EET 463 ILLUMINATION TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 1: DR. RENUKA T K, MESCE, KUTTIPPURAM

SYLLABUS: Introduction of Light: Types of illumination, Daylighting, Artificial light sources-
artificial lighting and total lighting, Quality of good lighting, Factors affecting the Physical
processes- Incandescent and Halogen lamps, fluorescent lamps, LPSV and HPSV lamps, mercury
vapour lamps, metal halide lamps, LED lamps- modern trends
Supplementary lighting shadow, glare, reflection, Colour rendering, and stroboscopic effect, Methods
of artificial lighting, Lighting systems-direct, indirect, semi-direct, semi-indirect, Lighting scheme,
General and localized, Different types of Luminaires
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light rays can be reflected, transmitted or
absorbed when they strike an object. Light can be of different colours depending on the wavelength
of radiation causing it.
Light from natural sources such as the sun is known as white light and is made up from the different
frequency components of the visible spectrum.
Artificial light from sources such as candles, tungsten filaments and gas discharge lamps, etc., has a
different mix of frequency components which produce a different colour light.

1.2 TYPES OF ILLUMINATION/ ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

• General or ambient lighting
• Task lighting
• Accent lighting

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1.2.1 General or ambient lighting
• General or ambient lighting is intended
to light up a room in its entirety.
• It provides a uniform level of
illumination throughout the space
independently of another lighting source.
Moreover, its purpose is to ensure safe
and easy traffic, as well as to create an
overview of the room.
• The ambient light ‘bounces’ off the walls
to illuminate as much space as possible.
• Ambient Outdoor lighting is usually
installed in order to ensure visibility and
increase security around a building.
•
• It is also recommended to light up the exterior of the building, entrances and stairs to reduce
and perhaps eliminate the risk of injury that can occur when entering and leaving the
building.

This is probably the most commonly used artificial lighting system

General lighting produced by a regular array of luminaires with or
without an indirect component result in a specific horizontal
illuminance with a certain uniformity.
This type of system will normally provide a rather bland “shadow-
free” lighting installation with high energy costs because the whole
area is illuminated to the highest level of illumination required for the
single most difficult task.

Localized General Lighting:

If the location of a particular work area is known then

localized lighting can be used to raise the illuminance on this
area whilst maintaining general illuminance at a lower level.
The average general illuminance should be at least one-third
of the task illuminance where localized lighting is provided.
Localized lighting tends to provide a more interesting design
with emphasis placed on the workstation.
Localised lighting is more efficient with regard to energy
costs because of the more efficient use of light Good
maintenance of these schemes is essential.

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1.2.2 Task lighting

Task lighting illuminates the tasks a person
carries out in a given space such as reading,
cooking, and computer work.
A brighter light is required in a smaller focal
point of the room for these sorts of tasks.
For a more pleasant illumination, it is often best
to avoid harsh lights or lighting that cast
troublesome shadows.
It is also practical to install a single switch for
focal lighting, independent from the room’s
overall lighting switch.

1.2.3 Accent lighting

Accent lighting is used mainly to focus on a specific
point of interest or to achieve a desired effect.
This type of lighting gives the impression of a larger
room. It is more frequently used to highlight an
architectural feature, a plant (in outdoor layout), a
sculpture, or a collection of objects.

As a general rule, effective accent lighting requires the installation of three times more light on the
focal point than ambient lighting generally provides to attract the viewers. This type of lighting
imparts drama and character and allows certain features of interest to be highlighted. The idea is to
draw viewers’ attention to the item that is lit.
At a glance

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1.3 DAY LIGHTING

There are 3 reasons to provide daylight:

1. Healthier and more satisfactory indoor environment;
2. Economic advantage in energy savings;
3. Conserves earth’s resources
Also
• Colour rendering will be improved in most interiors with good daylight penetration.
• The natural variation of daylight provides information about the weather and time of day
which occupants will deem desirable.
Utilization of daylight in buildings has a number of advantages.
• It can make a significant contribution to energy efficiency.
• It has variability and subtlety which is more pleasing than the relatively monotonous
environment produced by artificial lighting.
• It helps to create optimum working conditions by bringing out the natural contrast and colour
of objects.
• Windows and skylight give occupants contact with the outside world.

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• The presence of natural light can bring a sense of well-being and awareness of the wider
environment.
• It is also claimed that exposure to natural light can have a beneficial effect on human health.
• However due to its uncertainty and variability daylighting cannot provide adequate
illumination of the internal environment all of the time. Therefore artificial lighting systems
must be incorporated into buildings in order to supplement daylighting when it is required.
1.3.1 Daylight factor
Interior daylight is measured using a parameter known as the Daylight Factor (DF).

