Euclidean Geometry

Naman Goyal
August 2023

1
Contents
1 Angle Chasing and Basic Results 3

2 Circles 5

3 Lengths and Ratios 7

4 Assorted Configurations 10

5 Computational Geometry 13

6 Complex Numbers 14

7 Barycentric Coordinates 17

8 Inversion 18

9 Projective Geometry 20

10 Complete Quadrilaterals 21

11 Advanced Results and Classical Theorems 21

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Euclidean Geometry 3

1 Angle Chasing and Basic Results

Triangle Sum
The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180◦ .

Inscribed Angle Theorem

If ∠ACB is inscribed in a circle, then it subtends an arc with measure 2∠ACB.

Cyclic Quadrilaterals
Let ABCD be a convex cyclic quadrilateral. Then ∠ABC +∠CDA = 180◦ and ∠ABD =
∠ACD.

Cyclic Quadrilaterals (Complete)

Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral. Then the following are equivalent:

1. ABCD is cyclic.

2. ∠ABC + ∠CDA = 180◦ .

3. ∠ABD = ∠ACD.

The Orthic Triangle

Suppose DEF is the orthic triangle of acute △ABC with orthocenter H. Then:
[a)]

1. Points A, E, F , H lie on a circle with diameter AH.

2. Points B, E, F , C lie on a circle with diameter BC.

3. H is the incenter of △DEF .

Reflecting the Orthocenter

Let H be the orthocenter of △ABC. Let X be the reflection of H over BC and Y the
reflection over the midpoint of BC.
[a)]

1. Show that X lies on ⊙ABC.

2. Show that AY is a diameter of ⊙ABC.

The Incenter-Excenter Lemma

Let △ABC be a triangle with incenter I. Ray AI meets ⊙ABC again at L. Let IA be
the reflection of I over L. Then:
Euclidean Geometry 4

[a)]

1. The points I, B, C, and IA lie on a circle with diameter IIA and center L.

2. Rays BIA and CIA bisect the exterior angles of △ABC.

Cyclic Quadrilaterals with Directed Angles

Points A, B, X, Y lie on a circle if and only if ∡AXB = ∡AY B (where angles are
directed).

Directed Angles
For any distinct points A, B, C, P in the plane, we have the following rules:

1. Oblivion: ∡AP A = 0.

2. Anti-Reflexivity: ∡ABC = −∡CBA.

3. Replacement: ∡P BA = ∡P BC if and only if A, B, C are collinear.

4. Right Angles: If AP ⊥ BP , then ∡AP B = ∡BP A = 90◦ .

5. Directed Angle Addition: ∡AP B + ∡BP C = ∡AP C.

6. Triangle Sum: ∡ABC + ∡BCA + ∡CAB = 0.

7. Isosceles Triangles: AB = AC if and only if ∡ACB = ∡CBA.

8. Inscribed Angle Theorem: If ⊙ABC has center P , then ∡AP B = 2∡ACB.

9. Parallel Lines: If AB ∥ CD, then ∡ABC = ∡BCD = 0.

Miquel Point of a Triangle

Points D, E, F lie on lines BC, CA, and AB of △ABC, respectively. Then there exists
a point lying on all three circles (AEF ), (BF D), (CDE). This point is called the Miquel
point of the triangle.

Tangent Criterion
Suppose △ABC is inscribed in a circle with center O. Let P be a point in the plane.
Then the following are equivalent:
[i.]

1. P A is tangent to ⊙ABC.

2. OA ⊥ AP .

3. ∠P AB = ∠ACB.
Euclidean Geometry 5

Exterior Angle Theorem

In any triangle, the measure of an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the measures of
the two non-adjacent interior angles.

Isogonal Conjugate Lemma

The isogonal conjugate of the intersection point of two cevians is the intersection of their
isogonal conjugates.

Base Angles of Isosceles Triangle

If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite to those sides are equal.

Converse Base Angles

If two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite to those angles are equal.

SAS Congruence
If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and the included
angle of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

ASA Congruence
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the included
side of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

SSS Congruence
If three sides of one triangle are equal to three sides of another triangle, then the triangles
are congruent.

2 Circles

Similar Triangles
The following are equivalent for triangles ABC and XY Z:
[i.]

1. △ABC ∼ △XY Z.

