The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects connected to the Internet that

can communicate with each other and with other devices. These devices, often embedded
with sensors, software, and other technologies, collect and share data, enabling automation,
monitoring, and control without human intervention.

Key Components of IoT

1. Devices and Sensors: Physical objects like appliances, vehicles, or industrial
tools equipped with sensors to collect data.
2. Connectivity: Devices are connected via the internet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other
communication protocols.
3. Data Processing: Collected data is processed locally (edge computing) or in the
cloud.
4. User Interface: Users can interact with devices through apps, dashboards, or
voice assistants.
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In IoT, "things" refer to physical objects embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity,
which allow them to collect and exchange data over the Internet. These "things" can range
from simple sensors to complex industrial machines.
Objects are categorised into:
 Objects with intelligence or Smart Objects.
 Objects without intelligence or Non-Smart Objects.
 1. Sensors and Actuators
Sensors: Devices that detect and measure physical properties (temperature, humidity, motion,
light air quality etc.).
Actuators: Devices that take action based on sensor data (relays, motors, alarms etc.).
2. Smart Devices:
Devices embedded with connectivity and intelligence to perform automated tasks. (Smart
lights, Smartwatches, Smart appliances etc.)
3. Industrial Equipment:
Large-scale machines and industrial tools connected for predictive maintenance and
monitoring. (Factory robots, Smart turbines etc.)
4. Vehicles and Transportation Systems:
Connected vehicles and logistics equipment that communicate for better efficiency and
tracking. (Autonomous cars, Drones)
5. Infrastructure Components:
Elements that help monitor and manage urban infrastructure. (Smart traffic lights, Streetlights
with motion sensors, Environmental monitoring systems, Smart grids)
6. Wearables and Consumer Electronics:
Personal devices that monitor health, fitness, and activities. (Fitness bands, VR headsets,
Smart rings)
7. Home and Office Automation:
Devices that provide comfort, security, and energy efficiency. (Smart door locks, Smart
speakers, Smart plugs and switches)
8. Agricultural Tools:
Tools that help monitor and improve farming practices. (Livestock trackers, Drones for crop
analysis, Automated irrigation systems)
9. Healthcare Devices:
Medical devices that monitor health conditions and send data to healthcare providers. (Smart
insulin pumps, Remote ECG monitors, Wearable temperature monitors)
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 Sensing Layer: collecting data from different sources. This layer

includes sensors and actuators placed in the environment to gather information about
temperature, humidity, light, sound, and other physical parameters. Wired or wireless
communication protocols connect these devices to the network layer.
 Network Layer: provides communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT
system. It includes protocols and technologies that enable devices to connect and
communicate with each other and with the wider internet. Network technologies
commonly used in IoT include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks such as
4G and 5G technology.
 Data processing Layer: This refers to the software and hardware components
responsible for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT devices. The data
processing layer includes various technologies and tools, such as data management
systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms.
 Application Layer: It interacts directly with the end-user to provide user-friendly
interfaces and functionalities that enable users to access and control IoT devices. This
layer includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web portals, and
other user interfaces designed to interact with the underlying IoT infrastructure. This
 can include machine learning algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced
analytics capabilities.

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Several Technologies in IoT Architecture.

 Sensors and actuators: Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the
environment, such as temperature, humidity, light, motion, or pressure. Actuators can
cause physical environmental changes, such as opening or closing a valve or turning
on a motor.
 Connectivity technologies: IoT devices need to be connected to the Internet to
transmit data from sensors and actuators to the cloud. Several connectivity
technologies are used in IoT, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular, Zigbee, and
LoRaWAN.
 Cloud computing: The cloud is where the vast amounts of data generated by IoT
devices are stored, processed, and analyzed. Cloud computing platforms provide the
infrastructure and tools needed to store and analyze this data and build and deploy IoT
applications.
 Big data analytics: To make sense of the vast amounts of data generated by IoT
devices, businesses need to use advanced analytics tools to extract insights and
identify patterns. These tools can include machine learning algorithms, data
visualization tools and predictive analytics models.
 Security and privacy technologies: As IoT deployments become more widespread,
IoT security and privacy become increasingly important. Technologies such
as encryption, access controls, and intrusion detection systems protect IoT devices
and the data they generate from cyber threats.