The Daylight Factor is a combination of 3 separate components:

• The sky component (SC) – the light received directly from the sky.
• The externally reflected component (ERC) - the light received directly by reflection from
buildings and obstructions outside the room.
• The internally reflected component (IRC) - the light received from surfaces inside the room.
DF = SC + ERC + IRC

1.4 ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES

• Artificial lighting enables extended activity period employing in a planned optimized
manner, minimizing the resources
• Artificial lighting should be functional and pleasant both physiologically and
psychologically
• Artificial lights are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, colors of light emitted, and
levels of brightness.
• Some of these sources are incandescent bulbs, halogen lamps, metal halide, fluorescent
tube, compact florescent light, and LEDs.

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Fluorescence in which case the excitation lasts only for the excited period. Phosphorescence in
which case the excitation persists even after the exciting
source is removed.

Incandescence Luminescence

Fluorescence Phosphorescence
Types of Artificial Light Sources
• Incandescent lamps
• Halogen lamps
• Fluorescent Lamps
• LPSV and HPSV lamps
• Mercury vapour lamps
• Metal halide lamps
• LED lamps

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1.4.1 Incandescent lamps
• When an electric current is passed through a fine metallic
wire it raises the temperature of the wire and heat energy
will be radiated at low temperatures.
• At high temperature heat as well as light energy will be
radiated. The higher the temperature of the wire, the
higher is the amount of light energy radiated.
• Tungsten is the most common material used as filament
due to its high melting point, low vapour pressure, very
strong and can be made ductile.
• Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in
1879
• Normally Filament is mounted in a glass bulb and
maintained in vacuum (type ‘B’) gets heated upon
passage of current.

• In 1911 Coolidge developed Tungsten in ductile form which could result in a Continuous
uniform Filament. It was Rugged and had very high efficiency.
• Langmuir introduced the use of inert gases and improved radiation efficiency – (1913). They
were called type ‘C’.
• Inert Gases are introduced in the Glass envelope to decrease the vaporizations of Tungsten.
The gases Nitrogen and Argon are the most suitable
• Darkening of Glass bulbs occurs due to the vaporization of Tungsten. Hence the lamps are
called either Type B – Vacuum < 40 W rating or Type C – Gas > 40 W using Inert gases.
• It produces light when a thin wire called a tungsten filament is heated by electricity running
through it making it so hot that it starts to glow brightly. This releases a lot of heat and the
bulbs get hot to the touch, meaning this bulb is very inefficient

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1.4.2. Halogen Lamps

Halogen lamps are a special type of incandescent lamps,
where the bulb is filled with a gas mixture that contains a
small amount of a halogen such as iodine or bromine.
That gas filling can establish the so-called halogen cycle.
The halogen chemically reacts with evaporated tungsten
metal from the filament, forming a halide that moves
around in the bulb. When it gets close to the hot filament
again, it dissociates, and the released metal is deposited
on the filament.
In order to avoid the deposition of metal on the glass bulb, the bulb needs to become relatively hot
during operation; temperatures around 250 °C are appropriate. Therefore, one typically uses
relatively small bulbs (with the glass being closer to the hot filament), which are often made of
quartz glass (fused silica) because that material can withstand substantially higher temperatures than
ordinary bulb glass.
As the filament is typically made of tungsten, as for most other incandescent lamps, the
term tungsten halogen lamp is frequently used.
• Halogen lamps are significantly more efficient than ordinary incandescent lamps, but still far
less efficient than some other light sources.
• The advantage resulting from the explained halogen cycle is that such a lamp can be operated
with a substantially higher filament temperature (around 2900 to 3200 K) while still
maintaining a reasonable lifetime and avoiding metal deposition on the glass, which would
lead to darkening.
• Consequences of the increased filament temperature are
• an increased luminous efficacy, leading to improved energy efficiency, and
• an increased color temperature, which ironically gives it a “colder” appearance, which is
closer to daylight.
• Typical 230-V household halogen lamps with a power consumption of 60 W, for example,
reach a luminous efficacy of around 16 lm/W.
• Halogen lamps with the same power but a lower operating voltage of 12 V can range
substantially higher luminous efficacies around 20 lm/W, but the difference gets somewhat
smaller when considering power losses in the required lamp power supply.
• Note that other light sources such as fluorescent lamps and light-emitting (LEDs) are still far
more efficient than halogen lamps. Therefore, halogen lamps are also gradually phased out,
although tentatively later than ordinary incandescent lamps.
• Despite the moderate energy efficiency, such lamps can be a good choice for applications
where only few operating hours per year are required. The relatively low cost of production is
then a more important factor.

