31

M.A. GEOGRAPHY
SEMESTER III (CBCS)

GEOGRAPHY PAPER -

301

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
IN
GEOGRAPHY
SUBJECT CODE:99050
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© UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Prof. Suhas Pednekar
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Prof. Ravindra D. Kulkarni Prof. Prakash Mahanwar

Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director,
University of Mumbai, IDOL, University of Mumbai,

Programme Co-
ordinator : Dr. Santosh Rathod
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Assistant Professor,
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Course Writer : Dr. Samruddhi Chawan
Assistant Professor,
ICELS Motilal Jhunjhunwala College,
Navi Mumbai
: [Link] Dasgupta
Assistant Professor,
TISS, Mumbai
: Dr. Moushumi Datta
Prof.& Principal,
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 : Dr. Pallavi Ajit Chande
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August 2022, Print - 1

CONTENTS

Unit No. Title Page No.

1. Introduction To Research Methodology 01

2. Research Hypothesis And Sampling 22
3. Nature And Analysis Of Geographical Data 36
4. Scientific Report Writing 64


 MA Geography
Semester III
Paper 301: Research Methodology in Geography
No. of Credits: 6 Teaching Hours 60 + Notional Hours 60=
Total hours 120
1. Introduction to Research Methodology (15 Contact Hours)
1.1. Defining research- Methods of research types, significance
of geographical research, research ethics
1.2. Scientific method in geographical studies, inductive and
deductive, basic elements and attributes, Scale of research:
Macro, Meso, Micro Problem formulation and
identification.
1.3. Review of Literature: Significance and sources of literature
review
1.4. Research Design :meaning, stages, characteristics and
significance of research design
2. Research Hypothesis and Sampling (15 Contact Hours)
2.1. Meaning of Hypothesis, relevance and types of hypothesis
2.2. Identification of problem and hypothesis: Problem
identification, statement of hypothesis, testing of
hypothesis, generalization
2.3. .Sampling: Meaning and importance, types of sampling
2.4. Selection of sample and size of sample
3. Nature and Analysis of Geographical Data (15 Contact Hours)

3.1. Nature and type of Geographical data, significance of

spatial and temporal data in geographical studies
3.2. Levels of measurements: Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio and
Interval
3.3. Methods and sources of geographical
data collection: conventional and modern;
limitations of secondary data and need for data generation,
collection of primary data: questionnaires and schedules,
field work, sample surveys and their significance

I
 3.4. Geographic Data analysis: Qualitative, Quantitative and
Advanced techniques of geographic data processing and
analysis, geographical matrix and its significance in
analysis of Geography data

4. Scientific Report Writing (15Contact Hours)

4.1. Introduction- aim and objectives, data and methodology
4.2. Data analysis, result, conclusion
4.3. Referencing system, weblography and bibliography.
4.4. Plagiarism, design, concept of impact factor, citation, DOI

References:

1) .Karlekar Shrikant and Kale Mohan (2005): Statistical analysis of

Geographical data, Dimond publication
2) Burt, J.E. and Barber, G.M.(1996): Elementary statistics for
Geographers, The Guilford press, New York.
3) Clark, W.A.V. and Hosking, P.C(1986): Statistical Methods for
Geographers, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
4) Dickinson, G.C.(1977): Statistical Mapping and presentation of
statistics, Edward Arnold limited London.
5) Ebdon David (1989): Statistical for Geographers
6) Geoge Joseph (2003): Fundamental of Remote
Sensing,
Universities Press, Hyderabad.
7) Gregory, S.(1963) : Statistical Methods and Geographer
Longman Group Ltd; London
8) Kanetkar T. P. &Kulkarni S.V. (1986):. Surveying & leveling,
Vidyarthi Griha Prakshan, Pune

9) Keates, J.S.(1973) : Cartographic design and production 2 ndEdn;.

Longman group Limited, London.

10) Keates, J.S.(1996) : Understanding Maps, 2 ndEdn; Longman group

limited, London.
11) King, (1975): Statistical Geography
II
12) Maling .H. (1973) : Co ordinates systems and map projections,
George Philip, London.
13) Maslov A. [Link] A. V. Batrakov Yu. G. (1984) : Geodetic
surveying, Mir Publishers, Moscow
14) Monmonier, Mark S.(1982): Computer Assisted Cartography:
Principals & prospects, Pprentice Hall, Inc, London.
15) Norcliff, G.B.(1982) Inferential Statistics for Geographers
Hutchinson, London.

16) Norcliffe G. B. (1977): Inferential statistics for Geographers

(Hutchinson, London)
17) P. A. Burrough and R.A. McDonnell (2000): Principle of
Geographical Information System, Oxford
18) Richardus P., Adler Ron K (1972) : Map projections, North Holland
publ. Co. Amsterdam
19) Robinson, [Link] al.(1985): Elements of Cartography, [Link], John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
20) Rogerson P. A. (2001): Statistics for Geography (SAGE pub.,
London, New Delhi} 21) Shaw G and Wheller D. (1985): Statistical
techniques in geographical analysis. John Wiley and sons,
22) Singh & Kanauja : Map work and Practical Geography.
23) Sumner G J (1978): Mathematics for physical geographers. Edward
Arnols
24) Taylor, P.J.(1977): Quantitative Methods in Geography. Houghton
Mifflim Company, Boston University Press.
25) V. Natarajan P., Adler Ron K:. Advanced Surveying, B. 1 Publ.
Bombay
26) Watson, G. and McGraw, D.(1980): Statistical Inquiry, John Wiley
and sons, New York.
27) Yeates, M. (1974). An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis in
Human Geography, McGraw Hill, New York.
28) Hammerton, M.(1975) Statistics for Human Sciences, Longman
Group Ltd, Barlow.

III
29) Jones, Christopher (1997): Geographical Information System and
computer Cartography, Addison Wesley Longman Limited,
England.
30) Wicox, R.R.(2003) : Applying Contemporary Statistical Techniques
Academic press, Amsterdam.
31) Wilsons, A.G. &Bennet, R.J.(1985): Mathematical Methods In
Human Geography And Planning, John Wiley & Sons, New York.



IV
 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the following
features Unit Structure
1.1. Objectives
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Subject Discussion
1.4. Defining research- Methods of research types, significance of geographical research,
research ethics.
1.5. Scientific method in geographical studies, inductive and deductive, basic elements and
attributes.
1.6. Scale of research: Macro, Meso, Micro; Problem formulation and identification.
1.7. Review of Literature: Significance and sources of literature review
1.8. Research Design: meaning, stages, characteristics and significance of research design
1.9. Summary
1.10. Check Your Progress or Exercise
1.11. Answers to the Self-learning questions
1.12. Technical Words and their meaning
1.13. Task
1.14. References for further study

1.1. OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this unit, you will be able to –

● Understand the meaning of research, methods of research types, significance of
geographical research and ethics of research.
● Scientific method in geographical studies, inductive and deductive, basic elements and
attributes of scientific research.

1
● Scale of research: Macro, Meso, Micro levels- Problem formulation and identification.
● Review of Literature: Significance of literature review and sources of literature review
● Research Design: Its meaning, stages of research design, characteristics and
significance of research design

1.2. INTRODUCTION

The subject of Geography is unique as it encompasses various branches such

as the physical science (includes Geomorphology, Climatology,
Oceanography, Bio-diversity), human geography (includes demography,
cultural geography, economic and commercial geography, transport
geography, regional planning, political geography, industrial geography,
tourism geography), interdisciplinary (includes geo-physics, geo-
chemistry, environmental geography) and applied geography
(quantification, cartography, GPS and GIS). Each of the specialized branch of
geography adopts a scientific method in its quest to bring out contemporary
issues and find relevant solutions crucial for achieving desired results. This
chapter explains the research frontiers in geography, methods and types of
geographical research and significance in undertaking geographical research.

1.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION:

Geographical studies are distinct from any other disciplines as it emphasizes

on spatial aspects at a particular time period or over a time period. It deals
with locational and regional attributes and their spatial relations which shape
the earth's surface. Geography analyses the physical, socio-cultural,
economic, political landscape and the relationships between places over the
period of time. It thus seeks to examine the relationship between the earth
and its people through the study of place, space and environment- asking
questions of where, what and also why and how? Geographical investigations
also examine regional differences, patterns and interrelationship so as to get a
better understanding of both the physical and human world by analyzing the
spatial form and patterns of distribution and interactions. Of late with digital
revolution and application of GIS, the modern simulations models help
predict the future spatial changes that may occur with reference to any aspect
under study. This geographical research studies therefore helps to provide
appropriate policies and planning measures for implementation and smooth
functioning of the environment and the society.
Research Methodology in geography has witnessed drastic changes over the
past century as much of the geographical concerns ranged over
contemporary physical and human space and into their past arrangements, for
which the methods adopted became progressively more quantitative. (Gomez
& JonesIII, 2010). With advanced technologies and theoretical perspectives
2
of the latter decades of the twentieth century, the geographical inquiry and
methods of data collection and analysis helped to expand its research scope
with regards to object / subject studied. At the same time, they also raised
concern about the criteria, norms, and values for human action and conduct
(ethics); how we position ourselves and are positioned by others
(positionality); and the relationship we, as researchers, have with the world
(reflexivity) (Gomez & JonesIII, 2010). The physical branches of
geographical research have undergone tremendous improvements with the
availability of satellite observed data since 1970’s. Simultaneous
developments took place in human geography with the use of spatial data
analysis through quantitative methods and scientific approach in an attempt
to explain the past and prevailing outcomes of the human societies with their
landscapes. Some of the significant approaches which emerged since 1970’s
are those of humanistic, Marxist, feminist, and poststructuralist geography.

1.4. DEFINING RESEARCH- METHODS OF RESEARCH

TYPES, SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH, RESEARCH ETHICS:

This provides an insight into the basics of research and its significance from geographical
perspective.
1.4.1. Defining research: The word research (1570) refers to "act of searching closely" for a specifi
person or thing, the word being derived from 1530s Modern French recerche( back-formation from Ol
French recercher) meaning to "seek out, search closely" . The word research was first brought in use in
1577.4 Research may be defined as “A systematic investigation, including development, testing, an
evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge”. 1It thus involve
“investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision o
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revise
theories or laws”(Merriam Webster Dictionary). In simple words research is a scientific and systemati
study of ground facts that are compiled, analysed and evaluated with findings and conclusions that provide
knowledge of the existing conditions and suggests remedial measures for any issues if existing or projecte
to achieve the larger goal which may be driven by ecological, economic or societal concerns. Research i
thus a continuous process that studies the phenomena over a period of time and notices the changes o
issues that may have resulted with reasoning and feasible solutions. Any geographical research involve
field observation, recording of the observed facts with appropriate units of measurements, and analyzin
the compiled data with appropriate techniques, findings, conclusions and disseminating this researc
information to others for use and further research.
Formulation of research methodology can be undertaken with the help of answering a
series of questions, the most basic of which include the following: (2010, Gomez and
Jones) :

 What objects or events should I select to analyze?

 How should I theorize their domain of operation?
 How should I theorize their relationships to other objects and events?
3
 What research questions are appropriate for explaining or understanding them?
 How should I collect data for answering those questions?
 What procedures should be used to analyze that data?
 What safeguards should I rely upon to ensure the validity and reliability of my
account?
 How are my findings influenced by the “theoretical priors ” I brought to the research?
 What is the purpose of the research (e.g., the production of scientific knowledge,
saving the Earth, transforming society, something else)?
 What ethical safeguards have been followed or need to be addressed?

1.4.2. Methods of research types: Research in geography can be broadly categorized

under following heads:
(a) Descriptive v/s Analyticalresearch: Descriptive research is carried out to study
such phenomena which requires fact-finding and its underlying explanations. Most of the
times Ex post facto research method is used for descriptive research studies. In this
method the researcher has no control over the variables; and only the events get reported
as they have occurred. Descriptive research generally precedes explanatory research and
thus focuses more on addressing the "what" question. Descriptive research thus
undertakesobserving, recording, describing, and classifying [Link] thus researches
the comparisons, correlation or deviations among the groups or any observed phenomena
with reference to certain attributes. It relies on qualitative analysis for data collection.
According to Creswell (2014) there are four basic types of collection processes: 1)
observations, 2) interviews, 3) documents, and 4) audio and visual materials. However it
needs careful observation, understanding and interpretation of the research objective and
data acquired undertaken for [Link] research however uses the facts,
information, data etc. which is already available and based on hypothesis evaluates the
subject of study and makes a critical evaluation.
(b) Empirical v/s Conceptual research: Empirical study is based on scientific
method that follows measuring the phenomena, analyzing it with appropriate
quantification techniques and arriving at findings and conclusions. It is data-based
research with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. It is based on quantification approach with focused objectives, a theoretical
approach, hypothesis testing and deductive reasoning. Whereas, Conceptual research is
that which is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It leads to the development of new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
(c) Applied v/s Fundamental research: Research can either be applied (or action)
research or fundamental (basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human
behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. (Kothari). Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a
4
solution for some pressing practical problem,whereas basic research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base ofapplications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
1.4.3. Significance of geographical research:
The fundamental inquiry that geographers seek to address involves answering the
questions of what, where, why and how. Thus constantly there is a search to find out about
the spatial aspects i.e. the locational attributes of phenomena; the areal arrangements and
the resulting spatial relationships of phenomena observed on the earth's [Link]
analysis takes into account information about the phenomena and place, thus constituting
a geographic fact. The meaning of this expression refers to a fact, which is an empirically
verifiable statement. Geographical research is significant as it provides a basis for
explaining the regional variations and accounts for spatial planning that is necessary to
strengthen the nation in terms of its strategic, demographic, social, economic growth and
[Link] thus deals with a wide range of subject matter, most of which
whether physically or environmental, or social, political, economic or cultural in construct,
have been studied in the purview of geographical research. Geography as a discipline
certainly has a vantage as it integrates the knowledge of physical and human sciences and
brings meaningful research with a holistic approach for sustainable development in
contemporary times. Following three broad subdivisions of geographical research
highlight the significance of the same.
a) Physical Geography which is a natural science and so is entirely scientific in
nature that can be measured, analyzed, correlated, and predicted with major findings. For
example Climatology and weather predictions; amount of precipitation and water
availability, type and amount of natural vegetation and associated biodiversity, type of
rocks and availability of mineral resources etc. Thus branches of geomorphology,
climatology, oceanography, natural resources, hydrology etc. all refer to the branches of
physical geography that are studied scientifically with measured facts, tests and results.
b) Human Geography: This geographical research study is basically focused on
human population. Various branches in this group are population geography, economic
geography, political geography, industrial geography, social geography, tourism
geography, cultural geography etc.
c) Applied Geography: Recently with new issues emerging in nature that are caused
because of human intervention special attention is needed. Therefore contemporary
geographical studies that are interdisciplinary in nature have emerged. These are
environmental geography, agricultural geography, regional planning, geography of
settlements, Welfare geography etc. This involves study of both physical and human
geography to mitigate any environmental issues such as global warming, pollution (air,
water, land and noise), ozone layer depletion, acidification, desertification, floods and
droughts, poverty, terrorism, diseases etc. This discipline therefore requires a coordination
of experts from the field, applied sciences (geo-physics, geo-chemistry, bio-geography)
cartography and regional planners.
1.4.4. Research Ethics: It is very much essential that the research outcome is without any
bias and based on ground reality. The findings, conclusions and suggestions should not
5
influence by any internal or external agencies that may fail to serve the very purpose of
welfare measures. Utmost care has to be taken to acquire authentic information and
suitable methods to get factual results. Errors need to be understood and avoided.
Manipulation of data or falsifying of research data should not have any place in research
study. Due credit needs to be mentioned to all those help or information is sought for
undertaking the research. The limitations faced, or failures be clearly mentioned so that it
becomes a guiding light for other researchers to take precautionary measures in such type
of researches to become successful. It is important to put-forth any negative aspects by
retaining dignity of any individual, community or society or nation as whole. Often
research studies are undertaken on a large scale where many research organizations and a
team of expertise from different specializations work together. It is therefore essential to
cooperate and coordinate wholeheartedly and selflessly in exchanging the resources,
knowledge and techniques to arrive at desired research outcomes fruitfully and happily.
Accountability, mutual respect, sharing of information, confidentiality, intellectual
property rights, copyright and patenting are some of the basic aspects of research ethics
that need due consideration by a researcher. Promoting truth and minimizing error should
be prime objective of research [Link] ethical concerns pertaining to research need
to be addressed at the beginning of the research work itself. An awareness related to the
current issues related to the research topic is essential as this will direct the flow of the
study and the research design. In physical geography, ethical issues can involvequestions
related to access to field sites, method of sample collection, potential impact of research
techniques on environment eg. pollution, etc. These choices influence what sort of
material we collect, how it can be analysed and used etc. The most common ethical
dilemmas in human geography focus around participation, consent, confidentiality/safe
guarding personal information and giving something back (Alderson, 1995; Valentine,
1999). This can determine what questions we can ask, where we make observations, who
we talk to, and where, when and in what order.

