P a g e | 477

Providing Assistance in Value Situations (Hansen)

Helping clients in the area of values may well be the most difficult task most
counselor undertake. One thing the counselor can and should do is to promote an
environment in the counseling relationship that allows the client the freedom to explore,
in some detail or depth, the value concerns he has.

Strategies

1. Choosing from alternative – identifies the decision-making process. Client

becomes aware that there is usually a process to be undertaken vefore making final
decision.

Questions: Have you considered alternative to that?

Howlong did you look around before you decided?

2. Choosing after considering consequences – client is helped to see that

various alternatives may have more positive values than others.

Questions: What is the best thing you like about that idea?
What would happen if everyone had your belief?

3. Choosing freely – Client looks at the degree to which outside influences may
affect decisions.

Questions: Is that really your own choice?

Where do you suppose you got that idea?

4. Prizing and cherishing – Client learns that people frequently behave on the
basis of how important an activity and behavior may be, that is all right to have some
beliefs that are important even though they may be seen by others as selfish.

Questions: Is that something that is important to you?

Are you so proud of how you handled that?

5. Public Affirming – Involves sharing the client’s values and understanding with
others, which may be done a direct manner or through actions and behaviors that reflect
values.

Questions: Is this something that youd like to share with others?

Who would you be willing to tell that to you?

6. Acting – this leads the client to change his behavior or attitude or at least a
better understanding and acceptance of behavior.
 P a g e | 478

Questions: Is that something you’d be willing to try?

What would your next step be if you choose to pursue that direction?

7. Acting repeatedly – the counselor insures that the new behavior become a
part of the client lifestyles and that the behavior works.

Questions: Is this typical of you?

Will you do it again?
 P a g e | 479

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Education

Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere” which means to
lead forh. It is defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest,
skills and abilities and other intangible human qualities through training instructions and
self-activity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization to posterity

TECHNOLOGY

Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines

or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of
organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to
overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as
“smartphones” and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious
attention for their learning potential.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning

and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with,
and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory.

While instructional technology covers the processes and systems used in the process
of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes, but is nto limited to,
software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities. Educational
technology is simply defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing
student learning. Educational Technology reliefs on a broad definition of the word
“technology”. ([Link].)

Educational Technology is designed to introduce both traditional and innovative

technologies to facilitate and foster meaningful and effective learning. Students are
expected to demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature, application and
production of the various types of educational technologies. The course will likewise
focus both on developing teacher support materials and the production of technology-
based student outputs.
 P a g e | 480

THEORIES

There are three main schools of thought or philosophical frameworks behind

educational technology. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the
animal learning experiences of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward [Link],
Clark L. Hull, B.F Skinner and others.

Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human
learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many
educators.

Skinner’s Contributions

B.F Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his

functional analysis of Verbal Behavior, and wrote “The technology of Teaching”, an
attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education, as well as promote his
system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the
Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from
Keller’s and Skinner’s models.

Cognitivism

Cognitive has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early
beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960’s and 1970’s, learning theory has
undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of behaviorism was
retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivist consider to how human memory
works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley’s
Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive
Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970’s
80’s and 90’s.

It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a
major influence on Cognitive Science Theory. The Cognitive concepts of working
memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long tern memory have major
influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are
concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.
 P a g e | 481

Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many

educators began to consider in the 1990’s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy
is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with
reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environment require students to utilize their prior

knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related and/or adaptive concepts in
learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator,
providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are
appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassesn (1997) suggests “well-
structured” learning environment are useful for novice learners and that “ill-structured”
environments are only useful for more advance learners. Educators utilizing technology
when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that
reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

Connectivism

Connectivism is “a learning theory for the digital age.” And has been developed
by George Siemens and Stephen Downes based in their analysis of the limitations of
how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. Donal G. Perrin, Executive Editor
of the International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning says the
theory “combines relevant elements of many learning theories, social structures, and
technology to create a powerful theoretical construct for learning in the digital
age.”([Link])

USE OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

John Amos Comeniums (1592-1670) wrote Orbis Pictus Sensualium or the World
of Sensible Things Pictured, a book which is considered as the first book on the use of
visual aids in classroom teaching.