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Some of the trends and predictions for the future of IoT:

 Device Growth: The number of IoT devices is expected to grow rapidly, with
estimates suggesting that tens of billion IoT devices will be used over the next few
years.
 Edge computing: Edge computing is becoming increasingly important for IoT, as it
allows data to be processed and analyzed closer to the source rather than in a
centralized data center. This can improve response times, reduce latency, and reduce
the amount of data that needs to be transferred over IoT networks.
 Artificial intelligence and machine learning: AI and machine learning are
becoming increasingly important for IoT, as they can analyze vast amounts of data
generated by IoT devices and extract meaningful insights.
 Blockchain: Blockchain technology is being explored to improve security and
privacy in the IoT. It can be used to create secure, decentralized networks for IoT
devices, which can minimize data security vulnerabilities.
 Sustainability: Sustainability is becoming an increasingly important consideration for
IoT as businesses look for ways to reduce their environmental impact. IoT can be
used to optimize energy usage, reduce waste and improve sustainability across a range
of industries.
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Security Challenges in IoT:

1. Data Privacy and Protection – Sensitive data collected by IoT devices can be
vulnerable to breaches.
2. Device Authentication and Authorization – Many IoT devices lack robust identity
verification, making them easy targets for hackers.
3. Firmware and Software Updates – Infrequent or insecure updates leave devices
vulnerable to attacks.
4. Physical Security – Devices in public or industrial settings can be physically
tampered with.
5. Botnets and DDoS Attacks – IoT devices can be hijacked and used in large-scale
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks (e.g., Mirai botnet).
6. Network Security – Unsecured networks connecting IoT devices are often entry
points for cyber-attacks.
7. Lack of Encryption – Data transmitted between devices is often not encrypted,
making interception easy.

Design Challenges in IoT:

1. Interoperability – IoT devices from manufacturers often use different

communication protocols, leading to integration issues.
2. Power Consumption – Many IoT devices operate on limited battery power, requiring
efficient energy management.
3. Latency and Real-Time Processing – Designing systems for low-latency data
transfer and real-time decision-making is critical for applications like autonomous
vehicles.
4. Scalability – Designing IoT solutions that can scale to millions of devices without
performance degradation is challenging.
5. Cost Constraints – Balancing cost with functionality and security often limits design
choices.
6. Data Management – IoT generates vast amounts of data that must be processed,
stored, and analyzed efficiently.
7. Form Factor and Size – Devices must be compact and lightweight while maintaining
performance.
8. Sustainability – Designing eco-friendly devices that minimize electronic waste and
support recycling.

Deployment Challenges in IoT:

1. Network Coverage and Connectivity – Ensuring consistent connectivity in remote

or rural areas is difficult.
2. Latency and Bandwidth Limitations – Deploying devices in areas with limited
bandwidth can reduce efficiency and responsiveness.
3. Installation Complexity – Deploying large numbers of devices across diverse
environments requires significant planning and expertise.
 4. Maintenance and Monitoring – Continuous monitoring and regular maintenance of
IoT devices can be resource-intensive.
5. Integration with Legacy Systems – IoT solutions often must integrate with existing
(sometimes outdated) infrastructure.
6. Standardization – Lack of global IoT standards makes deployment across regions
inconsistent.
7. Cost of Deployment – High upfront hardware, infrastructure, and network setup costs
can delay large-scale IoT deployment.

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 Consumer IoT
Consumer IoT devices are designed for individual needs and are used for everyday
tasks. Examples include smart home devices, smartwatches, smart thermostats, and
wearable technology.
 Industrial IoT
Industrial IoT connects machines, sensors, and systems to improve efficiency, productivity,
and decision-making in industrial environments. Examples include smart factories that use
predictive maintenance, robotics, and smart grid capabilities.