How to become an ethical geographer? (Adapted from Clifford [Link]..2010)

• Make sure your ‘moral imagination’ is active and engaged. Research always has
ethical concerns. It should be treated as a normal and inherent component of one’s
study. A researcher should routinely discuss their work and possibilities with
colleagues. It is important to recognize ethical issuesin context considering the potential
moral significance of one’s research actions and those of other people as we live in a
vast network of moral relationships. The meanings of particular behaviours and moral
positions may sometimes begiven or understood far from the places they might be
expected (Smith, 1998)and interpreted from different ethical standpoints. Make yourself
aware of (local) ethical practices (Mehlinger, 1986). Thus researcher should learn to
look for hidden value biases,moral logic and conflicting moral obligations.
• Develop your philosophical and analytical skills. What is ‘right’ or ‘good’? Onwhat
bases are those decisions made? Be prepared to think hard about difficultquestions. For
example, how can you evaluate prescriptive moral statementssuch as ‘endangered
species should (or should not) be protected’ or ‘researchshould (or should not) be
conducted with the consent of all participants’?

6
• Heighten your sense of moral obligation and personal responsibility. ‘Whyshould I be
moral?’ or ‘Why should I think about ethics?’ Embrace ethicalthought and action as an
element of yourprofessional and social identity as ageographer. Come to terms with the
idea that you need to act morally becauseit is the ‘right’ thing to do, not just because
someone is making you do it(Mehlinger, 1986).
• Expect – but do not passively accept – disagreement and ambiguity. Ethicalproblems
are almost inevitably associated with disagreements and [Link], do not
let that expectation of ambiguity and disagreement providejustification for abandoning
debate and critical thought. Learn to seek out thecore of differences to see if
disagreement might be reduced. Be committedenough to follow through on your own
decisions.

1.5. SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES,

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE, BASIC ELEMENTS AND
ATTRIBUTES:

Any research study is based on scientific principles that involve a systematic study.
Following discussion explains the concept.
1.51.1 Scientific method in Geographical Studies: Geography is a science based on
empirical observations and facts that explains the phenomena with reasoning provides
knowledge. The method involves a process based on logical structure that helps to seek
truthful facts. The geographical study is largely based on spatial distribution and location
of these attributes. Traditionally, geographical research has been explained as a sequence
of steps, or procedures (Haring and Lounsbury, 1983). These steps were based upon the
premise that geography was an essentially scientificactivity, that is, a subject identifying
research questions, testing hypothesesregarding possible causal relationships, and
presenting the results with some sortof more general (normative) statement or context. The
steps identified in this form of ‘scientific geographic research’ (Haring andLounsbury,
1983) are as follows:
• Formulation of the research problem – which means asking a question in a precise,
testable manner, and which requires consideration of the place andtime-scale of the
work.
• Definition of hypotheses – the generation of one or more assumptions whichare used as
the basis of investigation, and which are subsequently tested bythe research.
• Determination of the type of data to be collected – how much, in what manneris
sampling or measurement to be done.
• Collection of data – either primary from the field or archive, or secondary,from the
analysis of published materials.
• Analysis and processing of the data – selecting appropriate quantitative
andpresentational techniques.
• Stating conclusions – nowadays, this might also include the presentation offindings
verbally or in publication.
7
1.5.2 Inductive and Deductive method: In the historical times the subject of geography
was mainly descriptive giving qualitative aspects of the spatial distribution of the observed
phenomenon. However with advancement in science and technology, various
measurements techniques evolved. This facilitated testing with most accurate results and
scientific reasoning. Thus various aspects in geographical studies could be quantified,
tested, analysed with findings and conclusions as well as giving predictions. Revolution in
space technology that brought in huge global change through digital technology
Introduction of GPS, GIS and satellite imagery revolutionized the massive handling of
data with final results in short time enabling to produce a series of maps with temporal
changes. This facilitated geographical research on various scales from macro-meso to
micro level studies. Therefore inductive and deductive methods were applied in
geographical research by researchers.

a) Inductive approach refers to deriving a set of empirical evidences through

observations and theorizing them to a particular pattern. Inductive approach is thus said to
be bottom to top approach (Figure 1). Bottom refers to field experience, personal
observations, noting them, studying them minutely with similarities and differences to
arrive at conclusions. This conclusion is derived after the entire research study that forms
its top to formulate a theory. This is called as inductive [Link] [Link] instance, Dr
John Snow, the London anaesthetist used inductive methods to work out the cause of
cholera.
GIS-based analysis which uses spatially referenced secondary data, often operates from an
inductive and empirical standpoint – looking for patterns and possible relationships rather
than testing their theoretical existence (Clifford et al; 2010). Thus inductive approach
involves generation of understandings or theories from the data itself.

Identifying patterns and relations,

deducing theoretical models

Compilation of information, data, facts;

analysis,
studying facts, deriving reults

Empirical Evidence, filed survey, data

collection, observat
ion

Figure 1: Inductive approach: Bottom to Top

b) Deductive approach: refers to top-down approach. In this type a theory is already
adopted and a hypothesis is tested with the ground reality by collecting and analyzing

8
data. (Figure 2). The results obtained may prove to be true or deviate from the hypothesis.
These deviations provide with the facts that exist in reality where the theory and
hypothesis get modified. Thus deductive reasoning leads to necessary statements
embodied in theories.
Theoretical concept

Hypothesis formulation

Testing with ground facts-results

Figure 2: Deductive approach: Top to Bottom approach

1.5.3. Basic Elements and Attributes:

a) Basic elements of scientific method are based on theory and facts: Various
theories are formulated by scholars with certain assumptions. However these theories are
then tested with ground facts to test its reliability. If the theory gets proved it becomes a
fact. Facts are thus proved aspects that are definite and certain without any doubt of its
relevance. For example Wegner’s theory of continental drift, Davisian model of Cycle of
Erosion etc. Theories help to build science and science helps to provide predictions so as
to use the resources in the best possible manner. However these theories may change with
time processes to form new theories and scientific laws.
b) Basic attributes of geographical research mainly comprises of spatial distribution
studies. These are:
i) Locational aspects: this is with reference to absolute and relative location of any
place or a region. Absolute location is with reference to its latitudinal and longitudinal
extension that provides with the size of the place (total area and its climatic type as one
move from equatorial to polar region). While relative location with reference to its
surroundings i.e. its physiography and neighboring areas (whether the place has maritime
or continental or landlocked location).
ii) Physiography: Physiography refers to the Landforms of the place or region ,
whether it is mountainous, plateau or plain.
iii) Lithology: Type of rocks and minerals found in a region that provides a natural
resource base for economic activities and social development.
iii) Climate and Natural vegetation: is largely governed by its location,
physiography and Lithology. Temperature variations and type and amount of

9
precipitation in a region determines total amount of water availability, type of soil and
natural vegetation. This determines the size and variety of bio-diversity that may exist is
any place or region. Climate and natural vegetation are the most influential and
determining factors of human population size.
iv) Human activities: This encompasses a range of phenomenon that studies spatial
distribution and location of human population, changing demographic trends, ,migration
of population, spatial organization of economic activities in the world and country;
cultural interactions, Environment and society etc.
All these elements are mapped by geographers that provide spatial distribution of people,
places and their environments over period to bring out the temporal changes with visual
facts. Various processes of physical and human nature affecting the environment causing
natural hazards are best researched by geographers.

1.6. SCALE OF RESEARCH: MACRO, MESO, MICRO PROBLEM

FORMULATION AND IDENTIFICATION.

The aspect of Scale is one of the fundamental concept of geography. Selection of scale
determines the level of analysis in any research. The three general levels of analysis and
hence the scale of research may be described micro level, meso level or middle range, and
macro level, though these may not necessarily be mutually exclusive.
a) Micro level – is the smallest unit of analysis. These pertain to studying specific
target groups, the local attributes of a given region or a population in a particular context.
Such analysis is significant in bringing out the ground realities wherein generalizations
fail to explain the intricate patterns. Eg. Population distribution in a town or city,
residential segregation of ethnic groups,

b) Meso level – is the intermediate unit of analysis. As these fall between micro and
macro level, such analyses are specifically designed to reveal connections between the
two, for example rainfall distribution in a given state and its effect on cropping pattern,
etc.

c) Macro level –is the largest unit of analysis. This is undertaken to bring out the
resultant outcomes over larger geographical region from a country to global levels. For
example Research on climate change, impacts of globalization, nation-wide impact of
policies etc, levels of development, environmental degradation etc.
From its traditional approach in researching the observable phenomena on earths surface-
physical geographies, to its emerging interests in behavioural and humanistic geography,
the coverage and application of ‘scale’ has undergone considerable developments. Since
the 1960s, the research in human geographies has expanded into the symbolic realm of
words and images, Texts and visual data;ethnographic immersion andparticipant
observation; reflect the descriptive accounts of micro -scale actions (practices) and events.

10
(Gomez & JonesIII, 2010). Though the scale of research is certainly fundamental in
finalizing the entire research process and design, in recent years befitting the needs,
geographers have attempted to overcome their own institutionalized differences as either “
physical ” or “ human ” in order to gain a more comprehensivepicture of highly complex
phenomena such as climate change, environmental degradation,urban sprawl and epidemic
disease, none of which clearly fit into natural or social categories.(Gomez & JonesIII,
2010).

1.7. REVIEW OF LITERATURE: SIGNIFICANCE AND SOURCES OF

LITERATURE REVIEW

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/ litteratura "learning, a writing
grammar," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter". Literature
broadly is any collection of written work. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded
to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed. Literature is a method of
recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a
social, psychological, spiritual, or political role. (Wikipedia). The first records of review
come from around 1555. It ultimately comes from a combination of the Latin revidēre,
meaning “to see again.” It can be referred to as examining or considering again of
something in order to decide if changes are necessary. Essentially, it is a description of
work that has already been published in a particular field or on a specific topic.
1.7.1 Defining Literature Review:
 An organised written presentation of what has been published on a topic by the
scholars (Burns and Grove, 2005)
 An account of what has been published by accredited scholars and researchers
( Taylor, 2011)
 A literature review is an objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the
relevant available research and non-research literature on the topic being studied (Hart,
1998; Cronin, et al., 2008).
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A literature review is a
description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. It gives an overview of
what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and
hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what methods and methodologies are
appropriate and useful.
1.7.2. Significance of Literature Review:
A literature review is a mandatory process in any of academic writing. The key to good
qualitative time lined research work lies in thorough consideration of literature review of
the chosen topic. Literature review stages out the fundamentals of what all have been
achieved in the chosen area of study. It discusses published information in a particular
subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time
11
[Link] literature review seeks to describe, summarise, evaluate, clarify and/ or integrate
the content of primary reports (Cooper, 1988); itplays a major role in framing of new
concepts by expanding and diversifying the knowledge base by addressing the critique of
existingtheoretical applications. Thus it addresses new or emerging topics that would
benefit from a holistic conceptualization and synthesis of the [Link] goal is to bring
the reader up-to-date with current literature on a topic and form the basis for another goal,
such as the justification for future research in the area.
The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments
and ideas of others without adding new [Link] vast majority of literature
reviews serve as a section of a primary research article that provides the theoretical
foundation for the main study that is the subject of the article. In that capacity, Fink (2005)
describes multiple purposes for literature reviews. A literature review anchors the rest of a
scholarly article. It describes the content and quality of knowledge already available, and
readily presents the reader the significance of previous work (Okoli&Schabram, 2010).
Following points highlight the significance of Literature Review:
 Establishes the terms and context. How else will you define exactly what you’re
looking at and where its limits are?
 Presents a survey of preceding literature on the topic. How else will you know what’s
been done already?
 Explores ways that others have solved similar questions/problems. How else will you
select an appropriate methodology and approach?
 Outlines the relationship of these texts to each other. How else will you know what the
different perspectives and debates are, and where you are coming from?
 Evaluates the quality and relevance of the literature. How else will you be able to build
on or reject it?
 Establishes the gaps or inadequacies. How else will you justify your own contribution?
 Demonstrates your scholarly rigor. How else can I have faith in your conclusions?
1.7.3. Types of review of Literature: There are many types of literature review. The
choice of a specific type depends on your research approach and design.
a) Narrative literature review, also referred to as traditional literature review,
critiques literature and summarizes the body of a literature. Narrative review also draws
conclusions about the topic and identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge.
You need to have a sufficiently focused research question to conduct a narrative literature
review. A narrative or traditional literature review is a comprehensive, critical and
objective analysis of the current knowledge on a topic. They are an essential part of the
research process and help to establish a theoretical framework and focus or context for
your research. A literature review will help you to identify patterns and trends in the
literature so that you can identify gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge.