Audiovisual aids are defined as any device used to aid in the communication of
an idea. As such, virtually anthing can be used as an audio visual aid provided it
successfully communicates the idea or information for which it is designed.
 P a g e | 482

An audiovisual aid includes still photography, motion picture, audio or video tape, slide
or filmstrip, that is prepared individually or in combination to communicate information or
to elicit a desired audience response.
Even though early aids, such as maps and drawing are still in use, advances in
the audiovisual field have opened up new methods of presenting these aids, such as
videotapes and multimedia equipment which allow more professional and entertaining
presentation not only in the classrooms but also anywhere in which ideas are to be
conveyed to the audience.

DEVICE
Device is any means other than the subject -matter itself that is employed by the
teacher in presenting the subject matter to the learner.

Purpose of Visual Devices

1. To challenge student’s attention

2. To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils
3. To facilitate the understanding of the pupils
4. To provide motivation to the learners
5. To develop the ability to listen

Tradition Forms of Visual Aids

1. Demonstration
2. Field Trips
3. Laboratory experiments
4. Pictures, films, simulations, models
5. Real objects

Classification of Devices

1. Extrinsic – used to supplement a method used

Ex. Picture, graph, film strips, slides, etc.

2. Intrinsic – used as a part of the method or teaching procedure

Ex. Pictures accompanying an article

3. Material Devices – device that have n o bearing on the subject matter

Ex. Blackboard, chalk, books, pencils, etc.

4. Mental Devices – a kind of device that is related in form and meaning to the subject
matter being presented
 P a g e | 483

Ex. Questions, projects, drills, lesson plans, etc.

NONPROJECTED AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

Nonprojected aids are those that do not require the use of audiovisual equipment
such as a projector and screen. These include charts, graphs, maps, illustrations,
photographs, brochures, and handouts. Charts are commonly used almost everywhere.
A chart is a diagram which shows relationships. An organizational chart is one of the
most widely and commonly used kind of chart.

THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM

In the advent of modern technology, computers are common classroom

equipment and aid to teaching process. Aside from computers, there are still other
learning tools and audio – visual aids that the teachers and the students can utilize in
order to facilitate learning. These may include digital cameras, video cameras,
interactive whiteboard tools, and LCD projectors.

Computers
Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer
in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material,
illustrate how to use new programs and show new websites.

Class Website
What better way to display your student’s work, than to create a web page
designed just for your [Link] a web page is designed teachers can post homework
assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In current
day society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a
website, so why note give them one where they can be published author. Just be
careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school
or classroom.

Class Blogs
These are some of a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being
implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue,
like a journal, of thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student
comment and reiterative reflection. Wiki are more group focused to allow multiple
members of the group to edit a single document and create truly collaborative and
carefully edited finished product.

Wireless Classroom Microphones

Noise classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones,
students are able to hear their teachers clearer. Children learn better when they hear
 P a g e | 484

the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at
the end of the day.
 P a g e | 485

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
It focuses on the development and utilization of assessment tools to improve the
teaching-learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for measuring
knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills. It allows the students to go through
the standard steps in test constitution for quality assessment. Students will experience
how to develop rubrics for performance-based and portfolio assessment.

Measurement refers to the quantitative aspect of evaluation. It involves

outcomes that can be quantified statistically. It can also be defined as the process in
determining and differentiating the information about the attribtutes or characteristics of
things.

Evaluation is the qualitative aspects of determining the outcomes of learning. It

involves value judgement. Evaluation is more comprehensive than measurement. In
fact, measurement is one aspect of evaluation.

Test consist of question or exercises or other for measuring the outcomes of

learning

CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS

1. According to manner of response

 oral
 written

2. According to method of preparation

 subjectivity/essay
 objective

3. According to the nature of answer

 personality tests
 intelligence test
 aptitude test
 achievement or summative test
 sociometric test
 diagnostic or formative test
 trade or vocational test

Objective tests are tests which have definite answers and therefore are not
subject to personal bias.
 P a g e | 486

Teacher-made tests or educational tests are constructed by the teachers based

on the contents of different subjects taught.

Diagnostics tests are used measure a students strengths and weaknesses,

usually to identify deficiencies in skills or performance.

Formative and summative are terms often used with evaluation, but they may
also be used with testing.