2. AA: ∠A = ∠X and ∠B = ∠Y .
AB BC
3. SAS: ∠B = ∠Y , and XY
= YZ
.
AB BC CA
4. SSS: XY
= YZ
= ZX
.
Euclidean Geometry 6

Power of a Point
Consider a circle ⊙ and an arbitrary point P :
[a)]

1. The quantity Pow⊙ (P ) is positive, zero, or negative according to whether P is

outside, on, or inside ⊙, respectively.

2. If ℓ is a line through P intersecting ⊙ at two distinct points X and Y , then P X ·

P Y = Pow⊙ (P ).

3. If P is outside ⊙ and P A is a tangent to ⊙ at a point A on ⊙, then P A2 = Pow⊙ (P ).

Converse of the Power of a Point

Let A, B, X, Y be four distinct points in the plane and let lines AB and XY intersect
at P . Suppose that either P lies in both of the segments AB and XY , or in neither
segment. If P A · P B = P X · P Y , then A, B, X, Y are concyclic.

Radical Axis
Let ⊙1 and ⊙2 be circles with distinct centers O1 and O2 . The radical axis of ⊙1 and
⊙2 is a straight line perpendicular to O1 O2 . In particular, if ⊙1 and ⊙2 intersect at two
points A and B, then the radical axis is line AB.

Radical Center
The radical axes of three circles taken pairwise are concurrent at a point called the radical
center.

Finding Coaxial Circles

Three distinct circles ⊙1 , ⊙2 , ⊙3 pass through a point X. Then their centers are collinear
if and only if they share a second common point.

Incenter Existence
In any triangle ABC, the angle bisectors concur at a point I, which is the center of a
circle inscribed in the triangle.

Tangents to the Incircle

If DEF is the contact triangle of △ABC, then AE = AF = s − a. Similarly, BF =
BD = s − b and CD = CE = s − c.

Tangents to the Excircle

If AB1 and AC1 are the tangents to the A-excircle, then AB1 = AC1 = s.
Euclidean Geometry 7

Length of Exradius
Area
The A-exradius has length ra = s−a
.

Euler’s Theorem
Let △ABC be a triangle. Let R and r denote its circumradius and inradius, respectively.
Let O and I denote its circumcenter and incenter. Then OI 2 = R(R − 2r). In particular,
R ≥ 2r.

Excenters Triangle
Let △ABC be a triangle with IA , IB , and IC as excenters. Then triangle IA IB IC has
orthocenter I and triangle ABC is its orthic triangle.

The Pitot Theorem

Let ABCD be a quadrilateral. If a circle can be inscribed in it, then AB + CD =
BC + DA.

Tangent-Chord Theorem
Let AB be a chord of a circle and T a point of tangency at A. Then ∠T AB = ∠ACB
where C is any point on the arc AB not containing T .

Equal Tangents Lemma

Tangents drawn from a common external point to a circle are equal in length.

Alternate Segment Theorem

Let AB be a chord of a circle and let P T be a tangent at point P on the circle. If C is
any point on the arc AP not containing B, then ∠T P A = ∠P CB.

Chord-Tangent Angle
The angle between a chord and a tangent equals half the arc subtended by the chord.

Intersecting Chords Theorem

If two chords intersect inside a circle, then the product of their segments are equal.

3 Lengths and Ratios

Euclidean Geometry 8

The Extended Law of Sines

In a triangle ABC with circumradius R, we have
a b c
= = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C

Angle Bisector Theorem

Let △ABC be a triangle and D a point on BC so that AD is the internal angle bisector
of ∠BAC. Then
AB DB
= .
AC DC

External Angle Bisector Theorem

Let △ABC be a triangle and D a point on the extension of BC so that AD is the external
angle bisector of ∠BAC. Then
AB DB
=
AC DC
where the ratio is taken with appropriate signs.

Ceva’s Theorem
Let AX, BY , CZ be cevians of a triangle ABC. They concur if and only if
BX CY AZ
· · = 1.
XC Y A ZB

Trigonometric Form of Ceva’s Theorem

Let AX, BY , CZ be cevians of a triangle ABC. They concur if and only if
sin ∠BAX sin ∠CBY sin ∠ACZ
· · = 1.
sin ∠XAC sin ∠Y BA sin ∠ZCB

Menelaus Theorem
Let X, Y , Z be points on lines BC, CA, AB in a triangle ABC, distinct from its vertices.
Then X, Y , Z are collinear if and only if
BX CY AZ
· · = −1
XC Y A ZB
where the lengths are directed.