12
b) Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and welldefined approach
compared to most other types of literature review. Systematic literature review is
comprehensive and details the timeframe within which the literature was selected.
Systematic literature review can be divided into two categories: meta-analysis and meta-
synthesis.A systematic literature review (SLR) identifies, selects and critically appraises
research in order to answer a clearly formulated question (Dewey, A. & Drahota, A.
2016). The systematic review should follow a clearly defined protocol or plan where the
criteria is clearly stated before the review is conducted. It is a comprehensive, transparent
search conducted over multiple databases and grey literature that can be replicated and
reproduced by other researchers. It involves planning a well thought out search strategy
which has a specific focus or answers a defined question. The review identifies the type of
information searched, critiqued and reported within known timeframes. The search terms,
search strategies (including database names, platforms, dates of search) and limits all need
to be included in the review.
c) Scoping literature review, as implied by its name is used to identify the scope or
coverage of a body of literature on a given topic. It has been noted that “scoping reviews
are useful for examining emerging evidence when it is still unclear what other, more
specific questions can be posed and valuably addressed by a more precise systematic
review.”[1]
Scoping Reviews are gaining popularity in many disciplines as they serve the purpose of
identifying the existing literature on a specific research question. They also clarify
concepts in the literature and define gaps in knowledge. Unlike systematic reviews,
"...scoping reviews do not aim to produce a critically appraised and synthesised
result/answer to a particular question, [they] rather aim to provide an overview or map of
the evidence" (Munn et al., 2018).Scoping Reviews are "systematic-like" however, and
require a rigorous approach. They often include a protocol, the searching is systematic and
fairly exhaustive and methods are documented thoroughly.
d) Argumentative literature review, as the name implies, examines literature
selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or
philosophical problem already established in the literature. It should be noted that a
potential for bias is a major shortcoming associated with argumentative literature review.
e) Integrative literature review reviews, critiques, and synthesizes secondary data
about research topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on
the topic are generated. If your research does not involve primary data collection and data
analysis, then using integrative literature review will be your only option.
f) Theoretical literature review focuses on a pool of theory that has accumulated in
regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. Theoretical literature reviews play an
instrumental role in establishing what theories already exist, the relationships between
them, to what degree existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new
hypotheses to be tested.

13
1.7.4. Sources of Literature Review:
a) Books (monographs, text books, reference books) o
General. E.g. encyclopedia
o Specific e.g. handbook of physical geography o Textbooks o
Yearbooks o Reference books b) Journals
o Published Monthly, Quarterly, Half yearly or Annually c)
Newspaper articles
d) Historical records
e) Seminar reports
f) Reports – committees / commissions by govt.
g) Conference proceedings
h) Audio and Video recordings , films etc.
i) Commercial reports and statistical information
j) Government reports and statistical information
k) Theses and dissertations

1.7.5. Major sources of literature may be classified as :

a) PRIMARY SOURCES – refer to the original works written by a person or the

researcher themselves. Eg. Research articles, unpublished thesis and dissertation, personal
diary, hand written records etc.

b) SECONDARY SOURCES – refer to the documents or reports that are description

of studies information prepared or written by people other than those who develop the
theory or conduct the research. [Link], Newspapers, magazines [Link] sources
also include textbooks and review articles or Description or summary by somebody other
than the original researcher. These provide helpful in absence of primary information or
when earlier studies need to be considered.

c) TERTIARY SOURCES – are excellent sources as they provide general

background information which help to narrow or broaden the focus of a topic.
It is always more desirable to use primary sources whenever possible. Primary sources in
science are usually in the form of articles published in reputable journals. Generally,
journals are regarded as being more up-todate than books as sources of information
(Cronin, et al, 2008).
Electronic Sources – computer assisted literature search has expanded the scope of
literature review. Though the digital revolution has brought new dimensions to this
process however this needs to be used with caution it can be time consuming and
unrewarding in dearth of proper search strategy.
Meta search engines - A metasearch engine (or search aggregator) is an online
information retrieval tool that uses the data of a web search engine to produce its own
results. Metasearch engines take input from a user and immediately query search engines
for results. Sufficient data is gathered, ranked, and presented to the users.

14
Institutional Repositories - “A repository is a central place where data is stored and
mined. A repository can be a where multiple databases or files are located for distribution
over a network or a repository can be a location that is directly accessible to the user
without having to travel across a network” Wikipedia. An institutional repository is a web-
based database of scholarly material. The institutional repositories collects, stores,
disseminates digital resources and also preserves digital materials for long term usage.

1.8. RESEARCH DESIGN: MEANING, STAGES,

CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
DESIGN

● Research Design: A Research Design is basically organization of various steps in a

logical sequence by a researcher to suit research topic. In its broadest sense, research
design results from a series of decisions we make as researchers.
1.8.1. Stages in research design: The logical sequence required for any research study
from the beginning of a research study to its completion is as under:
i) Selection of the topic of research problem and providing the underlying facts to
explain the rationale and significance of this research. Once this is clear, the next step is
ii) Clearly setting up the objectives of research study that will throw light upon the
aspects under study.
iii) Setting up of time frame: Any research needs to be completed within a stipulated
time. Depending upon the subject under study, the scale of research area
(global/national/state/regional level) a calendar for each objective of research is to be
delimited with a time –frame. This helps to remain on track, a perfect direction to work
upon for completion of the research.
iv) The methods and methodology for collecting information, sources of information,
analytical techniques suited for the nature of data and the obtained results needs to be
interpreted on scientific lines. A geographer has to provide the findings with the help of
maps using appropriate cartographic techniques to give the spatial distribution of the
phenomena under study. Maps reveal the association and differentiation of the theme
depicted on a spatial scale at a glance which is not possible to grasp by viewing data.
v) Authenticity of research undertaken is to be supported by documentation, field
photographs, and other supporting evidences. This will help to gain the legitimacy of the
research findings.
vi) Well defined conclusion: a brief summary highlight the main findings, issues
identified is any, and probable solutions to solve the issues needs to be given for the
concerned research study.
vii) Scope of further research: Further scope of present research study is to be
provided.

15
1.8.2. Characteristics of research design: Any research study undertaken should have
the following characteristics:
i) Neutrality: a research needs to be based on fair grounds. The objectives are to be
clear and perfect. A research should abstain itself from any ambiguity or biased opinion.
Such neutral aspects when followed while undertaking any research study would yield real
facts to provide with best solutions to meet the purpose of the society and the nation.
ii) Reliability: The type of indicators selected and the database/ information collected
for such indicators in any research study should be collected from authentic sources. The
type of samples selected and the method of sampling should be representative. The
statistical techniques adopted for analyzing these data should be best suited so as to derive
the best results. This will help to achieve on the reliability of such research studies. The
sources used with due credit to the owners of the information needs to be mentioned in the
research. This will enable other researchers to get information on the sources from where
they can acquire the data.
iii) Validity: Validity of any research is best judged upon how well the objectives are
framed in the research, selection of indicators, sample size and type of sample, sampling
method, analytical techniques adopted and accuracy of the results obtained. When these
findings are found to be real on the grounds and the solutions it suggests works well, the
validity of the research automatically holds good.
iv) Generalization: Such type of research studies when holds truth, one arrives at
generalizations. That is under the given circumstances these are the facts that would be
found on the ground or in the economy or society etc. These generalizations help to
produce models and theories.
1.8.3. Significance of research design: Formulating a research design provides a well
planned time framework, with a set of objectives and methodology for drawing valid
conclusions. It facilitates smooth execution of research content with time-bound
completion of research study in efficient way. The results obtained are more accurate,
reliable,
1.9 Summary: By now you must have definitely understood the basic concepts required in
any type of research work to be conducted. Understanding the scale and objective of the
research to be undertake. Significance of literature review as a basis for any research to be
undertaken. Methodology of formulation of a research design suited to your research
study.

1.10. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS OR EXERCISE

I. True or False
a. Geographical studies are distinct from any other disciplines as it emphasizes on
spatial aspects.

16
 b. Research is not a continuous process.
c. Descriptive research is based on fact-finding and explaining those observations.
d. In deductive research the results obtained may prove to be true or deviate from the
hypothesis.
e. Empirical study is based on scientific method.
II. Fill in the blanks
i. __________ approach is thus said to be bottom to top approach.
(Deductive, Inductive, Analytical) ii. In _______ level scale of analysis the
research pertains to studying specific target groups.
(Macro, Micro, Meso) iii. __________ literature review is also referred to as
traditional literature review. (Narrative, Systematic, Scoping)
iv. A ______________ design is basically organization of various steps in a logical
sequence by a researcher to proceed with the study. (chapter, book. Research)
v. __________ of the research automatically holds good when findings confirm with
reality. ( Neutrality, Biasness, Validity) III. Multiple Choice Questions.
i. ____________ is a scientific and systematic study of ground facts
that are compiled, analysed and evaluated with findings and conclusions. a.
Research
b. Data collection
c. Data analysis
d. Discovery
ii. Ex post facto research method is used for _________ research studies.
a. Analytical
b. Descriptive
c. Applied
d. Fundamental
[Link], mutual respect, sharing of information,
confidentiality, intellectual property rights, copyright and patenting are some of the
basic aspects of research ___________ . a. Steps
b. Stages
c. Ethics
d. Philosophy
[Link] ____________ approach a theory is already adopted and a hypothesis is tested with
the ground reality by collecting and analyzing data.
a. Inductive
b. Deductive
c. Fundamental
d. Behavioural
v. A ____________ review is a description of work relevant to a particular field or topic
that has already been published. a. Critical
b. Analytical
c. Literature
d. Essay
17
 1.11 ANSWERS TO THE SELF-LEARNING QUESTIONS
I. True or False
i. True ii. False iii. True
iv. True
v. True
II. Fill in the blanks i. Inductive ii.
Micro iii. Narrative iv.
Research v. Validity
III. Multiple Choice Questions. i.
Research ii. Descriptive iii.
Ethics iv. Deductive v.
Literature

1.12 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING

i. Spatial – that which has a geographical location

ii. Research – scientific and systematic study of ground facts. iii. Empirical –
observation based that can be verified
iv. Conceptual - related to some abstract idea(s) or theory

1.13 TASK

i. Observe a social or environmental situation around you which requires improvement and
build a research design to develop solution for the same. ii. Carry out a literature review on
a topic of your interest. List down and prepare a chart of different sources for the same.

1.14 REFERNCES:

• Agarwal Chetan (2012) : Research Methodology in Geography; Common Wealth

Publishers, New Delhi.

18
• Sharma,Vijay (2014): Research Methodology in Geography; Common Wealth
Publishers ,New Delhi.

• Murthy,[Link](2014) :Research Methodology in

Geography; Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

• Azad, Ismael (2015): Research Methodology in Geography; Omsons Publications,

New Delhi 2015.

• Misra, Singh (2002): Research Methodology in Geography :Social, Spatial and Policy
Dimensions ; Rawat Publications, New Delhi.

• Garg Sunil (2017): Quantitative Techniques and Research Methods in Geography;

Random Publications, New Delhi.

• Mahmood Aslam(1998): Statistical Methods in Geographical Studies

; Rajesh Publications, New Delhi,) [Link] (1)

• Kallet, Richard H. (2004): "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper."
Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

• Zadrozny, J.; McClure, C.; Lee, J.; Jo, I. (2016). Designs, Techniques, and
Reporting Strategies in Geography Education: A Review of Research Methods.
RIGEO, 6 (3), 216-233. Retrieved from http:// www. [Link] /vol6no3 /
Number3winter/RIGEO-V6-N3-
[Link]

• Prof. Subhasis Das : Research in Geography: Meaning, types and significance :

[Link] [Link]
• Designs, Techniques, and Reporting Strategies in Geography Education: A Review of
Research Methods
[Link]

• Dr. NasimAktar : SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY

[Link]
/P001784/M027059/ET/1517544675ScientificMethodsinGeography% [Link] 
Research Design
[Link]
Geographic-Information-defined-bySinton_fig2_225157520
[Link]

• Handbook of Research Methodology: A Compendium for Scholars & Researchers

19
[Link]
logy/O54wDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=research+methodology+in+
+geography+pdf&printsec=frontcover

1.15 BIBLIOGRAPHY :

• Misra, Singh (2002) : Research Methodology in Geography

:Social,Spatial and Policy Dimensions ( Rawat Publications, New Delhi,2002)

• Basil Gomez and John Paul Jones III.p. cm. (2010): Research methods in geography,
(Critical introductions to geography), Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

• C. R. Kothari( 2004): Research Methodology Methods and Techniques, New Age

International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi.

• Nicholas Clifford, Shaun French and Gill Valentine (ed) (2010): Key Methods in
Geography : SAGE Publications Ltd. [Link]
%20methods%20in%20geo [Link]



20
2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND SAMPLING
Unit Structure
2.1. Objectives
2.2. Introduction
2.3. Subject Discussion
2.4. Meaning of Hypothesis, relevance and types of hypothesis
2.5. Identification of problem and hypothesis: Problem identification, statement of
hypothesis, testing of hypothesis, generalization
2.6. Sampling: Meaning and importance, types of sampling
2.7. Selection of sample and size of sample
2.8. Summary
2.9. Check your Progress/ Exercise
2.11. Technical words and their meaning
2.12. Task
2.13. References for further study

2.1. OBJECTIVES

• To understand the meaning and types of hypothesis

• To learn to formulate a research problem
• To grasp the techniques of sampling and sample selection

2.2. INTRODUCTION

Research is the cornerstone of science. It is a systematic process through which

new discoveries are made and new answers are provided to some fundamental
questions. In all field of activities, there are several problems which exist making
research and development an integral part of it. The solutions to the problems can
be sought for only after an effective research problem is identified and related
questions are enumerated. A researcher needs to raise questions which could be
his/her assumptions laid in the form of statements. Such statements are called
hypothesis which helps the researcher to get a direction for hisresearch.
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

22

2.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION

Research is integral to every field. There needs to be a systematic method adopted for research. The
present chapter explains the initial stages of a research. Problem identification is the first step of
research, in fact, the need of research arises only when there is a problem. The problems are then
converted to research questions which are framed as hypothesis statements and tested for their
validity. This makes the research very strong and reliable.

