HUMAN REPRODUCTION
INDEX
Introduction
The Male Reproductive System
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[Link] of sperm
The Female Reproductive System
1. Structure
2. Oogenesis
Menstrual Cycle
[Link] phase
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[Link] phase
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Fertilization
Implantation
Embryonic development
Fetal development
Parturition and Lactation
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Humans reproduce sexually. They are viviparous, i.e.
giving birth to the young ones.
Human reproduction comprises a number of sequential
steps.
Gametogenesis- production of male (sperm) and female
(ovum) gametes
Insemination- transfer of male gamete to female genital
tract
Fertilization- the fusion of gametes to form a zygote
Blastocyst development- the continuous mitotic division
in zygote
Implantation- attachment of blastocyst to the
endometrium of the uterine wall
Gestation- embryonic development (9 months in human)
Parturition- childbirth
Male and female reproductive organs differ in the
structure, function and development
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Structure
a) Testes:
•A pair of testes are present in the scrotum outside the body, it
helps in maintaining an optimal temperature for sperm formation. There
are ~250 testicular lobules present. Sperms are produced in seminiferous
tubules. Each lobule contains 1-3 seminiferous tubules.
•There are two types of cells present in the internal lining of
seminiferous tubules:
▪︎Spermatogonia are germ cells of males, that undergo
meiotic division to form sperms
▪︎Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.
•Leydig cells (interstitial cells) are present in the interstitial
spaces outside the seminiferous tubules. They produce and secrete
androgens (male reproductive hormones)
b) Accessory ducts:
•There are accessory ducts present. Vasa efferentia, rete testis,
epididymis and vas deferens. These ducts store and transport sperms
from the testis to urethra. Vas deferens along with a duct from seminal
vesicles form ejaculatory duct and opens into the urethra.
c) Glands:
•There are three glands, prostate gland, a pair of
seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands. The glands secrete
seminal plasma. It is rich in certain enzymes, calcium, fructose
and provides lubrication to the penis.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis starts at puberty. There is increased secretion of
GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus.
GnRH stimulates the pituitary to secrete LH (luteinizing hormone) and
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).
LH stimulates Leydig cells to secrete androgens. The main androgens
are testosterone and androstenedione. These hormones stimulate the
process of spermatogenesis.
FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to secrete factors, which help in the
process of spermiogenesis
Spermatogonia are diploid (2n=46) and divide by mitotic division
to form multiple cells called primary spermatocytes
Each primary spermatocyte cell divides meiotically to first form
two haploid (n=23) secondary spermatocytes, which are equal in
size
Secondary spermatocytes further divide in the 2nd meiotic division
to form haploid spermatids of equal size
So each diploid primary spermatocyte cell forms four haploid
spermatids
Spermiogenesis is the process of formation of sperms from
spermatids
Spermiation is the process by which sperms are released from
seminiferous
Structure of Sperm
Around 200-300 million sperms are ejaculated at once
Head contains acrosome apically, which contains enzymes that
facilitate entry of sperm into the ovum. It is followed by an
elongated nucleus (haploid)
Middle piece has multiple mitochondria, that provide energy for
the movement of sperms
Tail is a flagellum that protrudes out of the cell body and is
responsible for the vigorous motility of sperms. The tail helps
sperms in swimming so that they can reach towards the ovum
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Structure
a) Ovaries:
There are two ovaries present. Ovaries produce ovum and female
reproductive hormones. Peripheral cortex is present at the periphery of
ovarian stroma and inner medullary region
b) Fallopian Tubes:
A pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts connect ovaries to the uterus
Infundibulum is a funnel-shaped part of the fallopian tube, which is
near the ovary. The infundibulum terminates into finger-like projections
known as fimbriae, which collect the ovum
Infundibulum leads to the uterus through ampulla and isthmus
c) Uterus or womb:
It is inverted pear-shaped. Embryo development takes place inside
the uterus. The uterine wall is differentiated into three layers:
Perimetrium- It is the outermost layer and is membranous
Myometrium- It is the middle layer of smooth muscles. Strong
contraction during delivery is due to the myometrium
Endometrium- It is glandular and undergoes cyclic changes during the
menstrual cycle. Blastocyst gets embedded in the endometrium for
development
A narrow cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. The vagina and the
cervical canal form the birth canal.
d) External Genitalia:
Mons pubis (fatty tissue), labia majora and labia minora
(tissue folds) and clitoris form external female genitalia. The hymen
membrane covers the vaginal opening.
e) Mammary glands:
A pair of breasts are present in females. They contain fat and
mammary glands. Alveolar cells secrete milk.