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1.4.3 Fluorescent Lamps
The fluorescent lamp is the most widely used
discharge lamp. It is an energy-efficient lamp
available in low and medium wattage ranges,
making it suitable for domestic and commercial
lighting purposes.
It consists of a glass tube (of around 36 mm in
diameter and a length of 1200 mm. )
The inner surface of the tube is coated with a
fluorescent powder - usually a phosphor coating.
Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-pin caps are
provided at both ends.
There is an electrode shield around each electrode to reduce the blackening of the tubes due to the
deposition of evaporated tungsten.
The tube is filled with an inert gas such as argon to a pressure of 1.5 to 5 mm of mercury.
A small droplet of mercury is also introduced into the tube. During normal operation, this mercury
vaporizes and helps to maintain the discharge.
Fluorescent Lamps with electrical choke and starter
Fluorescent lamps are designed for switch start
operation. The starter consists of two bimetallic
contacts, housed in a small glass bulb filled with a
noble gas at low pressure.
The contacts are positioned with a narrow separation
between them.
When the normal voltage is applied, it creates a glow
discharge between the bimetallic contacts and due to
heating, they bend towards each other.
The contacts touch each other for one or two seconds and the current path is completed through
the inductive ballast and the filament electrodes. This current results in preheating the electrodes.
As the bimetallic contacts touch, the glow discharge stops and now the contacts cool down and leave
apart to open the circuit.
The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage (600-1500V) in the ballast and is applied
across the tube, which in turn triggers the discharge through the tube.
The capacitor, which is connected across the starter contact, is provided to reduce the radio
interference due to switching operations.
The starter has no function once the lamp is started.
Like other discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. This means the resistance of the tube decreases when the temperature is increased,
resulting in an increase of current.
Therefore, the ballast is essential during normal operation also to regulate the lamp current. When
the ballast is connected in series with the circuit, it regulates the lamp current.
The capacitor across the supply line is for power factor improvement.

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When there is a discharge through the lamp, it produces radiation mainly in the ultraviolet region.
This radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the inner side of the glass
tube.

[Link] Electronic Ballast

The electronic ballast takes 230V at a 50-60Hz AC

supply.
It first converts AC voltage into DC voltage.
After that, filtration of this DC voltage is done by using
a capacitor configuration.
Now filtered DC voltage is fed to the high-frequency
oscillation stage where oscillation is typically a square
wave and the frequency range are from 20 kHz to 80
kHz. Hence output current is with very high frequency
The inner surface of the tube is coated with a fluorescent powder - usually a phosphor coating.
Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-pin caps are provided at both ends.

Generally, more than 400 V is required to strike the gas discharge process in fluorescent tube light.
When the switch is ON, the initial voltage across the lamp becomes 1000 V around due to high
value, hence gas discharge takes place instantaneously.
Once the discharge process is started, the voltage across the lamp is decreased below 230V up to
125V and then this electronic ballast allows limited current to flow through this lamp.
This control of voltage and current is done by the control unit of the electronic ballast. In the running
condition of fluorescent lamps, electronic ballast acts as a dimmer to limit current and voltage.

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1.4.4 Sodium vapour lamps

A gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium (Na)

in an exciting condition to generate light at a
589 nm of characteristic wavelength is known
as a sodium vapor lamp.
The sodium vapour lamp works through
vaporized sodium metal by creating an
electric arc.
Other gases & materials will help in
activating the lamp and also controlling its
color. These lamps are mostly used in street
lights and industrial purposes.
The sodium vapor lamp circuit diagram is
shown below.
In this lamp, two electrodes like E1 & E2 are
mounted within a G1 glass tube including
sodium with a small quantity of argon or
neon gases.
This G1 glass tube is placed in a G2
evacuated external tube.

In the above circuit, capacitor (C), choke (L) & a small step-down transformer ‘T’ is connected in
series with the lamp. The choke (L) is an inductor that is connected in series with a low-power
sodium vapor lamp.
The choke functions like overload protection for stabilizing the discharge.
The transformer used in the above circuit is a leaking transformer for stabilizing the arc.
All these capacitors, choke & transformer is connected in series with vapour lamp for heating the
cathode electrode ‘E1’.
When the supply is switched on, the lamp will not start as the supply voltage is too low to start the
discharge.
The leak transformer connected across the mains produces a starting voltage of about 400 V.
The neon gas starts the discharge and afterward, the sodium vaporizes and the discharge continues.

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The power factor is very low hence a capacitor is used to raise it.
The efficiency is about 75 lumens per watt and the lamp has an average life of 6000 hrs

[Link] Low-Pressure Sodium Vapour lamp (or LPSV lamp)

A Low-Pressure Sodium Vapour lamp (or LPSV lamp)
possesses some characteristics of High-Intensity
Discharge (HID) lamps as well as it resembles
fluorescent lamps in other areas.
Basically, an LPSV lamp is a gas discharge lamp that
uses sodium in an excited state to produce light.
The outer envelope is made from borosilicate glass.
The inner surface of the outer glass case is coated with
indium oxide. This heat-reflective coating of indium
oxide allows visible light to pass but reflects infrared
radiation back inside the tube as a result of which both
light output and temperature inside the tube increase.
The arc tube of the LPSV lamp is made of glass and
bent in the form of a U-shape in order to increase the
length of the arc. The arc tube is supported at both
ends.
The arc tube contains a mixture of metallic sodium and
inert gases argon and neon.