2.4. MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS, RELEVANCE AND TYPES OF

HYPOTHESES

2.4.1. Meaning of Hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a logical prediction of occurrences without empirical confirmation or evidence. In
scientific terms, it is a tentative theory or testable statement about the relationship between two or
more variables i.e. independent and dependent variable. A hypothesis is an assumption that is made
based on some evidence. This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research
questions into predictions. It includes components like variables, population and the relation
between the variables.
[Link]. Characteristics of Hypothesis:
Following are the characteristics of hypothesis:
 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the relationship between
variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple.
2.4.2. Relevance of Hypothesis
 It ensures the entire research methodologies are scientific and valid.
 It helps to assume the probability of research failure and progress.
 It helps to provide link to the underlying theory and specific research question.
 It helps in data analysis and measure the validity and reliability of the research.
 It provides a basis or evidence to prove the validity of the research.
 It helps to describe research study in concrete terms rather than theoretical terms.

2.4.3. Types of Hypothesis:

22
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

1. Simple Hypothesis: A Simple hypothesis is also known as composite hypothesis. It simply

predicts relationship between two variables i.e.
the dependent and the independent variable

2. Complex Hypothesis: A Complex hypothesis examines relationship between two or more

independent variables and two or more dependent variables.

3. Working or Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction about

the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on specific factors of the population.

4. Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a general statement which states no relationship between
two variables or two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H0.

5. Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative hypothesis is a statement which states some statistical

significance between two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H1 or HA.

6. Logical Hypothesis: A logical hypothesis is a planned explanation holding limited evidence.

7. Statistical Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, is

an assumption about a population parameter.
Although there are different types of hypotheses, the most commonly used hypothesis are null
hypothesis and alternate hypothesis.
Table 01
Major Differences between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis

A null hypothesis represents An alternative hypothesis is the

the hypothesis that there is “no opposite of the null hypothesis
relationship” or “no where we can find some statistical
association” or “no difference” importance or relationship between
between two variables. two variables.

In case of null hypothesis,

researcher tries to invalidate or In an alternative hypothesis, the
reject the hypothesis. researcher wants to show or prove
some relationship between variables.

It is an assumption that
specifies a possible truth to an It is an assumption that describes an
event where there is absence alternative truth where there is some
of an effect. effect or some difference.

23
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

Null hypothesis is a statement Alternative hypothesis is a statement

that signifies no change, no that signifies some change, some
effect and no any differences effect and some differences between
between variables. variables.

If null hypothesis is true, any If alternative hypothesis is true, the

discrepancy between observed observed discrepancy between the
data and the hypothesis is only observed data and the null
due to chance. hypothesis is not due to chance.

A null hypothesis is denoted as An alternative hypothesis is denoted

H0. as H1 or HA.

Example of an alternative
Example of null hypothesis: hypothesis:
There is no association There is no association between
between use of oral use of oral contraceptive and blood
contraceptive and blood cancer cancer HA: µ ≠ 0
H0: µ = 0

2.5. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS: PROBLEM

IDENTIFICATION, STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS, TESTING OF
HYPOTHESIS, GENERALIZATION

2.5.1. Problem identification

The problem is the most basic and fundamental part ofthe researchprocess without which there is no
point to research. Discovering problems meansseeing what other people have seen, but thinking
whatno one else has thought.
In this process, certain questions come first:
 Why can’t we afford to do more than this?
 Why do we continue to do certain things in ‘certain ways’ rather than in ‘certain other ways’?
 What will happen if a particular phenomenon occurs in certain other contexts?
 Why is A, a product of B, and B a product of C, but C seems to show no connections with A?
These are some of the questions that usually lead to identifying and formulating research problem.
Hence, what are found at the beginning of all inquiries are merely problems! “Research problem”
emanates from researchers’ clear intent to reveal anunclear area of interest or subject matter on
which previous researchers have been deficient and which provokes necessity for the conduct of
new research work. “Research problems” indicate gaps in the scope of our knowledge. Such gap (or
vague area of interest or missing or omitted point of concern) may result from whether there had

24
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

been noresearch ever conductedon them or whether there were some elements of shortage or
loopholes noted or observed in the previous researches.
[Link]. Identifying a research problem
Identifying a research problem is the first step and stating it in a form agreeable to research is
second. Hence a “research problem” is different from “problem statement”.
A problem statement or statement of the problem, as it is also called, is an “expressed” problem and
focal point of any research endeavour.
While a research problem is the gap or loopholes identified by the researcher.
Any problem area or untouched aspect which may be the focal area of the research being conducted
is the research problem. To identify the research problem, the researcher needs to study the existing
literature, understand the area of study and its problems with its demographic structure and jot down
all the loopholes in the already existing structure. Thus, problem is identified.
2.5.2. Statement of hypothesis
As a research hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what is expected to happen in a
study, one may consider drawing hypothesis from previously published research based on the
theory.
A good research hypothesis involves more efforts than just a guess. In particular, the hypothesis may
begin with a question which could be further explored through background research.
Following questions need to be considered while formulating hypothesis:
 Is the language clear and focused?
 What is the relationship between the hypothesis and the research topic?
 Is the hypothesis testable? If yes, then how?
 What are the possible explanations that one might want to explore?
 Does the hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
 Can one manipulate the variables without hampering the ethical standards?

[Link]. How to Formulate an Effective Research Hypothesis

A testable hypothesis is not a simple statement. It is rather acomplicated statement that needs to
offer a clear introduction to a scientific experiment, its intentions, and the possible outcomes.
However, there are some important things to consider when building a compelling hypothesis.
 State the problem that you are trying to solve. Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the
topic and the focus of the experiment.
 Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then statement.
 Define the variables:
25
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

o Independent variables are the ones which are manipulated, controlled, or changed. Independent
variables are isolated from other factors of the study.
o Dependent variables, as name suggests are dependent on other factors of the study. They are
influenced by the change in independent variable.
2.5.3. Testing of hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating the ideas about the world using statistics.
It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses that arise from
theories.
There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:
 State your research hypothesis as a null hypothesis (Ho) and alternate hypothesis (Ha or H1).

After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it is
important to restate it as a null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis so that you can test it
mathematically.
Example:
Ho= There is no relationship between altitude and temperature
Ha= There is a relationship between altitude and temperature  Collect data in a way
designed to test the hypothesis.
For a statistical test to be valid, it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that is
designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make statistical
inferences about the population you are interested in.
 Perform an appropriate statistical test.

There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of within-
group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group variance (how
different the categories are from one another).
If the between-group variance is large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups, then
your statistical test will reflect that by showing a low p-value. This means it is unlikely that the
differences between these groups came about by chance.
Alternatively, if there is high within-group variance and low betweengroup variance, then your
statistical test will reflect that with a high pvalue. This means it is likely that any difference you
measure between groups is due to chance.
Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of data you collected.
 Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.

26
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or fail to
reject your null hypothesis.
In most cases you will use the p-value generated by your statistical test to guide your decision. And
in most cases, your predetermined level of significance for rejecting the null hypothesis will be 0.05
– that is, when there is a less than 5% chance that you would see these results if the null hypothesis
were true.
In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%). This
minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis (Type I error).
 Present the findings in your results and discussion section.
The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your
research paper.
In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of
your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p-
value). In the discussion, you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your
results or not.
In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null
hypothesis. You will probably be asked to do this in your statistics assignments.
If we reject the null hypothesis based on our research (i.e., we find that it is unlikely that the pattern
arose by chance), then we can say our test lends support to our hypothesis. But if the pattern does
not pass our decision rule, meaning that it could have arisen by chance, then we say the test is
inconsistent with our hypothesis.
2.5.4. Generalization
Generalization is an essential component of the wider scientific process. In an ideal world, to test a
hypothesis, you would sample an entire population. It is what allows researchers to take what they
have learnt on a small scale and relate it to the bigger picture.

2.6. SAMPLING: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE,

TYPES OF SAMPLING

2.6.1. Meaning and importance of sampling

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology
used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis
being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or systematic
sampling.

27
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

Sampling is a process, which allows us to study a small group of peoplefrom

the large group to derive inferences that are likely to be applicable toall the
people of the large [Link] it is not feasible to study a whole group.
For example, socialwork researchers might be interested in studying the
problems of the mentally challenged children, mentally ill, prison inmates,
street children or some otherlarge group of people. It would be difficult
rather impossible to study allmembers of these groups. That is the reason the
researcher selects a sample(small group) of mentally challenged children and
collects data for his study. 2.6.2. Types of sampling

Sampling research is of two types – probability sampling and nonprobability sampling.

 Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a
selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an
equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.

 Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for

research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes
it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
[Link]. Types of probability sampling with examples:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger
population using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers
every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.
28
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being
selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all
members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in
saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of
obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by
chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample. For
example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of
the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included
in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple
for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback. For example, if the United
States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can
divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado,
Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized
into states and provide insightful immigration data.

 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the
sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for
the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method
has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least timeconsuming. For example,
a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she
numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a
part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the

researcher divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group
separately. For example, a researcher looking to analyse the characteristics of people belonging to
different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income.
E.g. – less than Rs. 20,000, Rs. 21,000 – Rs. 30,000, Rs. 31,000 to Rs. 40,000, Rs. 41,000 to Rs.
50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to
different income groups. Marketers can analyse which income groups to target and which ones to
eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
[Link]. Types of non-probability sampling with examples
Non-probability sampling (sometimes nonprobability sampling) is a branch of sample selection that
uses non-random ways to select a group of people to participate in research.

29
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

There are four types of non-probability sampling:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects.
Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on
proximity and not representativeness. This nonprobability sampling method is used when there are
time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations
such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is [Link] example, startups and NGOs
usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or
promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets
randomly.

 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the

choice of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought
process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be:
“Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” are excluded
from the sample.

 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when
the subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless
people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few
categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in
situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to
gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still,
researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in
touch with the victims and collect information.

 Quota sampling: The selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a
pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample
will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.

2.7. SELECTION OF SAMPLE AND SIZE OF SAMPLE

It is not possible to study or survey the universe i.e., the entire population. Hence, it is important to
take a sample which is a logical and appropriate representation of the universe. Although there are
several ways of sampling as seen above, one has to be clear on the number of samples from the
universe.
Generally, for social studies, 10% of the universe is to be considered as an ideal sample. That
means, if the total population is 1000 people, then 10% of 1000 i.e., 100 people must be considered
as the sample size. Selection of 100 people will be based on the methods of sampling, but, the size is
to be determined before beginning the process of selection.

30
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

2.8. SUMMARY

Hypothesis is a logical prediction of occurrences without empirical confirmation or evidence. There

are several types of hypotheses. The researcher needs to choose the hypothesis wisely as it gives a
starting point to any research. Hence, hypothesis is very important. However the very first step is to
identify a research problem based on the prevailing conditions. The researcher then lays down the
statements of hypothesis, collects the data and tests the statements to either accept or reject the ‘null
hypotheses. To collect the data appropriately, one must have thorough knowledge of sampling
process, its types and the accurate size of the sample. There is a basket of choices which the
researcher can choose from depending upon the research theme.

2.9. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE

I. True or False
a. A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence.
b. A statistical hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, is an assumption about a
population parameter.
c. The problem is the most basic and fundamental part of the research process without
which there is no point to research.
d. A good research hypothesis involves more efforts than just a guess.
e. In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null
hypothesis.
II. Fill in the blanks
a. A ___________ hypothesis examines relationship between two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables.
(simple, complex, alternative, statistical)
b. ___________ is usually denoted by H1 or HA.
(simple, complex, alternative, statistical)
c. ____________ sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters that represent a population
(simple random, cluster, systematic, stratified random)
d. ____________ sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into
smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population.
(simple random, cluster, systematic, stratified random)

31
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

e. One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the
__________________ sampling method
(simple random, cluster, systematic, stratified random) III. Multiple Choice
Questions.
a. This is a branch of sample selection that uses non-random ways to select a group of people to
participate in research.
1. Probability sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling
b. This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall
or passers-by on a busy street.
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgmental or purposive sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling
c. In this sampling, samples are formed by the choice of the researcher.
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgmental or purposive sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling
d. This sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to trace
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgmental or purposive sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling
e. The selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set standard
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgmental or purposive sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling

2.10. ANSWERS TO THE SELF-LEARNING QUESTIONS

Ia. True
Ib. True
Ic. True
Id. True
32
 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

Ie. True
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] random
[Link] random
IIIa. Probability sampling
IIIb. Convenience sampling
IIIc. Judgmental or purposive sampling
IIId. Snowball sampling
IIIe. Quota sampling

2.11. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING

• Research:the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions.

• Statistician:Statistics isthe practice or science of collecting and analysing numerical data in

large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a
representative sampleand theone versed in or engaged in compiling statistics.

2.12. TASK

Frame some sample hypotheses and try testing with sample data

2.13. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

• Burdess, N. (2010). Starting Statistics: A Short, Clear Guide. United Kingdom: SAGE
Publications.
• Handbook of Research Methodology: A Compendium for Scholars & Researchers. (n.d.).
(n.p.): Educreation Publishing.
• Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and
Techniques. India: New Age International (P) Limited.
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 Research Hypothesis and
Sampling

• Lavrakas, P. J. (2008). Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. United States: SAGE

Publications.
• Research Methodology. (2009). India: Excel Books.
• Rogerson, P. A. (2019). Statistical Methods for Geography: A Student’s
Guide. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.