Mammary glands are modified sweat glands found in mammals,
primarily in females, responsible for producing and secreting milk to
nourish offspring. Each gland is a paired structure (breast) containing
glandular tissue organized into lobes, which house clusters of milk-
secreting cells called alveoli. Hormones like estrogen, progesterone,
prolactin, and oxytocin regulate their development, milk production, and
ejection.
Structure
Glandular tissue and fat: The breast is made up of glandular tissue and
variable amounts of fat.
Mammary lobes: Glandular tissue is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes.
Alveoli: Each lobe contains clusters of cells called alveoli, which are
responsible for milk secretion.
Mammary ducts: Alveoli empty into mammary tubules, which merge to
form mammary ducts.
Mammary ampulla and lactiferous duct: Several ducts converge into a
wider mammary ampulla, which then leads to a lactiferous duct that
opens to the outside.
Nipple and areola: The nipple is the central projection with a pigmented
area called the areola surrounding it.
Oogenesis
Oogenesis is the formation of a mature female gamete called the ovum.
Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis as the process of oogenesis
starts during embryonic development as compared to spermatogenesis,
which only starts at puberty.
Around two million oogonia are formed in the ovary of a foetus and
no more oogonia are formed after that
Oogonia divide further mitotically and enter the prophase-1 of
meiotic division. At this stage, the division stops temporarily and the
cells are called primary oocytes
Primary oocytes get surrounded by granulosa cells to form primary
follicles
Most of the primary follicles degenerate and only 60,000 to 80,000
are left at puberty
Primary follicles develop into secondary follicles and then to tertiary
follicles, which contains a fluid-filled cavity known as the antrum
The first meiotic division of primary oocytes occurs inside the
tertiary follicle. It is an unequal division leading to the formation of a
haploid secondary oocyte, which is large and a tiny polar body
The tertiary follicle changes into Graafian follicle (mature follicle).
The membrane zona pellucida develops around the secondary
oocyte
Ovulation is the process by which the ovum (secondary oocyte) is
released on the rupture of the Graafian follicle
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menarche- First menstruation at puberty
The menstrual cycle is of 28/29 days on an average and an
ovum is released at the middle of each cycle (~14th day)
Lack of menstrual cycle is an indicator of pregnancy or may
be due to poor health or stress
Menopause is the stage at which the menstrual cycle ceases
(~45-50 yrs). Reproductive phase of a female is between
menarche and menopause, whereas males continue to
produce sperm throughout their life
Menstrual Phase
Duration: Typically 3–5 days.
Process: The uterine lining, which was prepared for a potential
pregnancy, is shed, resulting in menstrual bleeding.
Timing: Day 1 of the cycle.
Follicular Phase
Duration: Days 1 to 14, immediately following menstruation.
Process: Hormones (FSH) stimulate ovarian follicles to develop into a
mature Graafian follicle. Simultaneously, the uterine lining
(endometrium) begins to thicken in preparation for a potential
pregnancy.
Hormonal control: The pituitary gland releases FSH to stimulate
follicle growth, and rising estrogen levels thicken the endometrium.
Ovulatory Phase (Ovulation)
Duration: Around day 14 of a 28-day cycle.
Process: The mature Graafian follicle ruptures and releases a single
egg (ovum) from the ovary, a process triggered by a surge in LH.
Timing: This is the fertile window for fertilization.
Luteal Phase
Duration: After ovulation (days 14–28).
Process: The ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which
secretes progesterone. Progesterone further prepares the endometrium
for implantation. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates, leading to a drop in progesterone and estrogen levels,
which triggers the start of menstruation and the next cycle.