Ceva’s Theorem with Directed Lengths

Let △ABC be a triangle and X, Y , Z be points on lines BC, CA, AB distinct from its
vertices. Then lines AX, BY , CZ are concurrent if and only if
AZ BX CY
· · =1
ZB XC Y A
Euclidean Geometry 9

where the ratios are directed.

Centroid Division
The centroid of a triangle divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1, with the longer segment
being towards the vertex.

Homothetic Triangles
Let △ABC and △XY Z be non-congruent triangles such that AB ∥ XY , BC ∥ Y Z, and
CA ∥ ZX. Then lines AX, BY , CZ concur at some point O, and O is a center of a
homothety mapping △ABC to △XY Z.

Nine-Point Circle
Let △ABC be a triangle with circumcenter O and orthocenter H, and denote by N9 the
midpoint of OH. Then the midpoints of AB, BC, CA, AH, BH, CH, as well as the
feet of the altitudes of △ABC, lie on a circle centered at N9 . Moreover, the radius of
this circle is half the radius of ⊙ABC.

Euler Line
In triangle ABC, the circumcenter O, centroid G, and orthocenter H are collinear and
G divides OH in a 1 : 2 ratio.

Monge’s Theorem
Consider three disjoint circles ⊙1 , ⊙2 , ⊙3 in the plane. For each pair of circles, con-
struct the intersection of their common external tangents. These three intersections are
collinear.

Cevian Nest
Let AX, BY , CZ be concurrent cevians of △ABC. Let XD, Y E, ZF be concurrent
cevians in triangle XY Z. Then rays AD, BE, CF concur.

Law of Cosines
In triangle ABC with sides a, b, c opposite ∠A, ∠B, ∠C respectively:

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A.

Law of Sines
In triangle ABC with circumradius R:
a b c
= = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C
Euclidean Geometry 10

Mass Point Geometry

Points can be assigned masses such that if point P divides segment AB in ratio m : n,
then we can assign masses n and m to points A and B respectively, with P as the balance
point.

Median Length Formula

In triangle ABC with median AM to side BC, we have

22AB 2 + 2AC 2 − BC 2
AM =
4

4 Assorted Configurations

Simson Line
Let △ABC be a triangle and P be any point on ⊙ABC, and denote by X, Y , Z the
feet of the perpendiculars from P onto lines BC, CA, and AB. Then points X, Y , Z are
collinear.

Simson Line Bisection

Let △ABC be a triangle with orthocenter H. If P is a point on ⊙ABC then its Simson
line passes through the midpoint of P H.

Duality of Orthocenters and Excenters

If IA , IB , IC are the excenters of △ABC, then triangle ABC is the orthic triangle of
△IA IB IC , and the orthocenter is I.

The Diameter of the Incircle

Let △ABC be a triangle whose incircle is tangent to BC at D. If DE is a diameter of
the incircle and ray AE meets BC at X, then BD = CX and X is the tangency point
of the A-excircle to BC.

Diameter of the Excircle

In the notation of the previous lemma, suppose XY is a diameter of the A-excircle. Then
D lies on AY .

Midpoint of Altitudes
Let △ABC be a triangle with incenter I and A-excenter IA , and let D and X be the
associated tangency points on BC. Then lines DIA and XI concur at the midpoint of
the altitude from A.
Euclidean Geometry 11

An Incircle Concurrency
Let △ABC be a triangle with incenter I and contact triangle DEF . If M is the midpoint
of BC, then EF , AM and ray DI concur.

Isogonal Conjugates
Let △ABC be a triangle and P any point not collinear with any of the sides. There
exists a unique point P ′ such that the cevians through P and P ′ are reflections of each
other across the respective angle bisectors.

Isogonal Ratios
Let D and E be points on BC so that AD and AE are isogonal. Then
 2
BD BE AB
· = .
DC EC AC

Constructing the Symmedian

Let X be the intersection of the tangents to ⊙ABC at B and C. Then line AX is the
A-symmedian of △ABC.

Properties of the Symmedian

Let △ABC be a triangle, and let the tangents to its circumcircle at B and C meet at
point X. Let AX meet ⊙ABC again at K and BC at D. Then AD is the A-symmedian
and:
[a)]

1. KA is a K-symmedian of △KBC.

2. △ABK and △ACK have equal circumradii.