Difference between IIOT and IOT :

[Link] IIOT IOT

.
1. It focuses on industrial applications such as It focuses on general applications
manufacturing, power plants, oil & gas, etc. ranging from wearables to robots &
machines.
2. It uses critical equipment and devices Its implementation starts at a small
connected over a network, which can be scale level, so there is no need to
life-threatening; therefore, it uses more worry about life-threatening
sensitive and precise sensors. situations.
 3. It deals with large-scale networks. It deals with small-scale networks.
4. It can be programmed remotely, i.e., it It offers easy off-site programming.
offers remote on-site programming.
5. It requires robust security to protect the It requires identity and privacy.
data.
6. It has a very long life cycle. It has a short product life cycle.
7.
8. It has high- reliability. It is less reliable.

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A Cyber-Physical System (CPS) integrates physical and computational components to

seamlessly monitor and control physical processes.
These systems combine the sensing, actuation, computation, and communication
capabilities and leverage these to improve the physical systems' overall performance,
safety, and reliability.

Key Features of Cyber-Physical System

In terms of the cyber-physical system, there are some key features are classified as
 Reactive Computation
 Feedback Control of the Physical World
 Real-Time Computation
 Safety-Critical Application

Key Features of the Internet of Things

 Automation
 Endpoint management
 Connectivity
 Scaling & Sensing
 Connectivity & Analysis, etc.

Difference between CPS and IoT

Cyber-Physical System(CPS) Internet of things (IoT)

The CPS system is to monitor and controls IoT is creating a network of interconnected
physical processes seamlessly. devices to collect and exchange data.
It is an integration of physics with cyber It contains all physical devices primarily
components that are networked and created terms connected to the controls
interconnected. Sensors internet.
CPS devices are designed to interact with IoT devices are primarily created compared
and control physical processes. to interact with data-centric.
CPS uses Sensors and Actuators to work IoT is pure automation; it does not need
in the feedback loop. anything external.
It needs human intervention and human- it doesn’t need any human assistance.
to-computer intervention.

CPS is a system that integrates physical IoT is a network of physical devices that
components and computer systems, are connected to the internet and can
creating a network of interconnected communicate with each other without
devices. human intervention.

CPS systems typically involve a

IoT devices are typically standalone
combination of sensors, actuators, and
devices that can communicate with other
computer systems that work together to
devices or systems over the internet.
perform a specific task.

CPS systems require real-time data IoT devices generate vast amounts of data
processing and analysis to ensure that that can be analyzed to gain insights into
physical systems work correctly and user behavior, product performance, and
efficiently. other factors.

CPS systems are designed to interact with

IoT devices are designed to collect data
the physical world, such as controlling
and communicate it over the internet,
machines or monitoring environmental
typically using wireless connectivity.
conditions.
Examples.

Smart Grids: Advanced electrical grids use sensors, IoT devices, and computational models
to optimize electricity distribution and consumption. (Real-time monitoring of energy usage,
Automated demand response, Integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind.)
Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving cars and drones rely on CPS to process data from
sensors, cameras, and GPS to navigate and operate safely. ( Collision detection and
avoidance., Real-time traffic data analysis, Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-
Infrastructure (V2I) communication.)
Industrial Automation (Industry 4.0): Factories equipped with CPS use IoT devices and
robotics to enable smart manufacturing. (Predictive maintenance. Real-time monitoring of
production lines. Autonomous control of machinery.)
Smart Healthcare Systems: Healthcare devices and systems use CPS to improve patient
care and monitoring. (Wearable devices for continuous health monitoring (e.g., heart rate,
blood glucose).Robotic surgery systems. IoT-enabled hospital management systems for real-
time asset and patient tracking.)
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): CPS is used to manage traffic and improve
safety in transportation systems. (Smart traffic lights synchronized with real-time vehicle
flow. Toll collection systems with automatic vehicle detection. Rail systems with automated
braking and collision avoidance.)
Smart Buildings and Cities: Integration of CPS in urban infrastructure to enhance energy
efficiency, security, and livability. (Smart HVAC systems that adjust temperature and
lighting based on occupancy. Automated waste management systems.)

Agriculture (Smart Farming): Use of CPS for precision farming to optimize crop yield and
reduce resource usage.(Soil moisture sensors for irrigation management. Drones for
monitoring crop health and applying pesticides.)

Robotics in Service and Entertainment: CPS-driven robots interact with their environment
to provide services or entertainment. ( Cleaning robots, Service robots in hotels and airports
for customer assistance.)