Formative testing is done to monitor student’s attainment of the instructional

objectives. Formative testing occurs over a period of time and monitors student
progress.

Summative testing is done at the conclusion of instruction and measures the extent to
which students have attained the desired outcomes.

Standardized tests are already valid, reliable and objective. Standardized tests
are tests for which contents have been selected and for which norms or standards have
been established. Psychological tests and government national examinations are
examples of standardized tests.

Standards or norms are the goals to be achieved expressed in terms of the

average performance of the population tested.

Criterion-referenced measure is a measuring device with a predetermined level of

success or standard on the part of the test-takers. For example, a level of 75 percent
score in all the test items could be considered a satisfactory performance.

Norm-referenced measure is a test that is scored on the basis of the norm or

standard level of accomplishment by the whole group taking the test. The grades of the
students are based on the normal curve of distribution

CRITERIA OF A GOOD EXAMINATION

A good examination must pass the following criteria:

Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to
measure. It is the usefulness of the test for a given measure. A valid test is always
reliable. To test the validity of a test it is to be pretested in order to determine If it really
measures what it Intends to measure or what it purports to measure.

Reliability
 P a g e | 487

Realibility pertains to the degree to which a test measure what is suppose to

measure. The test of reliability is the consistency of the results when it is administered
to different groups of individuals with similar characteristics in different places at
different times. Also, the results are almost similar when the test is given to the same
group of individuals at different days and the coefficient of correlation is not less than
0.85.

Objectivity
Objectivity is the degree to which personal bias is eliminated in the scoring of the
anwers. When we refer to the quality of measurement, essentially, we mean the amount
of information contained in a score generated by the measurement. Measures of
student instructional outcomes are rarely as precise as those of physical characteristics
such as height and weight.

Student outcomes are more difficult to define, and the units of measurement are usually
not physically units. The measures we take in students vary in quality, which prompts
the need for different scales of measurement. Terms that describe the levels of
measurement in these scales are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

Measurements may differ in the amount of information the numbers contain.

These differencies are distinguished by the terms nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales of measurement.

The term nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio actually form a hierarchy. Nominal
scales of measurement are the least sophisticated and contain the least information.
Ordianl, interval, and ratio scales increase respectively in sophistication.

The arrangement is a hierarchy in the higher levels, along with additional data. For
example, numbers from an interval scale of measurement contain all of the information
that nominal and ordinal scales would provide, plus some supplementary input.

However, a ratio scale of the same attribute would contain even more information than
the interval [Link] idea will become more clear as each scale of measurement is
described.

Nominal Measurement

Nominal scales are the least sophisticated; they merely classify objects or
events by assigning numbers to them. These numbers are arbitrary and imply no
quantification, but the categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
 P a g e | 488

For example, one could nominally designate baseball positions by assigning the pitcher
the numberal 1; the catcher, 2; the first baseman, 3; the second baseman, 4; and so on.
These assignments are arbitrary; no arithmetic of these numbers is meaningful. For
example, 1 plus 2 does not equal 3, because a pitcher plus a catcher does not equal a
first baseman.

Ordinal Measurement

Ordinal scales classify but they also assign rank order. An example of ordinal
measurement is ranking individuals in a class according to their test scores. Students
scores could be ordered from the first, second, third and so forth to the lowest score.

Such a scale gives more information than nominal measurement, but it still has
limitations. The units of ordinal measurement are most likely unequal. The number of
points separating the first and second students probably does not equal the number
separating the fifth and sixth students. These unequal units of measurements are
analogous to a rules in which some inches are longer than others. Addition and
substraction of such units yield meaningless numbers.

Interval Measurement

In order to be able to add and subtract scores, we use interval scales,

sometimes called equal interval or equal unit measurement. This measurement scale
contains the nominal and ordinal properties and is also characterized by equal units
between score points.

Example include thermometers and calendar years. For instance, the difference in
temperature between 10º and 20º is the same as that between 47º and 57º. Likewise
the difference in length of time betweem 1946 and 1948 equals that between 1973 and
1975. These measures are defined in terms of physical properties suc that the intervals
are equal.

