SSDN

UNIT -1 – DC CIRCUITS

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (R, L, C)

• Features / Behaviour / Properties of RESISTOR as a Linear
Element
a. The property of a resistor by virtue of which it opposes the
flow of current through it is called as Resistance.
b. The resistance is characterized by a curve in the voltage –
current (v-i) plane.
c. A resistance is linear if it is characterized by a straight line
passing through the origin in (v-i) plane.

d. Follows Ohm’s Law (from circuit viewpoint).

Mathematically, it is represented by the equation
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
e. From energy viewpoint, a resistor having resistance R
dissipates heat,
𝑃 = 𝑖2𝑅
So, a linear resistor obeys Ohm’s Law; has constant resistance; dissipates
power as heat.
• Features / Behaviour / Properties of INDUCTOR as a Linear
Element
a. A device is called an inductor if it can be described by a
curve in the current – flux (𝑖 − 𝜑) plane.
b. An inductor is said to be linear if its characteristic is a
straight line passing through origin in the (𝑖 − 𝜑) plane.

𝑑𝑖
c. Voltage proportional to current rate of change 𝑣 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
d. Constant inductance
e. For an inductor of N turns, the total flux linkage (𝜓 = 𝑁𝜑)
is proportional to current,
𝜓∝𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝜓 = 𝐿𝑖
f. The current through an inductor can’t change
instantaneously.

• Features / Behaviour / Properties of CAPACITOR as a Linear

Element
a. An element which can be characterized by a curve in the
voltage – charge (𝑣 − 𝑞) plane is called a capacitor.
b. A capacitor is linear if its characteristic is a straight line
passing through the origin in the (𝑣 − 𝑞) plane
 c. A linear capacitor is described mathematically as
(𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣)
d. Current is proportional to voltage rate of change
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

e. The voltage across the capacitor can’t change

instantaneously.

ACTIVE and PASSIVE ELEMENT

ACTIVE ELEMENTS PASSIVE ELEMENTS

• Active elements are • Passive elements are
defined as those defined as those elements
elements that supply that cannot supply
energy or emf to the energy; only store or
circuit. dissipate it.
• Require external power • Operate without external
to operate. power.
• Examples are battery; • Examples are resistor;
generator etc. inductor; capacitor.
CIRCUIT and NETWORK
CIRCUIT NETWORK
• A closed path for current • An interconnection of
flow with active/passive components (may or
elements. may not form a closed
• Designed to perform a path).
specific task • Represents a generalized
• Example structure.
• Example

ACTIVE NETWORK / CIRCUIT and PASSIVE NETWORK /

CIRCUIT
ACTIVE NETWORK PASSIVE NETWORK
• Contains at least one active • Contains only passive
element (e.g., transistor, elements (e.g., resistors,
op-amp) that can amplify capacitors, inductors) that
signals or supply energy. cannot amplify signals or
• Requires an external power generate energy.
supply (e.g., battery, DC • No external power
source) to operate active needed.
components. • Example
• Example –
 UNILATERAL ELEMENT and BILATERAL ELEMENT

UNILATERAL ELEMENT BILATERAL ELEMENT

• Allows current flow in • Allows current flow in
one direction only (non- both directions
reversible behavior). (reversible behavior).
• Non – symmetrical V – I • Symmetrical V – I
relationship. relationship.
• Examples diode; • Examples are resistor;
transistor etc. inductor; capacitor.

UNILATERAL NETWORK and BILATERAL NETWORK

UNILATERAL NETWORK BILATERAL NETWORK
• A network where signal • A network where signal
flow is restricted to one can flow in both
direction (input to directions (input ↔
output). output).
• Circuit behaviour is • Circuit behaviour is
direction dependent direction independent.
• Examples diode; • Examples are Resistive
transistor etc. networks, transmission
lines etc.
 LUMPED and DISTRIBUTED PARAMETERS
LUMPED PARAMETERS DISTRIBUTED
PARAMETERS
• Parameters (R, L, C) are • Parameters are spread
concentrated at discrete continuously across the
points (idealized as point system (vary with space
elements). coordinates).
• No propagation delay • Finite propagation delay
(instantaneous (signals travel as
voltage/current). waves).
• Examples – Simple RL • Examples are
or RC circuit. Transmission line
modelling parameters
etc.
CONCEPT OF LINEARITY
• Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear
relationship between cause and effect.
• The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling)
property and the additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called
the excitation) is multiplied by a scalar constant, then the output
(also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant.
• Alternatively saying, homogeneity implies that the contribution
due to any one source scales linearly with the value of the source.
For example, if the contribution due to source 𝑥1 𝑖𝑠 𝑦1 , then the
contribution due to the same source doubled 2𝑥1 is also doubled
2𝑦1 , where α = 2 is an example scaling factor.
• The additivity (or superposition) requires that the response to a
sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied
separately. Using the voltage – current relationship of a resistor, if

We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage – current

relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
In general, circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogenous.
VOLTAGE and CURRENT SOURCES
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENT SOURCE
• Maintains a fixed voltage • Delivers a fixed current
across its terminals. through the circuit.
• Internal resistance is • Infinite (ideal) or very
Zero (ideal) or low high (practical). Acts
(practical). Acts like a like an open circuit for
short circuit for voltage.
maximum current. • Example – PV
• Example – Battery

IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE and IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE

IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE IDEAL CURRENT
SOURCE
• Maintains a fixed voltage • Delivers a fixed current
across its terminals. through the circuit.
• Internal resistance is • Infinite (ideal). Acts
Zero (ideal). Acts like a like an open circuit for
short circuit for voltage.
maximum current. • Example – PV Cell
• Example – Battery
 IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE and PRACTICAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE and PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCE

 IDEAL INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE
and
IDEAL INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE

CONCEPT of EMF and POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

• EMF is the total voltage provided by the source, while PD is the usable
voltage after losses (e.g., due to internal resistance).
• EMF ≥ Potential Difference (since PD = EMF – Ir), where I = current, r =
internal resistance).