The operation:
Electric power is given to the lamp and it is energized. The electrodes produce an arc and this arc
strikes through the conductive gas and the lamp produces a reddish-pink light, characteristic of neon.
Current flowing through the inert gas mixture of argon and neon generates heat. This heat vapourizes
the metallic sodium.
With the passage of time, the quantity of sodium in the arc stream increases and this produces the
characteristic monochromatic orange color at a wavelength of 489.6 nm.
Applications of LPSV Lamps:
LPSV lamps are economical to use in road lighting and security lighting where the color of the
object is not important. They are most suitable to use during foggy weathers

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[Link] High-Pressure Sodium Vapour lamp (or LPSV lamp)

The HPSV lamp is the most frequently used in street

lighting.
An improvement of the LPS lamp is the HPS lamp.
The HPS lamp includes a narrow arc tube that is
supported through a frame within a bulb.
The arc tube includes high pressure for higher
efficiency. In this tube, xenon, sodium, and mercury are
usually used.
A high pressure sodium vapor lamp is a type of gas-
discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to
produce light.
It is one of the most efficient types of lighting sources
and has a long lifespan.
It is widely used for industrial lighting and outdoor
security areas, such as parking lots and roadways.

A high pressure sodium vapor lamp is defined as a lamp that operates at a high pressure (above 1
atm) and temperature (above 1000 °C) inside a translucent ceramic arc tube made of polycrystalline
alumina (PCA).
The arc tube contains a mixture of xenon gas, sodium-mercury amalgam, and electrodes at both
ends.
The arc tube is enclosed in a heat-resistant outer glass bulb that is evacuated or filled with inert gas.
The lamp works by applying a high-voltage pulse from a ballast and an igniter to the electrodes,
which ionizes the xenon gas and creates an initial arc. So the lamp will turn sky blue like xenon
lights.
After that, the arc heats the mercury (Hg) then its vapor provides a bluish color to the lamp.
The lamp gets heated and the sodium is the final material to evaporate. The vapor of sodium hits an
arc above 240 C.
The combination of these two spectra results in a golden-white light with a color temperature of
about 2000 K and a color rendering index of about 25.
The sodium (Na) can be mixed with different impurities to form white light.
• Outer glass bulb: It protects the arc tube from physical damage and thermal shock. It also
filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the arc.
• Arc tube: It is made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA), which is resistant to corrosion by
sodium vapor. It contains the electrodes, xenon gas, and sodium-mercury amalgam.
• Electrodes: They are made of tungsten wire with an emissive coating. They are connected to
the ballast and the igniter through metal caps.

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• Xenon gas: It is used as a starting gas because it has a low ionization potential. It also
contributes to the light output by emitting blue light.
• Sodium-mercury amalgam: It is used as the main light source because it emits yellow light
with high luminous efficacy. It is stored in a reservoir behind one of the electrodes.
• Ballast: It is an electrical device that regulates the current and voltage to the lamp. It also
provides the high voltage pulse for starting the lamp.
• Igniter: It is an electronic device that generates the high voltage pulse for starting the lamp by
superimposing it on the supply voltage.
The high-pressure sodium vapour lamp has several advantages over other types of lamps, such as:
• High luminous efficacy: It can produce up to 150 lumens per watt, which is about twice as
much as mercury vapor lamps and five times as much as incandescent lamps.
• Long lifespan: It can last up to 24,000 hours, which is about four times as long as mercury
vapor lamps and 24 times as long as incandescent lamps.
• Low maintenance: It does not require frequent replacement or cleaning, which reduces labor
and disposal costs.
• High reliability: It can withstand voltage fluctuations, vibrations, and extreme temperatures,
which makes it suitable for harsh environments.
The high-pressure sodium vapour lamp also has some drawbacks, such as:
• Poor color rendering: It has a low color rendering index, which means it distorts the colors of
the objects it illuminates. This makes it unsuitable for applications where color accuracy is
important, such as retail stores or museums.
• Glare: It produces a bright and intense light that can cause discomfort or impairment to the
vision of drivers or pedestrians. This can be reduced by using proper shielding or diffusing
devices.
• Cycling: It can experience cycling or flickering when it reaches the end of its life or when it
operates at low temperatures. This can be prevented by using proper ballast or thermal
insulation.

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1.4.5 Mercury-vapour lamp

mercury-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses an electric

arc through vaporized mercury to produce light.
The arc discharge is generally confined to a small fused quartz arc
tube mounted within a borosilicate glass bulb. Inner discharge tube
and outer evacuated tube.
The inner tube is provided with two main electrodes and an auxiliary
electrode. It contains a small amount of argon and a little mercury.
Mercury vapor lamps are more
energy efficient than incandescent lamps with luminous efficacies of
35 to 55 lumens/watt.
Their other advantages are a long bulb lifetime in the range of 24,000
hours and a high-intensity, clear white light output. For these reasons,
they are used for large-area overhead lighting, such as in factories,
warehouses, and sports arenas as well as for streetlights.