2
3. We have BD
DC
= AB
AC
.

4. We have AB · BK = AC · CK.

5. ⊙BCX passes through the midpoint of AK.

6. BC is the B-symmedian of △BAK, and the C-symmedian of △CAK.

Symmedians in Cyclic Quadrilaterals

Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. The following are equivalent:
[a)]
1. AB · CD = BC · DA.
2. AC is an A-symmedian of △DAB.
3. AC is a C-symmedian of △BCD.
Euclidean Geometry 12

4. BD is a B-symmedian of △ABC.

5. BD is a D-symmedian of △CDA.

Circles Inscribed in Segments

Let AB be a chord of a circle ⊙. Let ω be a circle tangent to chord AB at K and
internally tangent to ⊙ at T . Then ray T K passes through the midpoint M of the arc
AB not containing T . Moreover, M A2 − M B 2 equals the power of M with respect to ω.

Curvilinear Incircle Chords

Let △ABC be a triangle and D be a point on AB. Suppose a circle is tangent to CD at
L, AB at K, and also to ⊙ABC. Then the incenter of △ABC lies on line LK.

Mixtilinear Incircles
Let △ABC be a triangle and let its A-mixtilinear circle be tangent to AB, AC, and
⊙ABC at K, L, and T , respectively. Denote by D and E the contact points of the
incircle and A-excircle on BC, respectively.
[a)]

1. The center of the A-mixtilinear circle lies on the A-symmedian.

2. Lines T K and T L pass through the midpoints of arcs AB and AC not containing
T.

3. Line T I passes through the midpoint of arc BC containing A.

4. The angles ∠BAT and ∠CAE are equal.

5. The angles ∠BT A and ∠CT D are equal.

6. Quadrilaterals BKIT and CLIT are concyclic.

Feuerbach’s Theorem
The nine-point circle of a triangle is tangent to its incircle and all three excircles.

Morley’s Theorem
The intersections of the adjacent angle trisectors of any triangle form an equilateral
triangle.

Butterfly Theorem
Let M be the midpoint of chord P Q of a circle. If any chord AB passes through M , then
M bisects the chord joining the midpoints of arcs P A and QB that do not contain the
other two points.
Euclidean Geometry 13

5 Computational Geometry

Shoelace Formula
Let P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ), . . . , Pn (xn , yn ) be the vertices of a polygon listed in counter-
clockwise order. Then the signed area is
n
1 X
Area = (xi yi+1 − xi+1 yi )
2 i=1

where we use the convention that (xn+1 , yn+1 ) = (x1 , y1 ).

Area Formulas
The area of a triangle ABC is equal to each of the following:
1 1 1
[ABC] = ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B (1)
2 2 2
a2 sin B sin C
= (2)
2 sin A
abc
= (3)
4R
= sr (4)
p
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) (5)

Here s = 12 (a + b + c) is the semiperimeter, and R and r are the circumradius and inradius
respectively.

Product-Sum Identities
For arbitrary α and β we have:
1
sin α cos β = [sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)] (6)
2
1
cos α cos β = [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)] (7)
2
1
sin α sin β = [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)] (8)
2

Heron’s Formula
a+b+c
For a triangle with sides a, b, and c, and semiperimeter s = 2
, the area is
p
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

Ptolemy’s Theorem
Euclidean Geometry 14

Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Then

AB · CD + BC · DA = AC · BD.

Strong Form of Ptolemy’s Theorem

In a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with AB = a, BC = b, CD = c, DA = d we have

(ac + bd)(ad + bc)

AC 2 =
ab + cd
and
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)
BD2 = .
ad + bc

Stewart’s Theorem
Let △ABC be a triangle. Let D be a point on BC and let m = DB, n = DC, d = AD.
Then
b2 m + c2 n = ad2 + mn.

Apollonius’s Theorem
In triangle ABC with median AM :

AB 2 + AC 2 = 2AM 2 + BM 2

Bretschneider’s Formula
For a general quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d and diagonals p, q, and opposite angles
A and C:
p2 q 2 = a2 c2 + b2 d2 − 2abcd cos(A + C)

Brahmagupta’s Formula
For a cyclic quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d and semiperimeter s:
p
Area = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)

6 Complex Numbers

Complex Perpendicularity
d−c d−c
The complex numbers a, b, c, d have the property AB ⊥ CD if and only if b−a
+ b−a = 0.