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Machine-to-machine communication (M2M) is a concept in which two or more machines

communicate with each other without human interaction using a wired or wireless
mechanism and without using the Internet. M2M communications offer several
applications, such as security, tracking and tracing, manufacturing, and facility
management.
Artificial intelligence and machine learning facilitate communication between systems,
allowing them to make autonomous [Link] main purpose of machine-to-machine
technology is to tap into sensor data and transmit it to a network.

The main components of an M2M system include sensors, RFID, a Wi-Fi or cellular
communications link, and autonomic computing software programmed to help a network
device interpret data and make decisions.
M2M is communication that could carried over mobile networks, for ex-, GSM-GPRS and
CDMA Networks.

Core Components:

1. Devices/Machines: Physical units equipped with sensors, processors, and communication

modules.
2. Communication Networks: Infrastructure that allows data transmission (e.g., 4G/5G,
Ethernet, LPWAN).
3. Data Storage and Analysis Systems: Servers or cloud platforms that process and analyze the
collected data.
4. Applications/Software: Interfaces to visualize, interpret, and manage data or machine
operations.

Key features of M2M technology include:

 Low power consumption.
 A Network operator that provides packet-switched service
 Time tolerance: data transfers can be delayed.
 Time control: can only be sent or received at specific predetermined periods.
 Location specific triggers that alert or wake up devices when they enter particular areas.
 Continually send and receive small amounts of data.

M2M requirements
According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), requirements of
an M2M system include:
 Scalability - The M2M system should be able to continue to function efficiently as more
connected objects are added.
 Anonymity—The M2M system must be able to hide an M2M device's identity when
requested, subject to regulatory requirements.
 Logging—M2M systems must support the recording of important events, such as failed
installation attempts, service not operating, or faulty information.
 M2M application communication principles—M2M systems should enable
communication between M2M applications in the network and the M2M device
or gateway using communication techniques such as short message service (SMS)
and IP. Connected devices should also be able to communicate with each other in a peer-
to-peer (P2P) manner.
 Delivery methods—The M2M system should support Unicast, anycast, multicast,
and broadcast communication modes, with broadcast replaced by multicast or anycast
whenever possible to minimize the load on the communication network.
 Message communication path selection - Optimization of the message communication
paths within an M2M system must be possible and based on policies like transmission
failures, delays when other paths exist and network costs.

M2M communication applications:

Smart Metering in Energy: Smart electricity meters communicate usage data to utility
companies in real time.
Smart cities: M2M communication can optimize services and infrastructure, such as by
adjusting traffic lights based on real-time traffic data.
Connected Vehicles: Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication for collision avoidance.
Healthcare: M2M communication can enhance remote monitoring and telemedicine by
allowing wearable devices and medical implants to transmit patient data to healthcare
providers.
Industrial automation: 2M communication can facilitate automation and predictive
maintenance by allowing sensors on machinery to transmit performance data.:
Smart Agriculture: Irrigation systems communicating with weather sensors. M2M
communication can enable precision farming by allowing sensors to measure soil moisture,
temperature, and nutrients.
Asset Tracking: GPS trackers in logistics vehicles communicating with dispatch systems.
Retail and Vending Machines: Automated vending machines notifying suppliers about
inventory levels.
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Web of Things (WoT) refers to a set of standards formed by the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) to facilitate the interoperability, fragmentation, and usability of the
Internet of Things (IoT).

It is a subset of the Internet of Things (IoT) and is built around software standards such as
REST, HTTP, and URIs to allow devices to interact with one another.
Key Components of the Web of Things:

1. Things Description (TD):

o A machine-readable metadata format (often in JSON-LD) to describe the
properties, actions, and events of a device.
2. Bindings to Protocols:
o WoT does not replace IoT protocols (e.g., MQTT, CoAP). Instead, it provides
a layer of abstraction to make different IoT protocols interoperable using web-
based technologies. CoAP is an application layer protocol designed for
resource-constrained devices and networks, particularly in the context of the
Internet of Things (IoT). MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is a
messaging protocol for restricted low-bandwidth networks and extremely
high-latency IoT devices.