When the supply is switched on, the supply voltage is applied across the electrodes but is not
sufficient enough to cause discharge between the two main electrodes.
But this voltage is high enough for initiating the discharge over the very short distance between the
main electrode and the auxiliary electrode.
This discharge then spreads rapidly and sets up discharge between the main electrodes.
The argon initiates the discharge, vaporizes the mercury and after some time mercury vapour takes
place.
The ionized mercury atoms decrease the resistance across the main electrodes and cause the main arc
to strike. The efficiency is about 40 lumens per watt. A significant portion of the radiation is in the
UV region resulting in a bluish light.

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1.4.6 Metal Halide Lamp

metal-halide lamp is an electrical lamp that produces light by an electric arc through a gaseous
mixture of vaporized mercury and metal halides (compounds of metals with bromine or iodine).
It is a type of high-intensity discharge (HID) gas discharge lamp.
Developed in the 1960s, they are similar to mercury vapour lamps, but contain additional metal
halide compounds in the quartz arc tube, which improve the efficiency and color rendition of the
light.
The most common metal halide compound used is sodium iodide.
Once the arc tube reaches its running temperature, the sodium dissociates from the iodine, adding
orange and red to the lamp's spectrum.
As a result, metal-halide lamps have a high luminous efficacy of around 75–100 lumens per watt,
which is about twice that of mercury vapor lights and 3 to 5 times that of incandescent lights and
produce intense white light. Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours.

1.4.7 Light Emitting Diode ( LED) Lamps

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An optoelectronic device that emits light based on the principle of electroluminescence is known
as LED (Light Emitting Diode) lamp.
Electroluminescence is the emission of light due to the interaction of an electric field with a suitable
solid. It was noticed in 1962 that a forward-biased gallium-arsenide junction was found to be an
efficient emitter of radiation.
In case of electroluminescent p-n junctions, when biased in the forward direction, some of the energy
dissipated is converted into light and hence, these are also called as semi-conductor lamps.
For the construction of LED lamps, following semiconductor materials are used
• Gallium Phosphide (Green / Red)
• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Yellow / Red)
• Gallium Nitride (White)
•
In order to construct an LED lamp, a layer of P-
type semiconductor material is placed above the
N-type semiconductor layer.
A metal film is used on the P-type layer to provide
an anode connection to the device.
Similarly, a gold film is formed on the N-type
layer to provide a cathode connection.
The gold film also provides a reflection of light
from the bottom surface of the device. This
increases the efficiency of the LED lamp.
When a DC power supply is applied to an LED lamp in forward bias, the majority charge carriers
start drifting, i.e., electrons towards the positive terminal and holes towards the negative terminal of
the source.
At the PN junction, the recombination of electrons and holes takes place, due to the recombination of
these charge carriers, the energy is released either in the form of heat or light.
The semiconductor materials such as gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium Arsenide Phosphide
(GaAsP), gallium nitride (GaN), etc. emit light on the recombination of electrons and holes at the PN
junction.
The electrons in these semiconductor materials lose their energy by the emission of light photons.

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If the semiconductor material is translucent, the emitted light at the PN junction will be transferred
outside. In this way, an LED lamp emits light.
The advantages of using LED lamps are as follows −
• The operating cost is very less.
• They are compact in size.
• LED lamps provide easy control of light.
• Remote switching and control can be implemented in the LED lamps.
• LED lamps have longer life, up to 100000 hours.
• LED lamps are energy efficient and low current consuming.
• These lamps are mechanically robust.
• LED lamps provide excellent color rendering.
• These lamps are environment friendly, as not having any toxic content.

Listed below are some of the disadvantages of using LED lamps −

• The initial cost of the LED lamps is very high.
• As LED lamps are semiconductor devices. Thus, they are temperature-sensitive and
temperature-dependent.
• LED lamps require a DC supply; therefore, a rectification unit is required in the lamp circuit.
• The high-intensity light produced by an LED lamp has an impact on the insects.

LED lamps are used in the following applications −

• For domestic and commercial lightings.
• Used as indicating lamps.
• Used as bi-color indicators.
• LED lamps are also used as fault indicators in control panels.
• In display boards.
• Used for decorative lighting.
• In mobile phone and wrist watches screens.
• Used as head lamps in automobiles.
• LED lamps are also used in various instruments in different industries.

