effect of the project on its wider environment, and its contribution to the wider
sectorial objectives summarized in the project‟s overall objectives and on the achievement of
the overarching policy objectives of the country.
 Sustainability: An assessment of the likelihood of benefits produced by the project to
continue to flow after external funding has ended, and with particular reference to factors
of ownership by beneficiaries, policy support, economic and financial factors, socio-cultural
aspects, equality, appropriate technology, environmental aspects, and institutional and
management capacity.
 Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluation
 Performance Measures: These relate to the inputs and outputs of the program as project focus:
◦ Monitoring progress and to check that activities are being carried out on time within the
cost limits set.
◦ As efficiency measures by using the ratio of inputs to outputs
◦ As a proxy for measuring the impact of program or project.
 The most readily accessible and frequently used input indicators are levels of expenditure.
Performance measures are more of monitoring than an evaluation.
 Impact Analysis: It helps to measures both direct and indirect impacts.
 Steps in direct impact:
1. Specify objectives-what were the aims of the project?
2. Specify target group-who, how many, where and how?
3. Listing and reviewing indicators
4. Collecting and analyzing data
 Indirect impacts may be difficult to assess but an attempt should be made.
 This can be done by locating the primary impact (immediate) first.
 For each primary impact, analyze secondary impacts. Secondary impacts can further
produce tertiary impacts.
 Appropriate assessment
 The focus is on the appropriateness of various parts of the project from the user‟s point of
view. Could something different be done to produce better results?
 Institutional evaluation: Focus on the organizational structure of the institution (s) involved.
◦ What is the organization to do and what does it do?
◦ Does it have authority?
 Evaluation can be assessed using the logical frame work matrix [LFM]; and takes place at
particular stages of the project cycle.
 Prior to starting implementation (known as ex ante evaluation) in order to assess
what it is likely to achieve;
 During implementation e.g. midterm, or at other key points ('milestone evaluation'). This
is often related to reports produced during implementation;
 At the end of implementation (i.e. the evaluation stage); sometimes after the project has
finished in order evaluating long-term impacts (known as ex post evaluation).
 An important purpose of evaluation is to provide feedback to the funder and project
proposer.
 Evaluation sometimes leads to the identification of new project ideas.
 Developing the report to the Evaluation Review
 Now, compose a report to the responsible agency or individual and other interested parties.
 Note actions requested of them, problems to be addressed by them, and important actions
planned by the project team.
 If substantive issues have been raised without resolution and the effective date of resolution,
summarize your project design. Emphasize evidence of progress versus plan.
 Be prepared to discuss plausible alternative to the replanting actions you consider most
appropriate.
 Similarities between Monitoring and Evaluation
 First, both involve the observation of certain indicators of success.
◦ Samples of common indicators are cost, quality and schedule, through observation means
systematically collecting of data using various methods of observation.
◦ The methods may involve technical or scientific tools and auditing techniques at specific
times.
◦ The data from these observations can be a combination of quantitative and qualitative
information.
 Data can be descriptive,
◦ For example statistics that describe the total output completed at certain points during
the project lifespan.
 The data can be analytical, gathered to test hypotheses,
◦ For example the correction among certain variables, such as cost and constriction
output may be calculated at specific times and compared to the forecasted or planned
correlations.
 Second, both monitoring and evaluation systems are used to make rational management
decisions that is, decisions based on verifiable facts and evidence.
 Decisions can include changing the scope of the project, re-allocation resource, or even
terminating the project of course it is possible to make these decisions based entirely on
intuition, casual observation, or visceral fallings. They often are made this way.
 But “harder data” from monitoring and evaluation studies are needed if stakeholders require a
more systematic method for making important decisions.
 Differences between Monitoring and Evaluation
 The first important difference between these two concepts is their timing.
o In program evaluation terms, monitoring is synonymous with formative evaluation which
takes place throughout the project.
o Evaluation on the other hand is synonymous with summative evaluation, which takes
place at the end or after the project is completed.
 Information obtained from monitoring the project can be used to make mid-course changes to
ensure that the project stays on track. On the other hand, information from evaluation the
project outcomes (strictly speaking) cannot be used to change anything since the project is
close to completion.
 Evaluation yields information relevant to whether the project was successful and effective.
 If it was not, it would be too late to do much to change the project.
 Evaluation information can still be valuable for planning future projects.
 The information collection often provides lessons about how to avoid pitfalls.
 The second difference between monitoring and evaluation is in terms of their relationship with
project inputs (resources) and outputs (deliverable) in assessing the probability of success
one of the most important questions for project managers.
 Are the project inputs (such as financial investments, equipment, equipment,
materials, human resources) efficiently transformed into the outputs (the products or
services) expected from the project?
 Monitoring allows you to get a sense of whether there are sufficient inputs to complete the
outputs.
◦ Are the project plan that specified the quantity and quality of inputs and putouts
realistic?
 ◦ Well the project – in reality –come in on time, on budget and according to the technical
or quality specifications?
 Project planners assume that if inputs are sufficient to produce the desired outputs, then the
outputs will yield the desired results or changes, while evaluation focus on effectiveness and
efficiency.

 Differences among the different Project management tools

Feature Gantt Chart CPM PERT PPBS Program Log Frames
Costs
Primary Task timelines and Optimizing Managing Integrating Financial Project design,
Focus progress tracking project duration uncertain task planning, planning and objectives
and critical durations and programming, tracking of hierarchy, and
activities dependencies and budgeting for expenditures evaluation
resource (logic, goal,
allocation outcomes,
outputs,
activities)
Methodology Bar chart with a Network Network Systems analysis Accounting Matrix/table
linear time scale diagram diagram and cost/benefit and financial format linking
(deterministic (probabilistic analysis in a cycle management inputs, outputs,
times) times, three techniques outcomes, goal,
estimates) (budgets, and assumptions
tracking)
Complexity Generally simpler, Suitable for Suitable for Complex, Varies, can be Can be complex
visually complex large, complex, organization-wide integrated into to develop but
straightforward, projects with and uncertain system, especially other systems provides a clear,
ideal for small to predictable task R&D-type in public sector (like PPBS) high-level
medium projects durations projects project logic
Core Output Visual schedule, Critical path, Range of Rationale for Budgets, A framework for
task duration, shortest project possible resource use, expense monitoring and
resource allocation completion completion program reports, cost- evaluation
overview time, float times, accountability, effectiveness indicators and
analysis dependency optimized budget analysis verifiable
visualization allocation assumptions
Usage Project Construction, Research and Government and General Development
Context management, IT projects with development, public sector financial projects, non-
scheduling, clear task projects with administration for management profits, for
monitoring durations high comprehensive across all transparent
uncertainty management contexts design and
evaluation
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