3. Scripting APIs:
o Allows developers to write applications that interact with "things" using
common programming paradigms, abstracting protocol-level complexities.

4. Discovery Mechanisms:
o Facilitates the discovery of devices and their capabilities over a network.

IoT WoT
Connecting devices to the internet. Interoperability and integration via the web.
Protocol-specific (e.g., MQTT, Standard web technologies (HTTP, JSON, etc.).
CoAP).
Networking physical objects. Simplifying interaction and data sharing.

Use Cases:

 Smart Homes: Controlling appliances and monitoring environments using

standardized web interfaces.
 Industrial IoT : Enabling factories to leverage interoperable sensors and machines
for automation.
 Healthcare: Integrating medical devices into a unified platform for patient
monitoring.
  Smart Cities: Creating interconnected systems for traffic management, utilities, and
public services.

Layer 1- Accessibility:
This layer converts anything into a web page. This enables us to interact with the converted
web page with HTTP requests.

1. HTML
2. REST API: Representational state transfer (REST) is a software architectural style
that defines a set of constraints for creating Web services.
3. URL / URI
4. Gateway
5. HTTP
Layer 2 - Findability:
It ensures that other HTTP users can use your device and that it is easily discoverable and
workable by different WoT applications. It is done by resing the semantic web standards to
explain things and their purpose in existence.

1. REST
2. Linked Data
3. Link Header
4. Search Engines
5. JSON

Layer 3 - Sharing:
This layer’s job is to find a secure way to transfer data across services. Different protocols,
such as TLS and OAuth, are used at this level. TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a
cryptographic protocol that secures network communication, while OAuth 2.0 is an
authorization protocol that also covers authentication:

1. Social Networks
2. OAuth
3. RDFa
4. Encryption
5. Authentication

Layer 4 - Composition:
The fourth step is to find a way and tools to build an application for the web of things. At the
Composition layer, web tools range from web toolkits (JavaScript SDKs) that provide a
higher-level abstraction to dashboards with programmable widgets and, lastly, physical
mashup tools like Node-RED.

1. Systems Integration
2. Node-RED
3. Automated UI generation
4. Web Application
5. IFTTT: "If This Then That", is a cloud-based platform that helps users connect
devices and services to automate tasks in the Internet of Things (IoT)

spect Internet of Things (IoT)

Web of Things (WoT)
Extension of IoT that adds web
Network of interconnected
Definition technologies for enhanced connectivity
physical devices
and interoperability
Utilizes web protocols (HTTP,
Communicatio Device-to-device communication
WebSocket) for device communication
n using various protocols
and data exchange
Interoperability Interoperability challenges due to Aims to enhance interoperability by
 diverse protocols and standards leveraging web standards and protocols
Often relies on proprietary or
Built on open, standardized web
Architecture specialized protocols and
protocols and architectures
architectures
Data access and control may be Facilitates data access and control
Data Access limited to proprietary platforms or through standardized web interfaces and
protocols APIs
Scalability challenges due to Strives for scalability through
Scalability heterogeneous devices and standardized communication and
protocols interoperability
Development may require Utilizes familiar web development tools
Development specialized IoT platforms and and technologies for application
frameworks development
Security vulnerabilities due to Emphasizes security through established
Security
diverse devices and protocols web security mechanisms and standards
Focuses on providing uniform user
Often lacks standardized user
User Interface experiences across devices through web-
interfaces and interactions
based interfaces
Smart home devices (thermostats, Integration of smart home devices
Example
cameras, etc.) accessible via web browsers or apps

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Protocols for loT

1. Infrastructure protocol: IPV4/V6, Identification (URLs),

2. Connectivity protocols-(6LowPAN, RPL),
 3. Transport/Communication protocols- WIFI, LiFi, BLE, NFC,
4. Data protocols-(MQTT, CoAP, XMP),

Near Field Communication (NFC) is a short-range wireless technology that allows devices
to connect when they are within a few centimetres of each other:

NFC uses radio frequency identification (RFID) to transmit data. When an active device
approaches a passive tag, the active device's electromagnetic field activates the tag, enabling
data transfer.

This includes authenticating credit cards, enabling physical access, transferring small files
and jumpstarting more capable wireless links.