[Link] LED lamps- modern trends

Simplicity In Lighting Design:

Simplicity and minimalism in design have been growing trends in recent years – and they're only
going to continue to gain prominence. Current lighting trends point to the simplicity of residential
lighting designs to create a sleek and modern environment. Simple LED bulbs paired with simplistic
fixtures can emphasize a clean, white space with a crystal glow or bring a sense of comfort to an area
with a pleasant warmth.
Wall Lighting Can Create Ambiance:

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Wall lights have been a part of current LED lighting market trends and have become ideal for
creating soft, diffused light that can accentuate the residential lighting design of transitional rooms,
such as bedrooms, studies and living rooms.
Hidden Lighting Sources Can Add True Depth:
One of the most interesting current lighting trends is utilizing hidden light sources to accentuate
specific parts of a room that may appear drab. Hidden lighting gives the illusion of streams of light
emitting from surfaces seemingly from nowhere, adding a new level of texture and beauty to the
room that is impossible to achieve in any other way.
Smart Lighting Is Perfect For Any Occasion:
LED lighting market trends are continuing to innovate and expand upon smart lighting technology.
Using a smart LED bulb, one can easily create different lighting scenarios over a wireless network
from a mobile phone. With smart LED bulbs, one will be able to easily adjust the colour, colour
temperature, brightness and intensity of one or all bulbs from anywhere in home. There's no limit to
the different colour combinations one can create with smart lighting.
Environmental Friendliness in Lighting:
Environmental friendliness is one trend that will never go out of style. Reducing the carbon footprint
is a responsibility everyone in the world shares. Using LED bulbs rather than traditional fluorescent
or incandescent bulbs is a simple step in the right direction. LED lights are up to 80% more efficient
than other types of lighting, and 95% of the energy they produce is converted to light as opposed to
the 5% of light fluorescent and incandescent bulbs produce.

1.5 QUALITIES OF GOOD LIGHTING

Good lighting - Process of providing the right quantity of light at the right quality.
Traditional quality criteria
1. Visual Performance
2. Harmonious brightness distribution
3. No glare, flicker and stroboscopic effects
4. Avoid Veiling reflections
5. Correct light colour and Appropriate colour rendering

1.5.1. Visual Performance (Sufficient illumination level)

One of the major aspects of the lighting practice and recommendations is to provide adequate
lighting for people to carry out their visual tasks.
Visibility is defined by our ability to detect objects or signs of given dimensions, at given distances
and with given contrasts in the background. Or Visibility is defined by the speed and accuracy of
performing a visual task.
Visual performance is improved with increasing luminance. Yet, there is a plateau above which
further increases in luminance do not lead to improvements in visual performance. Thus increasing
luminance levels above the optimum for visual performance may not be justified and can on the
contrary lead to excessive use of energy.
Elementary step in creating comfortable and good quality luminous and visual environments.

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1.5.2 Uniformity of Lighting

Uniformity of lighting can be desirable or less desirable depending on the function of space and type
of activities. Non-uniform lighting may cause distraction and discomfort
Lighting standards and codes usually provide recommended illuminance ratios between the task area
and its surroundings
Compared to a conventional uniform office lighting installation with fluorescent lamps, LEDs
provide opportunities to concentrate light more (non-uniform) on actual working areas and to have
light where it is actually needed.

1.5.3. Controlling Glare, Flicker and Stroboscopic Effects

[Link] Glare
Glare is defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as to cause annoyance,
discomfort, interference with vision or eye fatigue.
Glare is the loss of visual performance or discomfort produced by an intensity of light in the visual
field greater than the intensity of light to which the eyes are adapted. Simply put, glare occurs when
too much light enters your eye and interferes with your eye’s ability to manage it. Glare can be
distracting and even dangerous and can occur day or night in a number of ways. Glare may come
directly from a light source or be reflected.
There are four types of glare:
Distracting glare,
discomforting glare,
disabling glare,
and blinding glare.
In indoor lighting, the main concern is about discomfort glare.
Distracting glare – Distracting glare results from light being reflected when it moves from one
optical medium to another (e.g. from air to glass). This results in some of the light being reflected off
the surface. Distracting glare comes from light reflected off the front of lenses so that others can’t see
your eyes, and from light reflected off the backs of or within the lenses so that you see reflections in
your lenses.
This type of glare can also be experienced at night, forming “halos” around headlights or streetlights.
Distracting glare can represent an annoyance or distraction to the viewer and lead to eye fatigue.
Discomforting glare – Discomforting glare may result from direct or reflected glare and can be
caused by every day, bright sunlight conditions. Discomforting glare occurs in varying degrees of
intensity, but even the milder degrees of discomforting glare result in visual discomfort, often shown
by symptoms of eyestrain or fatigue.
Depending upon one’s light sensitivity, this glare can also be discomforting regardless of weather or
time of day. The unprotected eye will respond to discomforting glare by squinting and constriction
the pupil. It is common for the affected individual to try to avoid the glare by shielding the eyes or
turning in another direction.