FERTILIZATION
The fertilization takes place at the ampullary region of the fallopian
tube
When one of the sperms comes in contact with the zona pellucida of the
ovum, no more sperms can enter further due to changes induced in the
membrane
Second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte is induced on the entry
of sperm. It forms a large ootid (haploid) and the secondary polar
body
The sperm and ovum fuse together to form the diploid zygote.
The sex of the baby is determined at this stage. In spermatogenesis,
there are two kinds of male gametes formed, one with the X
chromosome and one with the Y chromosome. If the sperm containing
X chromosome fuses with the ovum, the zygote develops into female
and when sperm with the Y chromosome fuses with the ovum, the
zygote develops into a male child
The zygote divides mitotically forming blastomeres and moves
towards uterus through the oviduct
IMPLANTATION
Morula is the stage with 8-16 blastomeres in the embryo
The blastocyst is formed due to continuous division after
the morula stage. At this stage, blastomeres get arranged
in the outer layer called trophoblast and inner cells
forming inner cell mass
The trophoblast gets attached to the endometrium lining of
the uterus and the inner cell mass gets differentiated into
the embryo
The blastocyst gets embedded in the endometrium as the
dividing uterine cells completely cover it. The process is
known as implantation. This is the start of pregnancy
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
After implantation, cells of the embryo start differentiating into
outer ectoderm, inner endoderm and then the middle mesoderm.
These are called primary germinal layers and all the adult tissues
are developed from these three layers
Stem cells are present in the inner cell mass. They have the ability
to develop into all types of tissues and are called pluripotent. Stem
cells are now being used and researched for the treatment of
various life-threatening diseases like cancer
Placenta is the link between the growing foetus and the mother. It is
formed by the interdigitation of uterine cells and chorionic villi
(finger-like projections), protruding from trophoblasts
Placenta provides the growing foetus with nutrients and oxygen
and also helps in removing excretory products
Umbilical cord connects the placenta to the foetus and transports
nutrients
Placenta produces many hormones, that are required to maintain
pregnancy, for the fetal growth and at the time of delivery
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and human placental
lactogen (hPL) are only produced at the time of pregnancy. hCG
level of the urine during pregnancy is the marker for detection of
pregnancy by test strips.
Relaxin level increases at the later stages of pregnancy.
Relaxin level also increases at the time of ovulation but in
the absence of pregnancy, the level decreases and
menstruation starts
Level of progesterone, estrogen, prolactin, cortisol and
thyroxine, etc. increases to support the fetal growth.
Gestation period:
Human- 9 months
Cats and dogs- 60-65 days
Elephants- 22 months
FETAL DEVELOPMENT
1st month- The heart is formed
2nd month- Limbs and digits are formed
3rd month (first trimester)- all the major organs are
developed and the foetus is recognizable as a human
being. External genitalia start differentiating and the sex
of the foetus can be determined
5th month- foetus starts moving and hair on the head
appear
Second trimester- eyelashes and eyelids develop, the
body gets covered with fine hair
The third trimester- by the end of the third trimester, the
child is fully developed and the body prepares for the
delivery (parturition) of the infant
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
The process of childbirth is known as parturition.
Parturition is initiated by neuroendocrine signals. Mild
uterine contractions start when the foetus is fully developed.
This is followed by secretion of oxytocin from the pituitary
gland. Contractions become stronger and stronger as more
oxytocin is secreted resulting in childbirth. After the infant,
the placenta is also delivered. The umbilical cord is cut and
often preserved these days as it contains stem cells, which
can be used in future to cure diseases, not only of the person
but also of the immediate family members.
To induce delivery, doctors inject oxytocin injection.
Lactation: Increased secretion of prolactin from the pituitary
gland induces milk production in the mammary glands.
Colostrum is the first formed (yellowish) milk from the
mammary glands. It is rich in antibodies and proteins and
essential for the immunity of infants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT Biology Textbook for Class 12
Byjus -notes on Human Reproduction
Vedantu - notes on Human Reproduction
Edukart CBSE Class 12 Biology Question Bank 2024-2025
Wikipedia