NFC was initially intended to transfer files between phones using Android Beam. Modern
services like Google Nearby Share employ NFC to configure wireless services across faster
networks like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi Direct.

NFC is limited to short-range communication, which has important implications for physical
access security. A user must be within 3.5 inches (10 cm) of an NFC terminal to process a
payment or open a door. Another important aspect is that no power is required for listening to
and responding to NFC requests.

NFC builds on the work of the RFID set of standards and specifications, such as ISO/IEC
14443 and ISO/IEC 15963. These use a wireless communication technique that uses
physical principles different from most wireless radios. Whereas most radios transmit data
via radio wave propagation, NFC transmits data via magnetic field induction. NFC data
transmits data at 13.56 MHz, corresponding to a wavelength of 22 meters.
RFID
Types of NFC

 Passive NFC devices: These near-field communication devices include tags and other
small transmitters that can send information to other NFC devices without a power
source.
These devices don’t really process any information sent from other sources and can not
connect to other passive components.

 Active NFC devices: These near-field communication devices can send and receive
data. They can also communicate with each other and with passive devices.

Smartphones are the best example of active NFC devices. Card readers in public
transport and touch payment terminals are also good examples of the technology.

Criteria NFC Bluetooth

Power consumption Low High

Range Short (up to 10 cm) Long (up to 10 meters)
Data transfer speed Slower (up to 424 kbit/s) Faster (up to 2.1 Mbit/s for
Bluetooth 2.1 and 1 Mbit/s
for Bluetooth Low Energy)
Connectivity Faster (less than 1s to Slower (may require
establish a connection) manual pairing
Suitable for Passive devices like tags File transfers, sharing
and advertising signs connections to speakers,
 and more
Applications Mobile payments (Samsung File sharing, music
Pay, Android Pay, Apple streaming, connecting
Pay) devices

Examples of NFC

A few examples of NFC use cases include the following:

o Sharing data: NFC can share contacts or links quickly.
o Pairing devices: NFC can pair headphones, wireless speakers, and cameras.
o Accessing public transit: NFC-based cards control access in many cities.
o Home automation: NFC can control devices or automation in smart home
platforms.
o Healthcare: NFC-enabled wristbands can track patient vital signs and other
information.

 mobile payments, such as Apple Pay and Google Pay;

 transit card payments;

 access authentication for doors or offices;

 unlocking car doors or rental scooters;

 device pairing smartphones and headsets by tapping them together;

Benefits of NFC

NFC has several real-world benefits, including the following:

 increases operational efficiency for payment processors;

 ensures more security than traditional credit cards for payments;

 allows users to choose from multiple cards dynamically;

 difficult to intercept NFC communications from a distance;

 ease of use for consumers in paying for goods;

 allows simple setup of new connections compared to other wireless protocols.

Limitations of NFC

Challenges of NFC technology include the following:

  very short range of only a few inches precludes many use cases;

 slower than other protocols;

 can limit usability for apps that require sensitive data on a smartphone;

 app innovation stymied by Apple and Google restrictions and tech implementations;

 Uses: NFC has many uses, including:

o Mobile payments: NFC is the technology in contactless cards, and is commonly
used in smartphones for making payments.
 Standards: NFC is standardized in ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092.
 Industry group: The NFC Forum is an industry group that manages NFC
standards.

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Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) is a wireless communication technology that uses light to transmit data
instead of traditional radio frequencies (as in Wi-Fi).

Li-Fi leverages the visible light spectrum, ultraviolet, or infrared light, particularly LED
(Light Emitting Diode) bulbs, to transfer information at high speeds.

With LiFi, however, its band frequency of 200,000 GHz, versus the maximum 5 GHz of the
wifi, is 100 times faster and can transmit much more information per second.
LiFi uses LEDs to send data to a device.
The device sends data back to the lamp using infrared light.
The light's intensity changes billions of times per second, creating a digital signal.
The digital signal carries information to and from the internet.
A bidirectional wireless system that uses visible light (400-800 Terahertz) for
communication, unlike Wi-Fi which uses radio waves.
Working – On/off activity of the LED transmitter enables data transmission in accordance
with the incoming binary codes (switching ON is a logical ‘1’, switching it OFF is a
logical ‘0’).
 