34
3 NATURE AND ANALYSIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL
DATA
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following features Unit Structure
3.1. Objectives
3.2. Introduction
3.3. Subject Discussion
3.4. Nature and type of Geographical data
3.5. Levels of measurements: Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio, and Interval
3.6. Limitations of secondary data and need for data generation
3.7. Collection of primary data - questionnaires and schedules, fieldwork,
sample surveys, and their significance
3.8. Advanced techniques of geographic data processing and analysis
3.9. Geographical matrix and its significance in the analysis of Geography
data
3.10. Summary
3.11. Check Your Progress or Exercise
3.12. Answers to the Self-learning questions
3.13. Technical Words and their meaning
3.14. Task
3.15. References for further study

3.1. OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you will be able to –

• Understand the nature of geographical data and its levels of

measurement.
• Know about source and method of collection of geographical data from
conventional to modern.
• Get an overview of secondary and primary data and the tools used to
collect them.
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

• Explain the different geographical data analysis techniques.

36

3.2. INTRODUCTION

Geography studies diverse places, environments, people, and spaces on the earth's surface and
interactions. The subject often seeks to answer 'why' things are as they are and 'where' they
are. Thus, geography is often the study of the locational and spatial variation in physical and
human phenomena on the earth's surface. This chapter will focus on how data are related to
geographic spaces and measured. It will further discuss the transition of geographical data
collection. We shall learn the types of data and the tools to collect them. Lastly, the chapter
will discuss the different techniques for analyzing geographical data.

3.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION

Geography has an extensive base of functionality as it plays an important role in the physic-
human development of a region. The quantitative revolution during the 1950-the 60s
emphasized the problem of 'why man lives as he does' rather than 'how he lives. The four
factors that majorly promoted this approach are – the availability of geographical data, the
pace of change in geographical phenomena, technological changes in handling information,
and belief in the use of science. After this paradigm shift, geographers discussed spatial
analysis, concepts, laws, models, statistical techniques, and parameters. The digital revolution
in geography soon took this over. GIS, remote sensing and image processing software
(MapInfo, ArcGIS, SPSS, ATLAS, Map Maker, etc.) replaced manual creations.
The new-look of geography emphasized that a single unified approach cannot be made
through geographical analysis, interpretation, or scientific explanation. Instead, it comprises
alternative routes. One of them is the 'top-down' or deductive approach that involves
beginning with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and
analyzing data to test those hypotheses.
Deductive Approach

Source: [Link]

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 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

The other approach is the 'bottom-up' or inductive approach, which involves beginning with a
set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing
those [Link] inductive and deductive research methods can be employed together for a
complete understanding of the topic that a researcher is studying.

Inductive Approach

Statistical analysis in geography is distinctive as it often concerns spatial or geographical data.

Hence, the processing of geographical data involves applying suitable statistical techniques.
This chapter will deal with everything from nature to the type of analysis concerning
geographical data

3.4. NATURE AND TYPE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DATA

The term 'geographical data,' conveys two meanings – "the earth" implies that all the data,
including human activities, is pertinent to the earth's features and resources; and "the
geographic space" means the commonality of both the data and the problems concerning
location, distribution, pattern, etc. Geographic space refers to facts and figures relating to
places, people, events, things, and concepts usually represented in four fundamental forms:
numerical values, alpha-numerical characters, symbols, signs, and signals.
Geographical data records locations and characteristics of features on the earth's surface.
Locations take into consideration both absolute and relative location. The location-based data
and location-based information mostly havean absolute location. When we get facts about
locations, it becomes geographical data. When the location is related to space, it becomes a
spatial location. Spatial relationship in geographical terms shows the location-wise
distribution of factors. The geographical regions are distributed and have different
characteristics, causing spatial differentiation. Geographical data needs to be scientifically
visualized for appropriate cartographic communication as it contains vast geographical
information, unlike ordinary data. Therefore, geographical data is essentially scaled spatial
data used for logical decision-making.
Geographical data is found in 4 primary forms –
1. Document Form Data in document form refers to qualitative information written as a
text.
2. Numeric Form Here, data is organized systematically in tables for analysis.

37
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

3. Graphical Form  Data represented through graphs and diagrams. Remotely sensed data,
such as aerial photographs and satellite images, consists of a 2D array of discrete pixels or
grid cells ordered in rows and columns.
4. Digital Form Data in digital form are stored, managed, manipulated, and analyzed in
three basic models – raster, vector, and surface.
When data is transformed through processes, such as structuring, formatting, conversion, and
modeling to a form, making it meaningful to the user, it is referred to as
'information.'Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to
technical settings. Usually, information is closely related to constraints, communication,
control, data, instruction, and knowledge. Information is usually found by putting together the
collected data and establishing an understanding based on which decisions are taken.
Geographical data concerns facts about the geographic reality, and geographical facts are
always inter-subjective and reliable. As mentioned earlier, geographical data has a spatial
reference, i.e., attributes of the variables are collected based on areal units, which can be
either natural (plateau, mountain, plain, etc.) or artificial (example - administration units of a
region). It may also be in singular units (individual households) or collective units (villages).
Areal units are often arranged in hierarchical order. For example, each state has districts or
Zilla Parishad in India, divided into Community Development Blocks (CDB). CDB contains a
set of gram panchayats, each of which comprises household units. In such a hierarchical
situation, comparison can be made only between similar people occupying the same level in
the hierarchy – district level, blocklevel, etc. High-level to low-level analysis produces a
contextual relationship, while low to high-level analysis produces aggregate relationships.
Real-world features occur in two fundamental forms–discrete and definite objects and
phenomena continuously distributed over geographical space. Examples of objects are –
forests, hills, highways, mines, etc. Examples of objects are – rainfall, temperature, pollution
level, slope, etc. Spatial objects may be identical objects when they have well-defined
boundaries. Graphically spatial objects are represented by symbols like – points ( ), lines (
), polygon (etc.). A point symbol represents a geographic feature or an event characterized by
location and attributes. The location can be represented by a single "x,y" coordinate pair,
while attributes can be of many shapes. Example-railway stations, mining sites, populated
places, etc., can be represented by a point symbol. A line symbol represents a geographical
feature characterized by linear dimension, but not area. In digital technology, a line is a
sequence or stream of point coordinates with a node at each end (vector data) that symbolizes
a linear feature such as a road, river, or boundary. An area represents a polygon's closed
geographic surface features and two-dimensional geometric regions. Area features are a
census division, a lake, or a province (any geographically defined surface).
Two basic symbol designs may portray information on maps – pictorial and abstract.
Pictorial symbols look like the features they represent. For example, a green polygon can
represent a symbol used for a vegetated area. On the other hand, symbols described as
abstract may be of any geometric shape assigned to represent a feature. For example – a series

38
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

of graduated dots and squares could represent populated places on a reference map. Coloured
and patterned polygons could represent a varying concentration of people on a population
density map.

3.5. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS: NOMINAL, ORDINAL, RATIO,

AND INTERVAL

Geographical datasets consist of numerical measurements. Statistically, geographical objects

or samples form the entity, and the measured attributes on these are called variables. In
simpler words, a variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
Variables may be independent or dependent. The independent variable is also known as the
explanatory variable as the researcher manipulates it in an experimental study. Independent
variables are plotted on the x-axis. The resultant variable is the dependent or outcome variable
and is essentially plotted on the y-axis. Variables can be classified as – quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ranked/ordered, for example –
age, birth order, etc. These variables can be further categorized into discrete and continuous.
Discrete variables are values that can be counted (population density, number of children,
etc.). Continuous variables often assume the infinite number of values between two specific
values (rainfall, area, etc.). On the other hand, qualitative variables can be placed into distinct
categories (gender – male/female).
A single dataset contains information on many variables based on measurement. Scales of
measurement refer to how variables or numbers are defined and categorized. Each
measurement scale has specific properties, which determine the appropriate measure for
usinga particular statistical technique. There are four measurements – nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.

• Nominal or Categorical Data is the simplest form of a scale of measure. Nominal

data are numbers used as identifiers or names representing nominal measurements. In other
words, nominal data is used to label variables without providing any quantitative value. It can
be divided into categories, also known as categorical data. Categorical data can be both
qualitative and quantitative. However, the quantitative labels lack a numerical value or
relationship, e.g., identification number (ID numbers).On the other hand, various types of
qualitative data can be represented through nominal scale/form. They may include words,
letters, and symbols. The term nominal means "in the name"; thus, this kind of data can only
be labeled. A few common examples of nominal data are - names of people, gender,
nationality, [Link] variables that can be coded in only two ways (e.g., yes/no or
employed/unemployed) are binary or dichotomous.

• Ordinal Data - Ordinal data are the type of data in which the values follow a natural
order. An ordinal measurement scale represents an ordered series of relationships or rank
order. It can be defined as variable data when ordered with specific quantification. Ordinal

39
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

data can be quantitative and qualitative—education level, income level (high, medium, low),
satisfaction level, etc.

• Interval Data - Interval data is measured along a numerical scale with equal
"distances" between adjacent values. These distances are called "intervals."There is order, and
the difference between the two values is [Link] is an arbitrary point on an interval
scale, not a complete absence of the variable. E.g., temperature measurements in Fahrenheit
and Celsius, or the pH scale.

• Ratio Data – Ratio data is a quantitative scale with a true zero and equal intervals
between neighboring points. It categorizes and ranks data. Unlike an interval scale, a zero on
a ratio scale means a total absence of the measured variable. Length, population, and area are
examples of ratio [Link] variables, like temperature, can be counted on different scales;
while Celsius and Fahrenheit are interval scales, Kelvin is a ratio scale.

Ratio data can be divided into – absolute and relative ratio data. Absolute ratio data results
from direct measurements, for example, the monthly income of one person. In contrast,
relative ratio data concerns derived values based on a well-defined index, such as the number
of familyearning members.
While nominal and ordinal variables are categorical, interval and ratio variables are
quantitative variables. Many statistical tests can be performed on quantitative than on
categorical data.
It is crucial to collect and gather the data for conducting data analysis. Geographical data
acquisition refers to identifying and collecting data required for a particular application. It can
be collected from 2 distinct sources – primary and secondary. Accordingly, the data is
respectively called primary data and secondary data. The following sections will deal broadly
with these.

3.6. LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY DATA AND NEED FOR DATA

GENERATION

In statistics, data collection gathers information from all the relevant sources to find a solution
to the research problem. It also helps to evaluate the outcome of the [Link] on
the type of data, and the method of data collection, there are two types - Primary Data and
Secondary Data.
Secondary data has already been collected through primary sources and is readily available
for researchers to use. It may be either published data or unpublished data. Published data
includes - Government publications (Census, National Family Health Survey, etc.), public

40
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

records, historical and statistical documents, etc. Unpublished records include – diaries,
letters, etc.
One of the most popular ways of collecting secondary data is using different websites.
Government and non-government agencies such as Census bureaus, government printing
offices, etc., store relevant data and valuable information that both individuals and
organizations can access. Even public libraries house copies of research, public documents,
and statistical data. Also, educational institutions conduct more research than any other sector.
Universities have a plethora of primary data that can act as secondary research
[Link] information sources like television, newspapers, or magazines are excellent
sources of first-hand information for a few disciplines. The advantages of secondary data are:

• Most of the data is readily available, and there are plenty of sources for collection.
• The secondary data collection is less expensive, and the process is less time-consuming.
• The data collected gives a fair idea about the effectiveness of the primary research
• Re-evaluating the same collected data from another person's point of view can uncover
things that may have been overlooked.
The disadvantages of secondary data are –

• Although the data is readily available, credibility evaluation must be performed to

understand the authenticity of the available information.  Not all secondary data
resources offer the latest reports and statistics.
• Secondary data can be manipulated and presented. It is equally important to check the
ground reality.
Despite disadvantages, data generation is essential because secondary data lets us build on
existing research, which leads to better results for a topic.

3.6. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA - QUESTIONNAIRES AND

SCHEDULES, FIELDWORK, SAMPLE SURVEYS, AND THEIR
SIGNIFICANCE

Primary data refers to the first-hand data gathered by the researcher. Primary data is collected
directly through experiments, field surveys, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, and
mail/forms. The different types of surveys carried out to gather primary data are –

• Physical survey includes topographical maps, naval charts, forest surveys, soil surveys,
etc. Environmental information is gathered through well-planned site selection,
observation, and recording.
• Landuse Survey – This concerns recording plot by plot landuse on a cadastral map using
colours, shades, and symbols.

41
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

• Socio-economic Survey – This collects social, economic, and demographic data. Through
micro-level field study.

Primary data acquisition or collection includes various tools –

Tools/ Aim
Method
• It is a research method used for collecting data
from a predefined group of respondents to gain
information and insights into various topics of
Survey Method interest.
• There are three main survey research methods –
online, telephone, and face-to-face.
• It is generally a research technique that involves
asking questions to converse with respondents and
collect elicit data about a subject.
• It helps to understand someone's impressions or
experiences
• There are various types of interviews –
 Focus group - involves a group of individuals
interviewed at the same time.
 Structured Interview -relies on asking questions in
a set order to collect data on a topic. It is often
[Link] the questions are predetermined.
Interview  Semi-structured Interview - relies on asking
questions within a predetermined thematic
framework. However, the questions are not set in
order. It is often qualitative in nature
 Unstructured Interview -relies on asking
participants questions to collect data on a [Link]
does not have a pattern, and questions are not
arranged in advance.

All these types of interviews can be collected using an

interview schedule that lists down questions based on
the kind of interview.

42
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

• It is defined as a set of questions along with

choices of answersat times for respondents.
• The questionnaire includes two types of questions
– open-ended questions and close-ended questions.
• Closed-ended questions - can only be answered by
selecting from a limited number of options, usually
Questionnaire
multiple-choice questions with a single-word
answer, 'yes' or 'no,' or a rating scale (e.g., from
strongly agree to strongly disagree).
• Open-ended questions - are broad and can be
answered in detail. It does not have any options.
For example – what are your views about the
airport construction near your residence?
 They are used for gathering information or for survey
purposes. Types of the questionnaire are –
 Structured questionnaire – includes actual and
concrete questions. Mainly have closed questions.
 Un-structured questionnaires - They are usually
based on open [Link] is a mainly qualitative
survey.
Case Studies It is an intensive study about a person, a group of
people or a unit aimed to generalize over several units.
A case study understands an experience or conductsa
comprehensive examination through a
crosscomparison of cases.
Fieldwork/ Field It is defined as a qualitative or quantitative method of
research data collection to observe, interact and understand
people while they are in a natural environment.

