CHAPTER 2
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS
2.1 Introduction:
An alternating current circuit written in short form as
ac. circuit. consists of
voltage source or sources due to which. alternating currents flow through thealternating
various
clements of the circuit viz.. the resistance. inductance and
connected in the circui indcpendently or in all possible capacitance, which may be
voltage or curreni Is a quantity. whosc magnitude combinations. An alternating
which can have only two dircctions, cither positive orcontinuously changes with time but
usually periodic in nature which can be represented by
ncgative. Alternating quantities are
periodic waveforms. Periodic
means recurring and hence during cqual periods of time known as time period, the nature
of the wavetorm of an alternating quantity is same. An
alternating
shape of wavelorm such as sinusoidal, rectangular, saw tooth quantity may have any
etc., but usually, the
alternating voltages generated ahd the alternating currents flowing through the clectric
circuits are having periodic sinusoidal waveforms.
dls0.
i=Im sin = Im Sin ot =Im Sin 2rft (2.2)
2.4 Definitions:
i) Instantaneous Value (e): This is the value of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor at
any instant.
i) Amplitude (Em): The maximum value of the e.m.f. induced in the conductor is
called the amplitude.
ii) Cycle of e.m.f.: A set of positive values together with a set of negative values of
the e.m.f. induced in the conductor constitute a cycle of e.m.f. induced.
iv) Frequency () : It is defined as the number of cycles of e.m.f. induced in the
conductor per second.
v) Time Period (T): It is the time taken to complete one cycle of the e.m.f. induced.
T= (2.3)
32 4C Frndamentals
25 Effective Value of an Alternating Current (I):
This is also called as the root mean square value or r.m.S. value in short. It is defined
on the basis of the amount of heat produced. The equation for the heat produced in a
resistance R. when a current Iflows through it for a time t is given by,
H= Rt W-S (2.4)
The efective value or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is equal to that steady
cTent which produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
hen passed through the same resistancefor the same time.
Pront Dono
Effective Value 33
2.7Efective Value of an Alternating Current which is Sinusoidally Varying:
T 2T
)t
Fig.2.3
The equation for the alternating current representing the sinusoidal waveform shown in
Fig. 2.3 is, .
i=Im sin (2.6)
The effective value of this current is given by
2a 2x
1
P=i'de= lsin 0de m
-cos 26 de
2T 0 2n 27 2
Sin2A12r
47 2 Jo
2r-0-(0-o))
47 =2
m
=0.707 Im (2.7)
The effective value of the current is 0.707 times its maximum value.
2.8 Average Value of an Alternating Current (La):
This is defined on the basis of the amount of charge transferred, which is
given by,
q=It
(2.8)
The average value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current, which
transfers the same amount of charge, as transferred by the alternating current across the
same circuit and in the same time.
2.9 Average Value of an Alternating Current Represented by any Wave:
Consider the waveform shown in fig. 2.2 representing the alternating current. Divide
the waveform into n equal parts, so that, the duration of each internal is t/n seconds. Let q
be the charge transferred across a circuit in t seconds.
(2.9)
2.10 Average Value of an
Alternating Current Represented by a Sine Wave:
The average value of an alternating current
complete cycle is zero. represented
by the sine wave over
one
Consider the sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig. 2.3,
current. Its average value is given by,
representing the alternating
lay = sin do In- cose -- . = 0.637 Im
(2.10)
.. The average value of an
alternating current is 0.637 times its maximum value.
2.11 Form Factor (K):
The form factor of an alternating quantity
represented by the sinusoidal wavefom is
defined as the ratio of its r.m.s. value to its average value.
r.m.s. value 0.707 I,m
Kr= Form Factor = = 1.11, for sine wave
average value 0.637 1m
2.12 Peak Factor (Kp):
The peak factor of an alternating quantity, represented by the sinusoidal waveform
defined as the ratio of its maximúm value to its r.m.s. value.
Kp= Peak factor maximum value
=1414, for asine wave
r.m.s. v¡lue I 0.707 1,m
2.13 Vector Representation of an Alternating Quantity:
Consider a vector OA whose magnitude is equal to Im, the maximum value of the
alternating current, as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a). Let this vector rotate in the anticlock
direction with an angular velocity o, same as that of the alternating current. The projection
of the vector OA on Y-axis IS Zero, when it is in position 1 i.e. when = 0.