For example, a year is the time it takes for the earth to robit the sun. The advantage of
equal units of measurement in straightforwards: Sums and differences now make
sense, both numerically and logically. Note, however, the zero point in interval
measurement is really an arbitrary decision; for example, 0º does not mean that there is
no temperature.

Ratio Measurement
The most sophisticated type of measurement includes all the preceding
properties, but in a ratio scale, the zero point is not arbitrary; a score of zero includes
the absence of what is being measured. For example, if a person’s wealth equalled
zero, he or she would have no wealth at all.
 P a g e | 489

This is unlike a social studies test, where missing every item (i.e., receiving a score
zero) may not indicate the complete absence of social studies knowledge.
Ratio measurement is rarely abieved in educational assessment, either in cognitive or
affective areas. The desirability of ratio measurement scales is that they allow ratio
comparisons, such as Ann 1-1/2 times as tall as her little sister, Mary. We can seldom
say that one’s intelligence or achievement is 1-1/2 as great as that of another person.

An IQ of 120 may be 1-1/2 times as great numerically as an IQ of 80, but a person with
an IQ of 120 is not 1-1/2 times as intelligent as a person with an IQ of 80.

Note that carefully desined tests over a specified domain of possible items can
approach ratio measurement. For example, consider an objective concerning
multiplication facts for pairs of numbers less than 10. In all, there are 45 such
combinations.

However the teacher might randomly select 5 or 10 test problems to give a particular
student. Then, the proportion of items that the students get correct could be used to
estimate how many of the 45 possible items the student has mastered. If the student
answers 4 or 5 items correctly, it is legitimate to estimate that the student would get 36 t
o 45 items correct if all 45 items were administered.

This is possible because the set of possible items was specifically defined in the
objective, and the test were a random, representative sample from that set. Most
educational measurements are better than strictly nominal or ordinal measures, but few
can meet the rigorous requirements of interval measurement.

Educational testing usually falls, somewhere between ordinal and interval scales in
sophistication. Fortunately, empirical studies have shown arithmetic operations on these
scales are appropriate, and the scores do provide adequate information for most
decisions about students and instruction. Also, as we will see later, certain procedures
can be applied to scores with reasonable confidence.

Norm-Referenced and Criterion Referenced Measurement

When we contrast norm-referenced measurement (or testing) with criterion-

referenced measurement, we are basically referring to two different ways of interpreting
of information. However, Popham (1988 page 135) points out the certain characteristics
tend to go with each type of measurement, and it unlikely that results of norm-
referenced tests are interpreted in criterion-referenced ways and vice versa.

Norm-Referenced interpretation historically has been used in education; norm-

referenced tests continue to comprise a substantial portion of the measurement in
today’s schools. The terminology of criterion-referenced measurement has existed for
 P a g e | 490

close to three decades, having been formally introduced with Glaser’s (1963) classic
article.
Over the years, there has been occasional confusion with the terminology and how
criterion-referenced measurement applies in the classroom. Do not infer that just
because a test is published, it will necessarily be norm-referenced, or if teacher-
constructed, criterion-referenced. Again, we emphasize that the type of measurement or
testing depends on how the scores are interpreted. Both types can be used by the
teacher.

Norm-Referenced Interpretation

Norm-referenced interpretation stems from the desire to differentiate among

individuals or to discriminate among the individuals of some defined group on whatever
is being measured. In norm-referenced measurement, an individual’s score is
interpreted by comparing it to the scores of a defined group, often called normative
group.

Norm-referenced interpretation is a relative interpretation based on an

individual’s position with respect to some group, often called the normative group.
Norms consist of the score, usuallyin some form of descriptive statistics, of the
normative group.

In norm-referenced interpretation, the individual’s position in the normative

groups is of concern; thus, this kind of positionining does not specify the performance in
absolute terms. The norm being used is the basis of comparison and the individual
score is designated by its position in the normative group.

Achievement Test as an Example. Most standardized acheivements tests, especially

those covering several skills and academic areas, are primarily designed for norm-
referenced interpretation. However, the form of results and the interpretations of these
tests are somewhat complex and require concepts not yet introduced in this text.

Scores on teacher-constructed test are often given norm-referenced interpretations.

Grading on the curve, for example, is norm referenced interpretation of test scores on
some type of performance measure. Specified percentages of scores are assigned the
different grades, an individuals score is positioned in the distribution of scores.