Complex Shoelace Formula

Euclidean Geometry 15

If a, b, c are complex numbers, then the signed area of triangle ABC is given by

a a 1
i
b b 1 .
4
c c 1

In particular, the points a, b, c are collinear if and only if the determinant is zero.

Properties of Unit Circle

For any z on the unit circle, z = z1 .

Complex Foot
If a and b, a ̸= b, are on the unit circle and z is an arbitrary complex number, then the
foot from Z to AB is given by
1
(a + b) − z + abz.
2

Complex Euler Line

Let △ABC be a triangle, and assume a, b, c lie on the unit circle. Then:
[a)]

1. The circumcenter is o = 0.

2. The centroid is g = 13 (a + b + c).

3. The orthocenter is h = a + b + c.

In particular, the points O, G, H are collinear in a 1 : 2 ratio.

Complex Similarity
Two triangles ABC and XY Z are directly similar if and only if

a x 1
b y 1 = 0.
c z 1

Complex Intersection
If lines AB and CD are not parallel then their intersection is given by
(ab − a)(c − d) − (cd − c)(a − b)
.
(a − b)(c − d) − (a − b)(c − d)
In particular, if |a| = |b| = |c| = |d| = 1 then this simplifies to
abc − d − cda − b
c − d − (a − b)(c − d).
a−b
Euclidean Geometry 16

Complex Incenter
Given △ABC on the unit circle, it is possible to pick complex numbers u, v, w such that:
[a)]

1. a = u2 , b = v 2 , c = w2 , and

2. the midpoint of arc BC not containing A is vw (the analogous midpoints opposite

B and C are wu and uv).

In this case the incenter I is given by uv + vw + wu.

Complex Circumcenter
The circumcenter of a triangle XY Z is given by the quotient

x |x|2 1
y |y|2 1
z |z|2 1
.
x x 1
y y 1
z z 1

Concyclic Complex Numbers

Let a, b, c, d be distinct complex numbers. Then A, B, C, D are concyclic if and only if
(c−a)(d−b)
(c−b)(d−a)
is a real number.

Complex Tangent Intersection

2ab
Let A and B be points on the unit circle with a ̸= b. Then a+b
is the intersection point
of the tangents at A and B.

Complex Reflection
Let W be the reflection of Z over a line passing through the origin with direction eiθ .
Then w = e2iθ z.

Complex Rotation
Multiplying a complex number z by eiθ rotates it by θ radians counterclockwise about
the origin.
Euclidean Geometry 17

7 Barycentric Coordinates

Barycentric Area Formula

Let P1 , P2 , P3 be points with barycentric coordinates Pi = (xi , yi , zi ) for i = 1, 2, 3. Then
the signed area of △P1 P2 P3 is given by

x1 y1 z1
[P1 P2 P3 ] = [ABC] x2 y2 z2 .
x3 y3 z3

Equation of a Line
The equation of a line takes the form ux + vy + wz = 0 where u, v, w are real numbers.

Barycentric Cevian
Let P = (x1 : y1 : z1 ) be any point other than A. Then the points on line AP other than
A can be parametrized by (t : y1 : z1 ) where t ∈ R and t + y1 + z1 ̸= 0.

Barycentric Conjugates
Let P= (x : y : z)
 be a point with x, y, z > 0. The isogonal conjugate
 ofP is given by
′ a2 b2 c2 ′′ 1
P = x : y : z and the isotomic conjugate is given by P = x : y : z1 .1

Collinearity
Consider points P1 , P2 , P3 with Pi = (xi : yi : zi ) for i = 1, 2, 3. The three points are
collinear if and only if
x1 y1 z1
x 2 y2 z2 = 0.
x3 y 3 z3

Concurrence
Consider three lines ℓi : ui x + vi y + wi z = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3. They are concurrent (or all
parallel) if and only if
u1 v1 w1
u2 v2 w2 = 0.
u3 v3 w3

Distance Formula
−→
Let P and Q be two arbitrary points and consider a displacement vector P Q = (x, y, z).
Then the distance from P to Q is given by

P Q2 = −a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy.
Euclidean Geometry 18

Barycentric Circle
The general equation of a circle is

a2 yz + b2 zx + c2 xy + ux + vy + wz(x + y + z) = 0

for reals u, v, w.