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Disabling glare – Disabling glare, also known as veiling glare, is more intense than discomforting
glare and the high level of light produces a glare that can actually interfere with or block vision. This
type of glare comes from excessive, intense light that can occur when you face directly into the sun.
Disabling glare causes objects to appear to have lower contrast than they would if there no glare.
Disabling glare occurs because light scatters when it enters the eye, which, in turn, reduces the
sharpness of vision and raises the differential light threshold. Disabling glare tends to become more
problematic in the elderly, as the decreasing transparency of the crystalline lens that comes with age
leads to developing cataract formation.
Blinding glare – Blinding glare results from light reflecting off of smooth, shiny surfaces such as
water, sand or snow. It can be strong enough to block vision. When the light reflects of the surfaces,
it becomes polarized and produces a blinding glare. Blinding glare can block vision to the extent that
the wearer becomes visually compromised.
Glare tends to be worse with older age, light colored eyes, prior eye surgery, and certain eye
conditions, including cataracts, dry eye .
Another classification of Glare

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[Link] Flicker
Produced by very fast fluctuations of amplitude. Light sources that are operated with ac supply
produce regular fluctuations in light output
Visibility of these fluctuations depends upon frequency and modulation of the fluctuation.
Hazard to health
Can be minimized by stable supply voltage or by using high frequency electronic ballasts.

[Link] Stroboscopic Effects

The stroboscopic effect occurs when a flashing light source illuminates a moving object.
All discharge lamps are turned on and off 100 times per second when operated on magnetic ballasts
supplied by a 50 Hz power system.
Each time the voltage passes through the zero point the arc is extinguished and the lamp ceases to
produce light
A rapidly rotating object at speeds that are multiples of 50 such as a 1500 rpm or 3000 rpm motor
can appear to be motionless.
This effect is harmful to the vision and causes discomfort, visual fatigue, and headaches.

1.5.4 Avoid Veiling Reflections

Specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and which reduce the visual task contrast.
Causes – Geometry of the surface, observer and sources of high luminance like Glossy papers, glass
surfaces and computer screens are subject to cause veiling reflections
In rooms with several computer screens inside the task area, special care has to be taken in the
positioning of the luminaries to avoid luminous reflections from the screens

1.5.5 Avoid Shadows

A dark area or shape produced by a body coming between rays of light and a surface obstructs the
visibility of certain elements.
In lighting installations, the formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue to the eyes and,
therefore, is considered to be a shortcoming. The complete absence of shadows does not necessarily
mean an ideal condition of lighting installations. Contrary, perhaps to popular opinion, a certain

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amount of shadow is desirable in artificial lighting as it helps to give shape to the solid objects and
makes them easily recognized.
Objects illuminated by shadowless light appear flat and uninteresting, contours are lost, and it is
difficult for the eye to form a correct judgment of the shape of an object. However, there is one
exception to this, i.e., in drawing offices, where we are to see flat surfaces, shadowless light is
essential otherwise shadows will hinder the work.
Hard and long shadows can be avoided by:
(i) Using large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5 metres and
(ii) By using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps or by using indirect
lighting system.

1.5.6 Correct Light Colour and Appropriate Colour Rendering

The colour of light sources is usually described by two properties viz Correlated Colour temperature
(CCT) and colour rendering index(CRI). The colour appearance of a light source is evaluated by
CCT
For example, CCT OF 2700 K have a yellowish colour appearance and their light is described as
warm. Fluorescent lamps or white LEDs have CCT of around 6000K with a bluish appearance and
light is described as cool
The CRI measures how well a given light source renders a set of test colours relative to a reference
source of the same CCT as the light source in question
Colour temperature describes the color appearance of the light source and the light emitted from it.
Color rendering describes how well the light renders colors in objects.
The ability of the light source to render colours of surfaces accurately or Colour rendering is the
ability of a light source to reproduce surface colours
Colour rendering, expressed as a rating from 0 to 100 on the Color Rendering Index (CRI), describes
how a light source makes the color of an object appear to human eyes and how well subtle variations
in color shades are revealed. The higher the CRI rating is, the better its color rendering ability.
Imagine two objects, one red, and one blue, which are lighted by a cool light source with a low CRI.
The red object appears muted while the blue object appears a rich blue. Now take out the lamp and

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put in a cool light source with a high CRI. The blue object still appears a rich blue, but the red object
appears more like its true color.
▪ The best colour rendering is Ra = 100.
▪ Light sources are divided up into colour rendering levels:
• Ra > 90 very good colour rendering Ra > 80 good colour rendering
1.5.7 New Quality Criteria
❖ Changing lighting situations
❖ Personal control
❖ Energy efficiency
❖ Daylight integration
❖ Light as an interior design element

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHTING SYSTEM

Classified according to proportion of light directed upward or downward from the fittings
– Direct
– Indirect
– Semi direct
– Semi indirect
– General diffusing

1.6.1 Direct Lighting

Commonly used type of lighting scheme.

More than 90 percent of total light falls directly on the
working plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though
it is most efficient it causes hard shadows and glare.
It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor
lighting

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1.6.2 Semi Direct Lighting

60 to 90 percent of the total light flux is made

to fall downwards directly, remaining light is
used to illuminate the ceiling and walls. Best
suited to rooms with high ceilings where a high
level of uniformly distributed illumination is
Best
desirable. Good for stairways, corridors, and
storage areas

1.6.3 Indirect Lighting

More than 90 percent of total light flux is thrown

upwards to the ceiling where it is diverted to the
room through diffuse reflection. The resulting
illumination is softer and more diffused, the
shadows are less prominent and the appearance of
the room is much improved. Used for decoration
purposes in cinemas theatres and hotels.