Sampling
Sample size and sampling are crucial issues in pieces of quantitative research as they seek to
make statistically based generalizations from the study results to the broader world. To
generalize, sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number
of observations are taken from a larger [Link] methodology used to sample a more
significant population depends on the research performed.
Before getting into the details of sampling, it is vital to understand the concept of population
and sample. The population is the entire group that a researcher wants to conclude. However,
the sample is the specific group of individuals from whom data will be collected. Samples are

43
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

a more miniature representation of the larger population. The population can be defined by
geographical location, age, income, and many other [Link] number of individuals
one should include in their sample is known as sample size. The sample size depends on
various factors, including the size and variability of the population and the research design.

Source: [Link]
There are two types of sampling –
 Probability Sampling - It means that every member of the population has a chance of being
selected and is mainly used in quantitative research. There are four types of probability
sampling –
• Simple random sampling – Here, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.

Source: [Link]

• Systematic Sampling – Here, every member of the population is listed with a number. But
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

44
 Nature and Analysis of
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Source: [Link]

• Stratified Sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ
significantly. This technique allows drawing more precise conclusions by ensuring that
every subgroup is appropriately represented in the sample. The subgroups are called
strata. Therefore, the population is divided into gender, age range, income bracket, and
occupation.

Source: [Link]
• Cluster Sampling – It involves dividing the population into subgroups. However, each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Rather than sampling
individuals from each subset, the researcher can randomly select from the entire
subgroups. For example, a particular company/group has multi-specialty hospitals in 10
cities (all with roughly similar specializations). The researcher couldn't travel to every
hospital to collect data, so they used random sampling to select three hospitals for the
study. These 3 are the clusters.

Source: [Link]
45
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

 Non-Probability Sampling–Here, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria.

Not every individual has a chance to be included. Even though there is a chance of being
biased, this method is easier and cheaper. Non-probability sampling is of 4 types –

• Convenience sampling simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible
to the researcher.

Source: [Link]

• Quota sampling is the selection of members based on a pre-set standard.

Source: [Link]

46
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

• Purposive sampling involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is
most useful to the research [Link] sampling is often used in qualitative
research. The researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon
rather than make statistical inferences or where the population is tiny and precise.

Source: [Link]

• Snowball sampling- If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to
recruit participants via other participants. The number of people the researcher has access
to "snowballs" as they contact more people.

Source: [Link]
Data Classification and Tabulation
After the data is collected, they should be classified first for further use, like statistical
analysis and mapping. Classification is arranging the collected information under different
categories or classes. The type of data prepares the ground for enabling comparison for
logical understanding. This is done in the following way –

• On a qualitative basis – this includes classification by attributes. For example –

classification based on sex, religion, occupation, etc.
• On a quantitative basis – this classification by variables. For example – the number of
people employed, the number of people unemployed, etc.

47
 Nature and Analysis of
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• On a time basis – arrangement of data in a time frame showing changes in attributes with
time. For example – time-series data.
• On a geographical basis – classification by geographical regions. For example – direction,
blocks, districts, etc.
Tabulation may be defined as the logical and systematic organization of data in rows and
columns for simplifying the presentation and facilitating comparisons. Errors can be readily
detected when data is tabulated. A table must have a title, conveying the content in a few
words. The headings of the tables must have units of measurement. Column totals may be at
the bottom. The table should be well-balanced in length and breadth, while the item
arrangements should have a logical sequence. Source note and footnote must also be given if
required. The stub is the extreme left column of the tables that jot down the rows'
descriptions. The body is referred to as the whole part showing the figures.
Once data are tabulated and organized, they are managed using various software like MS
Excel, SPSS, MATLAB, MINITAB, etc. Analysis through this software generates output or
results.
An example of data tabulation is given below -

48
 Nature and Analysis of
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Status of Maternal Mortality Rate* in India(Title)

Year
Status
2015 – 16 2016 – 18
Andhra Pradesh 3.6 3.6
Assam 15.2 14
Bihar 16.9 15.1
Jharkhand 6.1 5.6
Gujarat 6 5.1
Haryana 7.7 7
Karnataka 7.3 4.9
Kerala 1.9 2.1
Madhya Pradesh 17.5 15.9
Stub
Chhattisgarh 11 12.1 Body
Maharashtra 3.3 2.6
Odisha 11.1 9.7
Punjab 6.8 7
Rajasthan 16.8 14.5
Tamil Nadu 4.8 3.2
Telangana 3.8 3.6
Uttar Pradesh 20.1 17.8
Uttarakhand 5.9 6.4
West Bengal 5 5
Other State 4.7 4.5
India 8.1 7.3
Source Note–Source: Sample Registration System (SRS) of Registrar General of India
(RGI)
*Maternal Mortality Rate or MMR is defined as the number of maternal deaths during a
given time period per 100,000 live births during the same period - Footnote

3.8. ADVANCED TECHNIQUES OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Based on the nature of the variables, the analytical methods in geography may be
classified –
1. Univariate Analysis – It concerns methods with one variable. The analysis of
univariate data is the simplest form of study since the information deals with only one
quantity that changes. The univariate analysis does not deal with causes or relationships.
The primary purpose of this is to describe the data and find patterns within it—for

49
 Nature and Analysis of
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example, theweight of 50 students in a class. Here weight is the only variable. The
description of patterns found in this type of data can be analyzed using ----

 Central tendency measures (mean, median, and mode) - Central tendency measures
are explained as a single value that attempts to describe a data set by identifying the
central position. The mean, median, and mode are the three most commonly used
measures of central tendency.

 Mean - The mean or average is the most well-known measure of central tendency. It can be
used with both discrete and continuous data, although with continuous data preferably. The
mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in
the data set. So if there are n (number) values in a data set and they have values x1, x2, x3,
x4……,xn,then the sample mean, usually denoted by x is –

x = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + … + xn
n
 Median–For a data set, the median is the middle score arranged in order of magnitude.
The data needs to be arranged in ascending or descending order to find the median. After
arranging, the total number of observations in the data is counted. If the number is odd, the
median is - (n+1)/2. If the number is even, the two middle terms are found using the formula
n/2 and (n/2) + 1. Then the mean of these two middle terms is calculated. Thus, the median
formula for even numbers is given as: Median = ((n/2)th term + ((n/2) + 1)th term)/2.

 Mode is the value that is repeatedly occurring in a given data set. In other words, it is
the value or number in a data set that has a high frequency or appears more frequently. Mode
formula is -

Where, 'L' = lower limit of the modal class,

'h' = size of the class interval, f m = frequency of the

modal class

50
 Nature and Analysis of
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f 1 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class f2 =

frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

 Dispersion or spread of data (range, minimum, maximum, quartiles, variance, and

standard deviation)- The measure of spread, also known as the measure of dispersion,
describes the variability in a sample or a population. It is usually used in conjunction with the
measure of central tendency to represent a data set overall. Even though there are many
reasons why the measure of the spread of data values is essential, one of the main reasons is
its relationship with the measures of central tendency. A measure of spread gives us an idea of
how well the mean represents the data. Suppose the spread of values in the data set is large. In
that case, the mean is not representative of the databecause a large spread indicates that there
are probably significant differences between individual scores.

 Range - The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a data
set. It is the simplest measure of spread. So we calculate the range as:
Range = maximum value - minimum value
For example, let us consider the data set – 86, 54, 24, 16, 32, 21, 48, 59, 22, 45.
Here the maximum value is 86, and the minimum value is 16. Therefore, the range is –
86 -16 = 70

 Quartiles - Quartiles tell us about the spread of a data set by breaking the data set into
quarters, just like the median breaks it in half.
Quartiles are helpful, but their use is limited because they do not consider every score in
thedata group. To get a more representative idea of the spread,it is essential toconsider the
actual values of each score in a data set. The absolute deviation, variance, and standard
deviation are such measures.
 Variance – The variance measures how far each value in the dataset is from the mean.

 Standard deviation is a widely used measurement of variability or diversity used in

statistics and probability theory. Variance is not generally used as a descriptive measure.
Instead, the square root of the variance is taken and is called standard deviation. Symbolically
:

51
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

where, s = sample standard deviation Σ= sum

of...
x = sample mean n = number of scores in the
sample.  Frequency distribution –A frequency
distribution is a representation in a graphical or
tabular format that displays the number of
observations within a given interval.
Graphically, univariate analysis can be represented through the following
 Bar Charts - A bar chart summarizes a set of categorical data, displaying data using
several bars. The height of each bar is proportional to the sum of the values in the category it
represents.

Source: [Link]

 Dot Plot - A dot plot or dot chart is a statistical chart consisting of a group of data
points plotted on a simple scale. In simpler words, it is used to represent any data in the form
of dots. Dot plots are used to express small amounts of data. For example –

Colony A B C D

Number of babies 7 3 5 1
vaccinated

The dot plots can be represented in two ways –

52
 Nature and Analysis of
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Source: [Link]
 Histogram - A histogram is a graphical representation showing a visual impression of
the data distribution. It organizes a group of data points into user-specified [Link]
histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights.

Source: [Link]
 Pie charts - A pie chart is a type of chart that visually displays data in a circular graph
where the pie slices show the size of the data. It is one of the most commonly used graphs to
represent data.

Source: [Link]

53
 Nature and Analysis of
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 Frequency polygon- A frequency polygon is identical to a histogram. It is used to

compare data sets or display a cumulative frequency distribution. It uses a line graph to
represent quantitative data.

2. Bivariate Analysis– This type of data involves two kinds of data, as two variables are
analyzed together. This type of data analysis deals with causes and relationships between the
variables. For example – increase in icecream sales due to temperature rise. Here icecream
sale and temperature are the two directly proportional variables. Common types of bivariate
analysis include –

 Scatterplot - A scatter plot or scatter graph uses dots to represent values for two
different numeric variables. The position of each dot on both the horizontal and vertical axis
indicates values for an individual data point. Scatter graphs are used to observe relationships
between variables.

Source: [Link]
 Correlation - Correlation coefficients are used to measure the strength of the linear
relationship between two different variables, x, and y. The value of correlation lies between -
1.0 and +1.0. A correlation coefficient greater than zero (towards +1) indicates a positive
relationshipcalled a positive correlation. While a value less than zero (towards -1) signifies a

54
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

negative relationship and is called a negative correlation.A value of zero indicates no

relationship between the two variables being compared.

 Regression - Regression denotes 'estimation' or 'prediction'. It is a statistical method

that helps us analyze and understand the relationship between two or more variables of
interest.
Correlation

Source: [Link]

Regression

Source: [Link]
3. Time-Series Analysis- Time series analysis can describe, predict, explain and control
changes through the time of selected [Link] other words,time series analysis is a specific
way of analyzing a sequence of data points collected over [Link] type of analysis typically
requires many data points to ensure consistency and [Link] of time series

55
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

analysis in action include weather data, rainfall measurements, temperature readings, stock
markets, etc.

4. Spatial Analysis–Spatial differentiation is anessential theme of geographical research.

Because it concerns the study of differences between areas in terms of the numerous
geographical phenomena (e.g., Soil, vegetation, farming, industry, settlements, etc.). The
ultimate aim is to find the magnitude and sense of difference in each case and then explain it.
Spatial patterns are formed by point, line, and area features. Analysis of point patterns (peaks,
schools, colleges, markets, shopping malls, shops, etc.) can be done using measures of central
tendency, which will identify the spatial distribution of the point pattern.

Line patterns are used for network analysis. Network analysis analyses the datasets of
geographic networks or real-world networks. It examines the properties of natural and
artificial networks to understand the behavior of flows within and around such networks and
locational analysis. Network analysis is a set of connected lines representing railways,
streams, roads, waterlines, pipelines, etc. It can be direct andindirect or planned and
unplanned. Network analyses the movement ofpeople, connectivity, and accessibility of
railways, roads, pipelines, andtelecommunications. Thesenetworks are measured and
compared by plotting the graph and linkages ofthe object or feature. Shortest path analysis
and locationallocation are some types of network analysis.

5. Multivariate Analysis- Multivariate analysis describesdata analyses where there are

multiplevariables or observations for each unit or [Link], these data are interrelated,
for example, while determining an apartment's value. Factors possibly related to the value are
- the size ofthe apartment, age of the building, number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms,
andlocation. Some of the techniques are regression analysis, path analysis, factor analysis,
and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).
Nominal data can be collected through –open or closed-ended survey questions. Examples of
open-end questions are –
 What is your native language?
 What is the pin code of the place you live?
Examples of closed-ended questions are –
 Are you employed? Yes, No
 Gender – Male, Female, Other, Prefer not to answer
Nominal data can be organized in tables. It can be analyzed using specific descriptive
statistics, and the datasets can be visualized commonly in bar graphs and pie charts.
Measuring the central tendency of the data set will tell where most of the values lie. The
mode can only express the central tendency of nominal data.

56
 Nature and Analysis of
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Parametric tests do not apply to nominal data because the data cannot be ordered in any
meaningful way. Non-parametric statistical tests such as Chi-square tests are used with
nominal data. Generally, chi-square tests are for categorical variables as the chi-square
formula compares two or more statistical data sets. It is used for data that consist of variables
distributed across various categories and is denoted by χ2.

Where, Oi = Observed value and Ei= Expected value.

Ordinal variables are usually collected using closed-ended survey questions,giving
participants several possible answers. For example –
 Education level – Primary, Secondary, Graduation, Post-graduation, Doctorate, Above
In social sciences research, ordinal data is often collected using Likert scales that are made up
of 4 or more Likert-type questions with continuums of response items for participants to
choose from. These scales are in order and are often coded. For example –
 How frequently do you visit the grocery store?
The scale is – Never (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Often (4), Always (5).
Ordinal data can be analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive
statistics to be used are –
 frequency distribution
 median or mode to find out the central tendency
 the range to indicate the variability. This is used to find the minimum, maximum, and
range.
To find the range, first, we need to code the data by assigning a number to each response, in
order from lowest to highest:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither disagree nor agree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

57
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

Then, to find the minimum and maximum, the lowest and highest values of the data set are
looked at. The minimum is 1, and the maximum is 5. For the range, subtract the minimum
from the maximum:
Range - 5 – 1 = 4
Thus, the range gives a general idea of how the scores differ.
However, the most appropriate statistical tests for ordinal data are nonparametric [Link]
possible statistical testscan be used for ordinal data, but the usage depends on the research
aims andthe number and type of samples. Some of the standard tests are –
 Mood's median test – Compare the medians for two or more samples. For example – how
different are the median income level of people living in 2 neighbouring states.

 Mann-Whitney U test (Wilcoxon rank-sum test) – Compares the sum of rankings of scores
using two independent samples. For example – how does the social status of one city
differ from another.

 Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test – Compares magnitude and direction of

difference between distributions of scores using two dependent samples. For example –
how similar are salary distributions in managerial positions for two different but same
production companies.

 Kruskal–Wallis H test - Compare mean rankings of scores using three or more samples.
Example – the difference between the social status of the different social groups in a city

 Spearman's rho or rank correlation coefficient – Correlatestwo variables using two

ordinal values. Example – relation between rainfall and crop yield.
Interval and ratio data can be analyzed using the following descriptive statistics:
• Frequency distribution - here, the data can be tabulated and visualized if plotted on a
frequency distribution polygon.
• the mode, median, or mean to find the central tendency,
• the range, standard deviation, and variance - to indicate the [Link] standard
deviation (s) is the average amount of variability in the dataset. It tells, on average, how
far each score lies from the [Link] variance (s2) is the average squared deviation from
the mean. A deviation from the mean is the difference between a value in the data set and
the mean.
The following parametric tests are some of the standard tests for interval data –

• T-test – Compares means of two samples—for example – the difference in the average
higher secondary scores of students from two different schools.

58
 Nature and Analysis of
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• ANOVA – Compares means of three or more samples. For example - the difference in the
average total scores of students from four semesters?
• Pearson r – Shows a correlation between 2 variables. For example – the relation between
the amount of rainfall with cropyield per year.
• Simple linear regression – This shows regression between two variables – the effect of
parental income on child education.

3.9. GEOGRAPHICAL MATRIX AND ITS

SIGNIFICANCE IN THE ANALYSIS OF GEOGRAPHY DATA

Geographic data consists of2 distinct components – location and attributes. A geographer's
data matrix (GDM) is one of the most logical ways to represent real-world locations. It is a
type of data organization method. In the GDM, a column represents the variation of attributes
of the socioeconomic or natural characteristics across geographical spaces. It shows the
spatial patterns of the variables that can be identified andmapped.
On the other hand, a row denotes a specific location in geographic space. Therefore, each cell
formed by columns and rows of the GDM contains a particular item of geographic fact that
can be found at one specific location. Columns of the GDM can be compared to study the
nature of spatial variation of the geographic characteristics. Rows of the GDM compare the
differences among different places. After collecting geographic data using various methods,
geographical databases in GDMs are prepared for further analysis and then for cartographic
representation.

Structure of a GDM
Variables

59
 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

All variables for a single place,one variable for one place only
A single variable for all the places

3.10. SUMMARY

Geographical data records the locations and characteristics of features on the earth's surface
through various forms. Graphically the objects are represented by – points, lines, and
symbols. As geographical datasets consist of numerical measurements, there are four types of
measurement scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. While nominal and ordinal
variables are categorical variables, interval and ratio variables are quantitative variables.
Many statistical tests can be performed on these types of data. Also, data can be of two types
depending upon the collection method – primary and secondary. Primary data collection
includes various tools like field surveys, questionnaires, interview schedules, etc. Each of
these depends upon the research aim and nature of the population. These tools are implied on
the sample population, representing the population as a whole. A sampling of people is of
many types depending upon the nature of the study and the population size. These data, after
being collected, are organized and tabulated for comparison. Various analytical techniques are
then used for analyzing geographic data.

3.11. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS OR EXERCISE

1. True or False
a. The deductive approach is a 'top-down' approach.
b. Rows of the GDM compare the differences among different places.
c. T-test compares means of more than two samples.
d. Ordinal variables are generally collected using an open-ended questionnaire.

60
 Nature and Analysis of
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e. In simple random sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. ___________________ shows correlation between 2 variables.
b. A correlation coefficient greater than zero (towards +1)____________.
c. ______________ sampling every member of the population has a chance of being
selected.
d. ____________ compares the sum of rankings of scores using two independent samples.
e. Geographic data consists of 2 distinct components ___________.

3. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The range of the series 78, 62, 23, 56, 19, 84, 38, 91, 45, 66 is ______
a. 65
b. 72
c. 84
d. 73

2. The mean of the series 78, 62, 23, 56, 19, 84, 38, 91, 45, 66 is ______
a. 54.3
b. 55
c. 56.2
d. 64.4
3. ________ is not a type of non - probability sampling
a. Purposive
b. Snowball
c. Convenience
d. Random
4. ___________ is not a type of bivariate analysis.
a. Histogram
b. Scatterplot
c. Correlation
d. Regression

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 Nature and Analysis of
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5. is the formula of –
a. Variance
b. Quartile
c. Standard Deviation
d. Mean

4. Answer the following Questions

1. Explain the difference between primary and secondary data.
2. Describe the nature of geographical data
3. What are the different types of geographical data analysis techniques used for research?
4. Briefly describe the scales of measurements and techniques used to analyze them.
5. Write in detail about the Geographical matrix.

3.12. ANSWERS TO THE SELF-LEARNING QUESTIONS

1. a. True
1. b. True
1. c. False
1. d. False
1. e. True
2. a. Pearson r
2. b. Positive correlation
2. c. Probability Sampling
2. d. Mann-Whitney U test
2. e. Location and attributes
3. 1. B
3. 2. C
3. 3. D
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 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

3. 4. A
3. 5. C

3.13. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING

• Attribute - In data analysis, an attribute is a characteristic or feature measured for each

observation (a record) and can vary from one observation to another.

• Cumulative frequency -The cumulative frequency is the total of frequencies in which the
frequency of the first class interval is added to the frequency of the second class interval.
Then the sum is added to the frequency of the third class interval and so on.
• Data – Data are facts and figures observed or collected based on a particular topic. Data
may be defined as values of quantitative or qualitative variables belonging to a set of
items.

• Datasets – Refers to a set of data to establish specific knowledge.

• Descriptive statistics -Descriptive statistics summarize the characteristics of a data set.

• Elements – Are entities based on which data are collected.

• Frequency -is the number of times a data value occurs.

• Inferential statistics– allows you to test a hypothesis or assess whether your data is
generalizable to the broader population.

• Information – This concept bears a diversity of meanings from everyday usage to

technical settings. The idea of information is closely related to notions of constraints,
communication, control, data, instruction, and knowledge. It is generally found through
putting together the collected data and establishing an understanding based on which
decisions are taken.

• Knowledge – Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something,includingfacts,

information, description, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to
the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (with practical
skills or expertise) or explicit (as with a subject's theoretical knowledge). Geography is a
subject that can be studied both practically and theoretically.

63
 Nature and Analysis of
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• Parametric and Non-parametric tests make assumptions about the parameters of the
population distribution from which the sample is drawn. This is often the assumption that
the population data are normally [Link]-parametric tests are "distribution-free".

• Symbol - It is a very simple line drawing that stands for one word or idea. Symbols are
easier to draw than pictures for even showing some concrete concepts. However, the
challenge in cartographic symbol design is that four categories of data must be
represented on maps by only these three basic symbol types. Therefore, multiple images
must be used to simultaneously design map symbols that portray more than one data
characteristic.

• Variables are characteristics related to elements for which studies are carried out. They
are values of a specific property or factors that vary from one individual to another.

3.14. TASK

1. Draw five nominal lines, points, and area symbols.

2. Draw five ordinal lines, points, and area symbols.
3. Give examples of 5 abstract symbols.
4. Represent the following with appropriate symbolization –
A metaled road runs from a centre of a settlement from east to west. Another road crosses this
metaled road from the centre of the settlement. This road is a national highway. The location
or position where the two road crosses in the nodal area of the settlements. 5kms east of the
northsouth highway,a bank and a hospitalis connected to the national highway by a district
road. West to the north-south highway at a distance of 1 km, there is a small locality where
the population is 3000. There is a primary school, a middle school, and a dispensary in this
locality. West of the national highway in the northwest corner at a distance of 3km, there is a
petrol pump.
5. Explore the different statistical techniques for geographical data analysis.

3.15. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. KarlekarShrikant and Kale Mohan (2005): Statistical analysis of Geographical

data,Dimond publication
2. Clark, W.A.V. and Hosking, P.C(1986): Statistical Methods for Geographers, John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
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 Nature and Analysis of
Geographical Data

3. Sarkar, A. (2013). Quantitative Geography: Techniques and Presentations. Orient

BlackSwan.
4. Yeates, M. (1974). An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis in Human Geography,
McGraw Hill, New York



65
 4 SCIENTIFIC REPORT WRITING
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features
Unit Structure
4.1. Introduction- aim and objectives, data and methodology
4.2. Data analysis, result, conclusion
4.3. Referencing system, weblography and bibliography.
4.4. Plagiarism, design, concept of impact factor, citation, DOI
4.5. Summary
4.6. Check your Progress/ Exercise
4.7. Answers to the Self-learning Questions
4.8. Technical words and their meaning
4.9. Task
4.10. References for further study

4.1. INTRODUCTION- AIM AND OBJECTIVES, DATA

AND METHODOLOGY

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
During every student’s academic journey, there comes a point where the
student has to write a scientific report. A scientific report is quite different
from an essay or a descriptive answer that a student is used to write. It is
more structured and is usually based on research or experiment carried out
by the student. A scientific report may comprise of many elements based on
the aims and objectives of the project such as graphs, charts, diagrams,
tabulated data, flow charts etc. Usually a scientific report is viewed as a
document that comprises of the process or progress and result of a technical
study or research that is carried out along with some suggestion or
recommendations and conclusion derived through the research. (University
of Waikato, n.d.)
A scientific report also encourages critical thinking and higher order
thinking. It has a word limit for example, minimum 1000 words (short
report) or maximum 20000 words or more (research paper). There is also a
 Scientific Report Writing

predefined guideline for format of the report. Such as line spacing, margins
etc.

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4.1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE
Often scientific writing is overlooked in undergraduate level as students are still young and
developing research skills. As the students learn to apply higher order thinking and understand
the various dimensions of the research problem they go through the various stages of scientific
thinking and develop a write-up by applying critical thinking and real world solutions to the
research problem.
The objective of writing the scientific report is to accurately describe the steps and procedures
that were followed during the study and represent the results that are obtained. The second
most important objective of scientific report writing is relating the results of the study with
existing state of knowledge and interpreting their significance for future studies.
4.1.3. DATA AND METHODOLOGY
Usually a scientific report comprises of quantitative data, however qualitative data can also be
represented in a scientific report. The methodology is an integral part of the report, wherein
detailed process and methods adopted to carry out the process are described.

 ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT

A scientific report comprises of the following elements or parts: i) Title page ii)
Table of contents or index iii) Abstract iv) Introduction to the study v)
Experiments/Methods vi) Results of the study/experiments vii)
Discussion/suggestions viii) Conclusion/summary ix) References x)
Appendix

i) Title page- This page comprises of the title of the scientific report/study. It also
contains author names, affiliations and other important information such as communication
information of the authors, institutes address and other details. A title should be usually precise
yet informative; it highlights the key finding/method or objective of the research along with
study area or focus group of the research.

ii) Table of contents/index – As a scientific report is a very structured document it

comprises of table of content or index pages. Wherein, each topic and subtopic is given along
with their corresponding page numbers. The topics are described and discussed in detail further
in the report.

iii) Abstract – An abstract is a summary of the research. It briefly describes the research or
study that has been carried out along with methods that have been used. It is basically an
outline of the research. At the same time a good abstract should comprise of keywords at the
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end. It should be concise yet give the readers a glimpse of the entire study without going into
too many details.
The Abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report - an informative summary of what you
did and what you found out.
According to University of Waikato, “The Abstract should include the following:
• Objectives (as outlined in the Introduction) and scope of the investigation.
• A brief reference to the Materials and Methods.
• A summary of the results and conclusions - a brief but thorough statement of the outcome/s
of the experiment.
If there is a hypothesis, you may state what it is and whether it was supported or refuted.
The following should not be included in the Abstract:
• Literature citations.
• Formulae and abbreviations, references to tables.
Although the Abstract comes first in a report, it is best to write it last, after you have the results
and conclusions.” (University of Waikato, n.d)
iv) Introduction to the study – An introduction gives the background to the research. It
usually gives the summary of the research and describes past research that has been carried out
along the same line. It may also include certain facts and figures about the topic, study area and
its characteristics or the relevance of the problem being studied. It also includes objectives of
the research, its importance and literature review.
Introduction however, should not include methodology, results or discussion within itself.
These are discussed separately in a scientific report. The introduction section gives the broader
or bigger picture of the research and slowly narrows down to the objective or research
question. It also includes the research hypothesis.

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 Scientific Report Writing

Image Source: Howe Centre for Writing Excellence, Miami University

Further elements of the Scientific Report Writing will be discussed in section 4.2. Data
analysis, result, conclusion

4.2. DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT, CONCLUSION

4.2.1. Data analysis – Experiments /Methods – Data analysis is the most detailed and well
defined part of the scientific report. The entire process of the research study is discussed and
the methods used are described stepby-step in this section. Description of methods or
techniques used, experiments carried out, filed surveys, data samples and interpretation of data
is discussed and presented in detail. The data is analyzed and represented in either tables,
charts, figures, diagrams or flow charts or maps. Using sampling method data collection is
carried out in geographical research.

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 Scientific Report Writing

Image Source: Geography Lab, University of Victoria (n.d)

 Types of data in research – There are three types of data in research – quantitative data,
qualitative data and categorical data.

i) Qualitative Data – Data analysis with qualitative data includes the process of finding
patterns and then interpreting the data, which is then represented either in descriptive format or
visually interpreted in the form of pie-chart, bar-chart, maps, tables or diagrams.

ii) Quantitative data – Data analysis for Quantitative data includes statistical analysis
such as frequency distribution, measures of central tendency, regression, correlation etc. The
patterns or results obtained after the analysis can then be represented as maps or charts.

iii) Categorical Data- Data analysis of categorical data is quite simple it can be
represented with the help of simple tables, charts or other methods.
4.2.2. RESULTS OF THE STUDY/EXPERIMENTS
The results obtained after the study is carried out are represented and discussed in this section.
The deeper analysis of the results often leads to concrete solutions or future trends for the
research problem. The result section states the “What” question of the research. It represents
the results obtained from the study in non-textual form such as data, table, charts or diagrams.
It uses simple past tense. Result section does not interpret the results obtained but only
represents them. Following is an example of result finding from a research paper titled Gender
and geographical disparity in editorial boards of journals in psychology and neuroscience.