Light Fidelity technology is wireless communication device focused mainly on use of

visible light between violet (800 THz) and red (four hundred THz). Li-Fi is based solely on
propagation of information in defined and uniform fashion via amplitude modulation of
light supply. There is LED transmitter (light emitting) on one end and photo detector (light
sensor) on other. Li-Fi operates very simple and fast. The data input to LED transmitter is
encoded into light by varying the flickering rate at which binary code (1s and 0s) is
generated by LEDs flicker ‘on’ and ‘off’. LED transmitter’s on / off operation which seems
to be invisible to human eye as speed of LEDs is less than microsecond. By switching ON
LED is logical ‘1’ it makes data transfer according to incoming binary codes, switching
OFF is logical ‘0’. Data can be encoded in light by varying rate at which LEDs flicker on
and off to different combinations of 1s and 0s.
Advantages :
Proficiency
 Energy utility can be minimized with LED illumination, which is now
accessible in homes, workplaces, Malls, and so on for lighting reasons.
 Consequently, information transmission requires negligible additional
power, making it efficient in terms of costs and energy.
 Cost :
Li-Fi needs fewer components for its service and a small additional capacity
for data transmission.
 Availability :
 lights can be utilized as a model for information transmission.
 Security :
 Since light can’t pass through opaque structures, the Li-Fi web is accessible
only to clients inside a limited zone and can’t be intercepted and misused
outside the area under operation.
 High speed:
 Li-Fi provides high data rates i.e., 1 Gbps or even beyond.
 Li-Fi technology has a great scope in future. The extensive growth in the use of
LEDs for illumination indeed provides the opportunity to integrate the technology into
a plethora of environments and applications.

Disadvantages :
 Much shorter range than Wi-Fi
 Can’t be accessed beyond the illumination range of light, etc.
 To trade data, it requires a close or immaculate line of sight.
 Light waves can not penetrate walls, and therefore, Li-Fi has a much shorter range than
Wi-Fi.
 Opaque impediments affect data transmission on pathways.
 Normal light, sunlight, and ordinary electric light can influence information
transmission speed.
 High cost of installing the VLC systems.

Applications :
 In Aircraft –
In aircraft, passengers pay high charges for low-speed internet, but using Li-Fi provides
affordable fees for high-speed internet.
 Health Technologies –
Wi-Fi has been replaced by Li-Fi in many hospitals because using Wi-Fi in hospitals
interferes with mobile devices and computers, which block the monitoring equipment
signals.
 Traffic Application –
Li-Fi can be used in traffic management. It interacts with the LED lights of vehicles
such as buses, which can help in effectively dealing with traffic and regulate accidents
by warning other drivers when vehicles are excessively close.
 Disaster management –
Li-Fi can be used as a groundbreaking method of correspondence during a disaster.
 Education systems: Li-Fi is the latest technology that can provide fastest speed for
Internet access. So, it can augment/replace Wi-Fi at educational institutions and at
companies so that the people there can make use of Li-Fi with the high speed.

 Medical Applications: Operation theatres (OTs) do not allow Wi-Fi due to radiation
concerns. Wi-Fi usage at hospitals interferes with/blocks the signals for monitoring
equipment. Thus, it may have hazardous effects on the patient's health due to
improper working of medical apparatus.
 Underwater applications: Underwater ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) operate
from large cables that supply their power and allow them to receive signals from
their pilots above.
 Disaster management: Li-Fi can be used as a powerful means of communication
during disasters such as earthquakes or hurricanes. However, the average person
may not know the protocols during such disasters. Subway stations and tunnels,
common dead zones for most emergency communications, pose no obstruction for
Li-Fi.
 Applications in sensitive areas: Power plants need fast, inter-connected data systems
so that demand, grid integrity, and core temperature (in the case of nuclear power
plants) can be monitored. The Radio communication interference is considered to be
bad for such sensitive areas surrounding these power plants
 Mobile Connectivity: Mobiles, laptops, tablets, and other smartphones can easily
connect. The short-range network of Li-Fi can yield exceptionally high data rates
and higher security. i) Replacement for other technologies:
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