1.6.4 Semi-Indirect Lighting

60 – 90 % of the light produced by the

fittings is directed upwards and 10-40
% of light is directed downwards
Soft shadows and glare free. Used for
indoor light decoration purposes

1.6.5 General Diffusing

The light produced is equally distributed upwards

and downwards. 60 – 40 % upwards and 60-40%
downwards

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1.7 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LUMIMAIRES ( LIGHT FIXTURES)

During the process of selecting a luminaire, users will clearly notice that there are two distinct
application categories: outdoor or indoor. Once this has been determined, they can then consider the
wattage, lumen output and colour temperature.

Type of luminaire and application

Outdoor luminaire

• Bollard: Garden decoration and walkway illumination.

• Underwater: Area decoration and safe for users during night time.
• Ceiling Luminaire: Main lighting for building hall or room.
• Wall Recessed Luminaire: Guide light. Mostly install at wall, pathway and stair.
• Surface Mounted Luminaire: Be used as per building and wall style. Surrounding light and
area decorative.
• In-Ground Luminaire: Highlight any vertical object e.g. flag pole, signage on floor or
building wall.
• Pendant Luminaire: Be used as per room style for decorative and main lighting..
• Low/High Bay: Main area lighting. Suitable for factory, warehouse and showroom.
• Floodlight: Various size. Highlight object or building to be outstanding in the night time. It
can be installed on high pole to get more efficiency lighting.
• Post Top: Be used as per landscape design. Surrounding light and area decorative.
• Street Light: High efficiency, uniform lighting for road and area surrounding.

Indoor Luminaire

• Surface Wall Luminaire: Be used as per building, wall style and interior design.

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• Surface Ceiling Luminaire: Main interior lighting and area decorative.
• Recessed Ceiling Luminaire: Main interior lighting and specify by follows the ceiling
design.
• Pendant Luminaire: Be used as per room style for decorative, main and area lighting e.g.
working desk, dining table, etc.
• Recessed Downlight: Main interior lighting and specify by follows the ceiling design.
• Track Light: It can be adjustable to focus on any object which needs to be more shine e.g.
Image, Art piece or statue.
• Decorative Luminaire: Area decorative and follows with interior design and ambient.

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Question Bank
1. Explain in detail the types of artificial lighting.
OR
What are the different schemes of artificial lighting?

Ans: Hint: Refer pages 1-3 & 24-25

[Explain the following]
• General or ambient lighting
• Task lighting
• Accent lighting
[Also explain briefly about the following classification of lighting system. Explain
according to marks]
– Direct
– Indirect
– Semi direct
– Semi indirect
– General diffusing
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Explain day lighting. Define day light factor

Ans: Hint: Refer pages 4-5

Write about day light. Equation of day light factor with neat diagram & write the 3
components of DF
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Explain about any 5 types of artificial light sources with the help of neat diagrams.
OR
Explain with neat diagram the different types of artificial lighting systems used.
OR
Explain with a neat diagram the different types of artificial lighting systems used.
Also specify the areas where they are commonly used.

Ans: Hint: Refer pages 7-17

[Write about any 5 type. Mention applications also ]:
• Incandescent lamps
• Halogen lamps
• Fluorescent Lamps
• LPSV and HPSV lamps
• Mercury vapour lamps
• Metal halide lamps
• LED lamps
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4. Explain in detail about LED lamps. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the
same compared to other types of lamps? Write the applications of LED lamps
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 17-18
[Explain the work with the help of a diagram. Write advantages and disadvantages.
Application also]
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5. Explain the modern trends in LED lamps.
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 18-19
[Explain the points: simplicity, wall lighting, Hidden lighting, smart lighting and environment
friendliness]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Explain the qualities of good lighting
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 19-24
[Explain the following : Visual Performance, Harmonious brightness distribution, No glare,
flicker, and stroboscopic effects, Avoid Veiling reflections, Correct light colour and
Appropriate colour rendering]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Explain the following:
(i) lighting shadow (ii) glare (iii) reflection (iv) Colour rendering (v) stroboscopic effect
OR
What is the impact of stroboscopic effect on visual comfort in an artificial lighting
scheme? How the effect can be reduced
OR
Explain Colour rendering and stroboscopic effect
OR
What is a glare? How it is classified.
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 20-23
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8. Explain the classification of the lighting system
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 24-25
[Explan the following lighting system: Direct, Indirect , Semi direct, Semi indirect, General
diffusing]
9. Explain the different types of luminaires
Ans: Hint: Refer pages 26-27
[Explain the indoor and outdoor luminaires]

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