MESH and LOOP

Total Number of Loops – 3

Total Number of Mesh - 2
BRANCH
• A branch is a single electrical element (e.g., resistor, voltage
source, current source) or a group of elements connected
in series that share the same current.
• It represents a path for current flow between two nodes.

NODE
• A node is a point in a circuit where two or more branches are
connected.
• It is a junction where current splits or combines.

PRINCIPAL NODE or JUNCTION or ESSENTIAL NODE

• A principal node is a node where three or more circuit elements
(branches) are connected.
• Also referred to as an essential node.
• These are important when applying nodal analysis, as voltage is
measured at principal nodes.
 Ques: State or Explain KCL. Also write down or mentions its applications;
Advantages; and Limitations.
Answer: • KCL is also known as point law or junction law.
• It’s a consequence of law of conservation of charge.
• It states that at a node or point or junction in a circuit:
1. The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in
an electrical circuit is zero.
2. Sum of Incoming Currents = Sum of Outgoing Currents
Example:

APPLICATIONS:
1. Circuit Analysis
• Used in nodal analysis to solve complex circuits.
2. Current Division
• Helps determine branch currents in parallel resistors.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Universal Applicability – Works for DC, AC, linear, and
nonlinear circuits.
2. Foundation for Nodal Analysis – Simplifies solving large circuits.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Assumes Ideal Conditions - Neglects parasitic
capacitances/inductances at high frequencies.
2. Does Not Account for Displacement Currents – In high-
frequency or capacitive systems (like RF circuits), KCL needs
modification (Maxwell’s equations).
 Ques: State or Explain KVL. Also write down or mentions its applications;
Advantages; and Limitations.
Answer: • KCL is also known as energy law or work law.
• It’s a consequence of law of conservation of energy.
• It states that:
1. In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of
all the electromotive forces ([Link]) and voltage drops in
resistors is equal to zero.
2. Around a closed loop or circuit,
Algebraic sum of [Link] + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
Example:

APPLICATIONS:
1. Circuit Analysis
• Used in Mesh analysis to solve complex circuits.
2. Voltage Division
• Determines voltage drops across series resistors.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Universal Applicability – Works for DC, AC, linear, and
nonlinear circuits.
2. Foundation for Mesh Analysis – Simplifies solving multi-loop
circuits.
 LIMITATIONS:
1. Assumes Lumped Parameters – Not ideal for circuits with
distributed elements (e.g., transmission lines).
2. Doesn’t Include Induced EMF Effects – In high-frequency or
time-varying magnetic fields (AC circuits), Faraday’s law must
be considered.
Ques: Explain the steps to implement Mesh Analysis with suitable example
Answer: • Mesh analysis is mainly used to determine the mesh currents.
• KVL is implemented to find the Mesh Currents.
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . ., in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
 Ques: Explain the steps to implement Nodal Analysis with suitable example
Answer: • Nodal Analysis is used to determine the node voltages of non –
reference node.
• KCL is implemented to determine the node voltages
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . .,
vn − 1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.

The node voltage (VB) of node B is required to be calculated.

All the quantities except VB are known hence can be calculated VB.
 Ques: Out of Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis method, which method is
preferred to analyse or solve the networks or circuits?
Answer: • Both nodal and mesh analyses provide a systematic way of analyzing
a complex network. The choice of the better method is dictated by
two factors.
1. We should select the approach that will result in the smaller number
of simultaneous equations.
2. The second factor is the information required. If node voltages are
required, it may be expedient to apply nodal analysis. If branch or
mesh currents are required, it may be better to use mesh analysis.
Ques: “KCL is a consequence of law of conservation of charge”. Justify the
statement.
Answer: • Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of
currents at any junction in a circuit is zero, meaning charge cannot
accumulate at a node.
• Since the law of conservation of charge dictates that charge can
neither be created nor destroyed, the total charge entering a junction
must equal the total charge leaving it.
• Thus, KCL inherently enforces this conservation principle, ensuring
charge flow remains balanced in electrical circuits. Therefore, KCL
is a direct consequence of the law of conservation of charge.
Ques: “KVL is a consequence of law of conservation of energy or work”.
Justify the statement.
Answer: • Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of
voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero, meaning energy is
conserved in the loop.
• Since voltage represents work done per unit charge, KVL ensures that
the net energy gained or lost by a charge moving around the loop is
zero, aligning with the law of conservation of energy.
• Thus, KVL is a direct consequence of energy conservation in
electrical circuits.
 Ques: Explain the concept of Supermesh and Supernode with suitable
illustrations.
Answer: • A supermesh is formed when a current source lies between two
meshes. Instead of analyzing each mesh separately, the meshes are
combined into a single supermesh, excluding the current source
during KVL but using an additional equation to account for the
current source.
• A Supernode is formed when a voltage source connects two non-
reference nodes. The two nodes and the voltage source are treated
as a supernode, applying KCL to the supernode and using the
voltage source equation as an additional constraint.