Suppose an algebra teacher has total of 150 students in five classes, and the
classes have a common final examination. The teacher decides that the distribution of
letter grades assigned to the final examination performance will be 10 percent As, 20
percent Bs, 40 percent Cs, 20 percent Ds, and 10 percent Fs.(Note that the final
examination grade is not necessarily the course grade.)
 P a g e | 491

Since the grading is based on all 150 scores, do not assume that 3 students in each
class will receive as, on the final examination.
James receives a score on the final exam such that 21 students have higher
scores and 128 students have lower scores. What will Jame’s letter grade be on the
exam? The top 15 scores will receive As, the next 30 scores (20 pearcent of 150) will
receive Bs. Counting from the top score down, Jame’s score is positioned 22 nd, so he
will receive a B on the final examination.

Note that in this interpretation example, we did not specify James’s actual numerical
score on the exam. That would have been necessary in order to determine that his
score positioned 22nd in the group of 150 scores. But in terms of the interpretation of the
score, it was based strictly on its position in the total group of scores.

Criterion-Referenced Interpretation

The concepts of criterion-referenced testing have developed with a dual meaning

for criterion-referenced. On one hand, it means referencing an individual’s performance
to some criterion that is defined performance level. The individual’s score is interpreted
in absolute rather than relative terms. The criterion, in this situation, means some level
of specified performance that has been determined independently of how others might
perform.

A second meaning for criterion-referenced involves the idea of a defined

behavioral domain—that is, a defined body of learner [Link] learner’s
performance on a test is referenced to a specifically defined group of behaviors. The
learner’s performance on a test is referenced to a specifically defined group of
behaviors. The criterion in this situation is the desired behaviors.

Criterion-referenced interpretation is an absolute rather than relative

interpretation, referenced to a defined body of learner behaviors, or, as is commonly
done, to some specified level of performance.

Criterion-referenced tests require the specification of learner behaviors prior to

constructing the test. The behaviors should be readily identifiable from instructional
objectives. Criterion-referenced tests tend to focus on specific learner behaviors, and
usually only a limited number are covered on any one test.

Suppose before the test is administered an 80-percent-correct criterion is

established as the minimum performance required for mastery of each objective. A
student who does not attain the criterion has not mastered the skill sufficiently to move
ahead in the instructional sequence. To a large extent, the criterion is based on teacher
 P a g e | 492

judgement. No magical, universal criterion for mastery exists, although some curriculum
materials that contain criterion-referenced tests do suggest criteria for mastery.
Also, unless objectives are appropriate and the criterion for achievement relevant, there
is little meaning in the attainment of criterion, regardless of what it is.

Distinctions between Nor-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests

Although interpretations, not characterstics, provide the distinction between

norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests, the two types do tend to differ in some
ways. Norm-referenced tests are usually more general and comprehensive and cover a
large domain of content and learning tasks. They are used for survey testing, although
this is not their exclusive use.

Criterion-referenced tests focus on a specific group of learner behaviors. To

show the contrast, consider an example. Arithmetic skills represent a general and broad
category of student outcomes and would likely be measured by a norm-referenced test.
On the other hand, behaviors such as solving addition problems with two five-digit
numbers or determining the multiplication products of three-and four digit numbers are
such more specific and may be measured by criterion-referenced tests.

A criterion-referenced tests tend to focus more on sub skill than on broad skills.
Thus, criterion-referenced tests tend to be shorter. If mastery learning is involved,
criterion-referenced measurement would be used.

Norm-referenced tests scores are transformed to position within the normative

group Criterion-referenced test scores are usually given in the percentage of correct
answers or another indicator of mastery or the lack thereof. Criterion-referenced tests
tend to lend themselves more to individualizing instruction than do norm-referenced
tests. In individualizing instruction, a student’s performance is interpreted more
appropriately by comparison to the desired behaviors for that particular student, rather
than by comparison with the performance of a group.