Phase 35
2Tt
3
I/2 3 T/2 )= ot
(a) (b)
Fig.2.4
Let the vector be rotated to position 2, where=/2. The projection of the vector on
Y axis in this position is Im. Let the vector be rotated to position 3, where = T. The
projection of the vector on Y axis in this position is zero. In position 4, where = 3/2, the
projection of this vector on Y axis is -Im. Again in position I, where = 2r, the projection
of this vector on Y axis is zero. At any position 5, at an angle from the reference axis, the
projection of this vector on Yaxis is Im sin 9. When all the projected values of this vector
on Y axis, for various values of 0, are plotted and the curve is traced, it gives a sine wave
as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b), whose equation is i= Im sin 0, which is also the equation for
sinusoidally varying current.
From the above discussion, we can conclude that, an alternating quantity can be
vectorially represented by means of a rotating vector (i)' whose magnitude is equal to the
maximum value of the alternating quantity (ii) which rotates with the same angular
velocity as that of the alternating quantity and (ii) whose projection on Y axis at any
instant, represents the instantaneous value of the alternating quantity.
However, if the alternating quantities are represented by rotating vectors, the analysis
of a.c. circuits becomes very difficult. Therefore, they are normally represented as
any
other ordinary vectors, having r.m.s. value as magnitude and phase angle as direction.
2.14 Phase of an
Alternating Quantity:
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant, is the angle through which the
rotating vector representing the alternating quantity has rotated through, from the reference
axis. When the rotating vector OA, which represents the alternating quantity, is along X
axis as shown in Fig. 2.5 (a) at position 1, its phase at that instant is zero. At any other
Instant, say at position 5, the phase of the alternating quantity is 0. The phase of the
alternating quantity , varies from 0to 2t.
36
AC. Fwndamentals
21
I/2 =ot
(b)
(a)
Fig.2.5
2.15 Phase Difference:
c and i ’ = Emsin ot
’i=l,sin ot
Pm
B 2T
Tt2 3T/2 0=ot
0
m E
(a) (b)
Fig.2.6
difference between
The phase difference between two alternating quantities is the angle
the two rotating vectors, representing the two alternating quantities.
In Fig. 2.6 (a), the rotating vector OA represents the alternating voltage and the rotai
angu
vector OB represents the alternating current. Both of them rotate together with an
velocity and hence, the phase difference between them is zero. The waveforms ot u
alternating voltage and alternating current are as shown in Fig. 2.6 (b). In such a case,
two alternating quantities are said to be in phase with each other.
when their
Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase with each other,
corresponding values occur at the same time. The equations for the voltage and current
be written as
e= Em sin ot (2.11)
i= Im sin ot (2.12)
and
Phase Difference 37
e= Em sin ot
e and i
i sin (at-)
2T
'm Tt/2 3T/2 =0t
-Em
(a) (b)
Fig.2.7
Fig. 2.7 (a) represents the two alternating quantities, the voltage and the current, by
their rotating vectors OA and OB and Fig. 2.7 (b) represents their waveforms. The two
vectors always rotate with an angle difference of ¢, the current vector always lagging the
voltage vector by an angle ¢.
The current is said to lag the voltage by an angle , when the corresponding values of
the current occur later by an angle ¢, than the corresponding values of voltage. The
equations for current and voltage in such a case can be written as,
e= Em sin ot (2.13)
and i= Im sin (ot -¢) (2.14)
e and i
e= E sin ot
’i=,sin(cot + )
2T
0 0
L/2 3T /2 =0t
(a) (b)
Fig.2.8
Fig. 2.8 (a) represents the two alternating quantities, the voltage and the current by
their rotating vectors OA, and OB respectively and Fig. 2.8 (b) represents their waveforms.
The two vectors always rotate with an angle difference of , the current vector always
leading the voltage vector by an angle .
38 AC Fundamentals
The current is said to lead the voltage by an angle ¢, when the corresponding values of
current occur carlier by an angle than the corresponding values of voltage.
The cquations for current and voltage can be written as
e = Em sin ot (2.15)
and i =Im sin (ot + ) (2.16)
The phase difference between the voltage and current is usually expressed in terms of
whether the current lags or leads the voltage.