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Fig. 1: Overall proportion of male and female editors in the top 50 journals in psychology
and neuroscience.
Source: [Link]
The bar chart above shows significant statistics in the form of bar charts. It represents the
gender and geographical disparity in overall proportion of male and female editors.
4.2.3. DISCUSSION/SUGGESTIONS
This part interprets the findings and discusses previous literature with the present finding. It
contains detailed interpretation of the key findings of the research that has been carried out. A
discussion can also represent limitations or scope of the study that has been carried out. Further
discussion can also include suggestions for further study or analysis based on the current study
findings. A discussion can also include unexpected or unique results obtained from the
research. It highlights the significance of the research. The following figure shows the structure
of a discussion section of a research:

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 Scientific Report Writing

Image Source: [Link]

4.2.4. CONCLUSION/SUMMARY
This is the end part of the study, wherein the research is summarized and concluded. Usually
conclusion is preceded by discussion. The significance of the study can be included in the
conclusion section also. The conclusion states whether the aim and objective of the research
was achieved and whether the hypothesis was supported.

4.3. REFERENCING SYSTEM, WEBLOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

4.3.1. REFERENCING SYSTEM: In research or scientific writing it is necessary to adopt

referencing system while writing. There is no universal referencing system and scholars and
students often accept the referencing system which is in use currently in UK or America or
whichever system is most popular. According to University of Bristol, there are five major
referencing systems, namely:
(i) Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA),
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(ii) The Harvard System (often called the ‘Author Date System’), (iii) Chicago System
(iv) Modern Language Association of America (MLA)
(v) American Psychological Association (APA)
Each of the referencing system has certain specifications such as how to give citations, format
(margins, spacing etc.), and format of references and so on. Based on the requirement of the
university, journal or publication these referencing criteria are followed in academic writing.
For example- as per APA style 7 th edition (which is in use at present) a short quotation will be
written in this format –According to Jones (1998), “students often had difficulty using APA
style, especially when it was their first time” (p. 199).
On the other hand MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. (OWL
Purdue University, n.d.) For example –Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by
a “spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” (263).
4.3.2. WEBLIOGRAPHY
Webliography is derived from the terms “web” and “bibliography”. Webliography refers to
online resources or web links. It refers to a list of resources on a particular topic that can be
accessed via World Wide Web.
Annotated webliography is one where the writer annotates a few sentences from a web
resource in which he/she describes as well as critiques the website.
According to APA format, webliography would be cited as “Author, A.
(Date Published). Article name. Name of website. Retrieved Date, from
URL of website” (Source: Pen and the pad .com)
[Link]
A bibliography is a tradition list or repository of resources which has been published in a
physical copy such as textbook, printed journal, article or magazine. According to the
referencing system that is followed citation style of bibliography changes. Usually, a
bibliography comprises of title, author, year of publication, page number etc.
The standard bibliography contains nine elements : Author Last Name, Author First Name.
“Title of Source.” Title of Container, edited by Other Contributors, Version, Number,
Publisher, Publication Date, Location. (Source: [Link])

4.4. PLAGIARISM, DESIGN, CONCEPT OF IMPACT FACTOR,

CITATION, DOI

4.4.1. PLAGIARISM :According to Oxford University, “Plagiarism is presenting someone

else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your

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work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in
manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.
Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional.” (Oxford University, n.d)
In academic writing, plagiarism is highly condemned. To avoid plagiarism one should adopt
and practice good academic writing practices.
According to Oxford University, Forms of plagiarism include:
• Verbatim text
Verbatim text refers to word-to-word quotation without clear acknowledgement. Quotations
must always be given within quotation marks and indentation. It must be apparent as to where
is the quote taken from along with source given.
• Internet
Information that is copied and pasted from the Internet must be adequately referenced and
included in the bibliography. The information taken from the internet is not necessarily peer
reviewed and hence must be evaluated.
• Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing simply means a restatement of text. When an author reiterates the ideas or
arguments of another author or source in his own words, then the work or write-up is said to be
paraphrased. Although paraphrasing is not always considered as plagiarism, it is necessary to
include citation appropriately when paraphrasing any text in order to avoid plagiarism.
• Collusion
When students collaborate informally or in an unauthorized manner, collusion takes place. It is
fine if students discuss their ideas however, during collusion between two or more students one
students takes ideas from another student or group of students and presents it as his or her own
idea without giving acknowledgement to his or her peers. This contributes to collusion and
thereby plagiarism.
• Inaccurate citation
There are many cases where plagiarism takes place unintentionally. When author gives in
accurate citation it often leads to plagiarism and the original author do not get due recognition
for their ideas and work.
• Failure to acknowledge assistance/team members
When team work takes place it is a good practice to acknowledge each and every contributor of
the work. Many times if there is a small contribution by a team member, it goes
unacknowledged in the final published work. This should not be practiced as it leads to
plagiarism because someone’s work is unacknowledged.

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• Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons

There are many agencies and freelancers who provide writing services to the
author/researchers/students. Although, editing can be done with someone else’s help or proof
reading to finalize the final version of any work or write-up. However, taking help for writing
from agencies or professional writers will lead to plagiarism and conflict of interests at a later
stage.
• Auto-plagiarism
Resubmitting same work again and again is also considered as plagiarism. If a work is
submitted before and a part of it is resubmitted again at a later stage by an author than that is
considered as auto-plagiarism and sometimes also considered as verbatim text.” (Oxford
University, n.d)
Plagiarism is discouraged as it is against academic integrity. As students or scholars we should
inculcate a habit of represent our own thoughts and original ideas and not merely copy others.
4.4.2. DESIGN :Cultural differences and plagiarism
In many cultures, memorization is considered as a form of respect, due to this some previous
works that are widely accepted or comprise of breakthrough research are reitereated or
represented extensively in one’s own work as a form of respect to the original work. Often
students from East Asia practice this.
Collectivist culture or Universal Knowledge – According to Turnitin; “A collectivist culture is
one that prioritizes the goals and desires of the whole over the needs of the individual.”
“Often in East Asian countries like South Korea, Japan, and China, ideas that are beneficial to
and shared by the community are not individually attributed, but rather recognized as universal
knowledge. Students that grow up with this perspective may not understand why citations at
the end of a research paper are important; furthermore, citations might even make them feel
uncomfortable, as they recognize individual authors above the community as a whole. It’s
important to acknowledge this discomfort as a student adopts the Western model of academic
integrity.” (Source: Cultural Differences in Plagiarism, [Link], n.d)
4.4.3. IMPACT FACTOR
“Impact factor (IF) is a measure of the number of times, an average paper in a journal is cited,
during a year.” Clarivate Analytics releases the Journal Impact Factors annually as part of the
Web of Science Journal
Citation Reports®. Only journals listed in the Science Citation Index Expanded® (SCIE) and
Social Sciences Citation Index® (SSCI) receive an Impact Factor.” (Elseiver, n.d.)
There are different metrics to measure impact factor. Each journal has a journal metrics to
measure its impact factor. Some commonly used metrics are as follows:

• Cite Score Metrics

• SCImago Journal Rank
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• SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper)

• JIF (Journal Impact Factor)  H-index
There are some tools to measure impact factor. These tools are as follows:

• Journal Citation Reports: Journal citation reports provides ranking for over more than
12000 journals from the field of science, technology and social sciences. Eigenfactor
scores are also listed by journal citation reports, eigenfactor measures how likely a
journal and its contents are accessed by the researchers.

• SCImago Journal Rank: The SCImago Journal and Country Rank is a repository of
more than 15000 journals stored in Scopus data. SCImago provides journal ranking for
various journals using SJR indicator.

• SNIP: Source Normalized Impact Paper (SNIP) measures citations of a paper within a
subject field. SNIP was developed by Professor Henk F Moed at Centre for Science and
Technology Studies (CWTS). It gives four indicators, namely:
(a) P – number of publications of a source in the past three years (b) IPP – impact per paper
calculated as the number of citations in the present year
(c) SNIP – source normalized impact per publication
(d) %self cit – the percentage of self-citation of a source
As discussed, it is evident that there are numerous measures and indicators for calculating the
impact factor of a journal. Hence researchers need to explore their subject area and find the
right journal for their respective research topic so as to reach maximum audience.
4.4.4. CITATION: According to [Link] “A “citation” is the way you tell your readers
that certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the
information necessary to find that source again, including:  information about the author
• the title of the work
• the name and location of the company that published your copy of the source
• the date your copy was published
• the page numbers of the material you are borrowing”
([Link], n.d.)

According to APA referencing style, there are two types of citations: intext
citation and reference list citation. In-text citations are usually given within
the text or within the write-up and reference citations are given at the end of
the write-up and are given as a part of bibliography.
4.4.5. DOI: DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier. According to University
of Illinois Chicago, “Digital Object Identifier, is a string of numbers, letters
and symbols used to uniquely identify an article or document, and to provide
it with a permanent web address (URL).” (UIC, n.d)
A DOI is divided into three parts: Proxy, Prefix and Suffix
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Image Source: [Link]

For both printed as well as online articles DOI can be found. Usually, along
with the article information DOI is also given. Whenever, we click on the
article title, DOI is usually given on the next page. In case it is difficult to
locate the DOI of an article, it can also be found on [Link]. In some rare
cases DOI is not located anywhere including [Link], during such times
researchers can write “Retrieved from” and give the URL or web address of
the source or journal home page.

4.5. SUMMARY

Scientific writing is an integral part of academics and research. It is a

structured document with summary of the research carried out along with
detailed methodology and findings backed with scientific approach or
analysis. Writing a scientific report is very useful for the students as it
develops critical thinking and scientific knowledge of the researcher or
academician. It also facilitates higher order thinking and exchange of ideas
between various academicians, researchers as well as scientists. For
geographers scientific report writing gives a systematic approach and brings
forth the patterns, results and observations through maps or data charts.
However, it is also necessary to comply with academic code of integrity and
avoid pitfalls such as plagiarism during the scientific writing process. Lastly,
with the help of relevant information such as DOI, Impact Factor, we can
also ensure high quality and wider audience for our research.

4.6. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE

I. True or False
a. Scientific report writing can be a short report of around 1000 words.
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b. The objective of writing the scientific report is to accurately describe the steps and
procedures that were followed during the study and represent the results that are obtained.
c. A scientific report does not contain an abstract.
d. [Link] provides DOI for articles.
e. If reference list citations are given at the end of the report than we are not required to give
in-text citations.
II. Fill in the blanks
a. The following sections should be not be included in an abstract : Literature review,
Formulae and abbreviations; and __________________.
a) References to tables, b) Objectives, c) Hypothesis, d) Methodology)
b. AWebliography refers to a list of resources on a particular topic that can be accessed via
______________
a)HTML, b) World Wide Web, c) Library, d)News Paper Articles)
c. ____________refers to number of publications of a source in the past three years.
a) IPP, b) SNIP, c) %selfcit, d) P

d. The term DOI is divided into three parts Prefix, Suffix and ____________ which comprises
of numbers, letters and symbols.
a) Index, b) Value, c) Proxy, d) Object
e. Resubmitting the same work again and again is known as which type of
plagiarism________.
a) Auto Plagiarism, b) Paraphrasing, c) Collusion, d) Verbatim
text III. Multiple Choice Questions.
a. Word-to-word quotation without clear acknowledgement is called as:
1. Collusion
2. Auto plagiarism
3. Paraphrasing
4. Verbatim Text

b. ______________ a measure of the number of times, an average paper in a journal is cited,

during a year.
1. Citation
2. DOI
3. Impact Factor
4. None of the above
c. According to University of Bristol, there are five major referencing systems, which of the
following is called ‘Author Date System’:
1. Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA),
2. The Harvard System
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3. Chicago System
4. Modern Language Association of America (MLA)
5. American Psychological Association (APA)

d. Collectivist culture or Universal Knowledge is prevalent in which part of the world?

1. East Asia
2. Central America
3. Africa
4. Australia

e. Professor Henk F Moed at Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS) developed
which of the following indicators.
1. H-index
2. Cite score metrics
3. SNIP
4. JIF

4.7. ANSWERS TO THE SELF-LEARNING QUESTIONS

Ia. True
Ib. True
Ic. False
Id. True
[Link]
[Link] to tables
[Link] Wide Web
IIc.P
IId. Proxy
IIe. Auto Plagiarism
[Link] Text
[Link] Factor
[Link] Harvard System
IIId. East Asia
[Link]

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4.8. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING

• Plagiarism: Representing someone else’s ideas or work as your own in academics and
research is known as plagiarism. As per the code of academic integrity plagiarism is a serious
offence and should not be practiced by anyone. Usually citation errors are acceptable to certain
extent but plagiarism is not.

• DOI:Digital Object Identifier is a repository of previously published works or articles.

Generally every published scientific report or research paper will have a DOI.

• Referencing System: In different parts of the world various referencing systems have
been adopted. These referencing systems give a predefined format for citation and referencing
of research papers or articles in scientific reports or research papers. The information that is
included is generally author name, source and date of publication. The most widely excepted
referencing system in the world is the APA style which stands for American Psychological
Association (APA). Currently, APA 7th edition is followed in academic writing.

4.9. TASK

Practice APA style from the below given resource and incorporate the same in your project
report/scientific report writing.
Purdue Online Writing Lab :
[Link]

4.10. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

• “Scientific/Technical Reports.” Scientific/Technical Reports Handout |

Howe Center for Writing Excellence - Miami University, [Link],
[Link] Accessed 30 May
2022.

• www-liby@[Link]. “Write Scientific Reports - The Library:

University of Waikato.” Write Scientific Reports - The Library: University of Waikato,
[Link], [Link]
scientificreports. Accessed 30 May 2022.

• “DOI Basics.” DataCite Support, [Link], [Link]

basics. Accessed 30 May 2022.

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• “Oxford University.” Plagiarism,

[Link]
Accessed 30 May 2022.
• “Cultural Differences in Plagiarism.” Cultural Differences in Plagiarism | Turnitin,
[Link], 20 Dec. 2017, [Link]
plagiarism.

• “Collusion | University of Westminster, London.” Collusion | University of Westminster,

London, [Link], [Link]
andpolicies/academic-matters/academic-misconduct/collusion. Accessed 30 May 2022.

• “Subject and Course Guides: Measuring Your Impact: Impact Factor, Citation Analysis, and
Other Metrics: Journal Impact Factor (IF).”
Journal Impact Factor (IF) - Measuring Your Impact: Impact Factor, Citation Analysis,
and Other Metrics - Subject and Course Guides at University of Illinois at Chicago,
[Link], 17 Apr. 2022, [Link]

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