Norm-referenced test items tend to be of average difficulty. Criterion-referenced

tests have item difficulty matched to the learning tasks. This distinction in item difficulty
is necessary because norm-referennced tests emphasize the discrimination among
individuals and criterion referenced tests emphasize the description of performance.
Easy items, for example, do little for discriminating among individuals, but they may be
necessary for describing performance.
 P a g e | 493

Finally, when measuring attitudes, interests, and aptitudes, it is practically

impossible to interpret the results without comparing them to a reference group.
The reference groups in such cases are usually typical students or students with high
interests in certain areas. Teachers have no basis for anticipating these kinds of scores;
therefore, in order to ascribe meaning to such a score, a referent group must be used.
For instance, a score of 80 on an interest inventory has no meaning itself. On the other
hand, if a score of 80 is the typical response by a group interested in mechanical areas,
the score takes on meaning.

STAGES IN TEST CONSTRUCTION

I. Planning the Test

A. Determining the Objectives

B. Preparing the Table of Specifications
C. Selecting the Appropriate Item Format
D. Writing the Test Items
E. Editing the Test Items

II. Trying Out the Test

A. Administering the First Tryout – then Item Analysis

B. Administering the Second Try-out then Item Analysis
C. Preparing the Final Form of the Test

III. Establishing Test Validity

IV. Establishing the Test Reliability

V. Interpreting the Test Score

MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN TEST CONSTRUCTION

The following are the major considerations in test construction:

Type of Test
Our usual idea of testing is an in-class test that is administered by the teacher.
However, there are many variations on this theme: group tests, individual tests, written
tests, oral tests, speed tests, power tests, pretests and post tests. Each of these has
different characteristics that must be considered when the tests are planned.

If it is a take-home test rather than an in-class test, how do you make sure that
students work independently, have equal access to sources and resources, or spend a
sufficient but not enormous amount of time on the task? If it is a pretest, should it
 P a g e | 494

exactly match the past test so that a gain score can be computed, or should the pretest
contain items that are diagnostic of prerequisite skills and knowledge?
If it is an achievement test, should partial credit be awarded, should there be penalties
for guessing, or should points be deducted for grammar and spelling errors?

Obviously, the test plan must include a wide array of issues. Anticipating these
potential problems allows the tst constructor to develop positions or policies that are
consistent with his or her testing philosophy. These can then be communicated to
students, administrators, parents and other who may be affected by the testing
program. Make a list of the objectives, the subject matter taught, and activities
undertaken. These are contained in the daily lesson plans of the teacher and in the
references or textbook used. Such tests are usually very indirect methods that only
approximate real-world applications. The constraints in classroom testing are often due
to time and the development level of the students.

Test Length

A major decision in the test planning is how many items should be included on
the test. There should be enough to cover the content adequatelym but the length of the
class period or the attention span or fatigue limits of the students usually restrict the test
length. Decisions about test length are usually based on practical constraints more than
on theoretical considerations.

Most teachers want test scores to be determined by how much the student
understands rather than by how quickly he or she answers the questions. Thus,
teachers prefer power tests, where at least 90 percent of the students have time to
attempt 90 percent of the test items. Just how many items will fit into a given test
occasion is something that is learned through experience with similar groups of
students.

Item Formats

Determining what kind of items to include on the test is major decision. Should
they be objectively scored formats such as multiple choice or matching type? Should
they cause the students to organize their own thoughts through short answer or essay
formats?

These are important questions that can be answered only by the teacher in terms of the
local context, his or her students, his or her classroom, and the specific purpose of the
test. Once the planning decision are made, the item writing begins. This tank is often
the most feared by the beginning test constructors. However, the procedure are more
common sense than formal rules.
 P a g e | 495

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PREPARING A TEST

1. Are the instructional objectives clearly defined?

2. What knowledge, skills and attitudes do you want to measure?

3. Did you prepare a table of specifications?

4. Did you formulate well defined and clear test items?

5. Did you employ correct English in writing the items?

6. Did you avoid giving clues to the correct answer?

7. Did you test the important ideas rather than the trivial?

8. Did you adapt the test’s difficulty to your students ability?

9. Did you avoid using textbook jargons?

10. Did you cast the items in positive form?

11. Did you prepare a scoring key?

12. Does each item have a single correct answer?

13. Did you review your items?

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN CONSTRUCTING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS

 The test items should be selected very carefully. Only important facts should be
included.

 The test should have extensive sampling of items.

 The test items should be carefully expressed in simple, clear, definite, and
meaningful sentences.

 There should be only one possible correct response for each test item.