Barycentric Perpendiculars
−−→ −→
Let M N = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be displacement vectors. Then M N ⊥ P Q
if and only if

a2 (z1 y2 − y1 z2 ) + b2 (x1 z2 − z1 x2 ) + c2 (y1 x2 − x1 y2 ) = 0.

Barycentric Circumcircle
The circumcircle ⊙ABC of the reference triangle has equation a2 yz + b2 zx + c2 xy = 0.

Barycentric Perpendicular Bisector

The perpendicular bisector of BC has equation a2 (z − y) + x(c2 − b2 ) = 0.

Conway’s Formula
2 2 2 2 2 2
Let △ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b, c and let SA = b +c2 −a , SB = c +a2 −b ,
2 2 2
SC = a +b2 −c . Then the circumcenter has barycentric coordinates (a2 SA : b2 SB : c2 SC )
and the orthocenter has coordinates (SB SC : SC SA : SA SB ).

Barycentric Special Points

In barycentric coordinates relative to triangle ABC:
[a)]

1. Centroid: G = (1 : 1 : 1)

2. Incenter: I = (a : b : c)

3. Lemoine Point: K = (a2 : b2 : c2 )

4. Nagel Point: N = (s − a : s − b : s − c)

8 Inversion

Inversion and Angles

If A′ and B ′ are the inverses of A and B under inversion centered at O, then ∠AOB =
∠A′ OB ′ and ∠OAB = ∠OB ′ A′ .
Euclidean Geometry 19

Images of Clines
A cline inverts to a cline. Specifically, in an inversion through a circle with center O:
[a)]

1. A line through O inverts to itself.

2. A circle through O inverts to a line not through O, and vice versa.

3. A circle not through O inverts to another circle not through O.

Inversion Distance Formula

Let A and B be points other than O and consider an inversion about O with radius r.
Then
′ ′ r2
AB = · AB.
OA · OB

Inverting an Orthocenter
Let △ABC be a triangle with orthocenter H and altitudes AD, BE, CF . Perform an
inversion around C with radius CH · CF . Then H and F swap places, as do A and E,
as do B and D.

Inverting a Circumcenter
Let △ABC be a triangle with circumcenter O. Invert around C with radius 1. Then the
image of O is the reflection of C over line AB.

Inverting the Incircle

Let △ABC be a triangle with circumcircle ⊙ and contact triangle DEF . Consider an
inversion with respect to the incircle of triangle ABC. Then ⊙ is sent to the nine-point
circle of triangle DEF .

Ptolemy’s Inequality
For any four distinct points A, B, C, and D in a plane, no three collinear, we have

AB · CD + BC · DA ≥ AC · BD.

Moreover, equality holds if and only if A, B, C, D lie on a circle in that order.

Inversion Preserves Angles

Inversion preserves the magnitude of angles between curves but may reverse orientation.

Coaxal Circles
Two circles are orthogonal if and only if each passes through the inverse points of the
other with respect to any inversion.
Euclidean Geometry 20

9 Projective Geometry

Cross Ratios
Let A, B, C, D be four collinear points. The cross-ratio is defined as
AC · BD
(A, B; C, D) =
AD · BC
where the lengths are signed. Cross ratios are preserved under projective transformations.

Pascal’s Theorem
Let A, B, C, D, E, F be six points on a conic (possibly degenerate). Then the three
intersection points (AB ∩ DE), (BC ∩ EF ), (CD ∩ F A) are collinear.

Brianchon’s Theorem
If a hexagon is circumscribed about a conic, then its three main diagonals (connecting
opposite vertices) are concurrent.

Brocard’s Theorem
Let ℓ be a line and ⊙ a circle, and let A, B, C be three points on ⊙. If lines AB, BC, CA
meet ℓ at points C ′ , A′ , B ′ respectively, then the lines AA′ , BB ′ , CC ′ are concurrent.

Harmonic Division
Let A, B, C, D be four distinct collinear points. Then (A, B; C, D) = −1 if and only if
C and D divide AB internally and externally in the same ratio.

Harmonic Conjugates and Poles

Let ABCD be a complete quadrilateral. Let P = AB ∩ CD, Q = BC ∩ AD, and
R = AC ∩ BD. Then:
[a)]

1. Points P , Q are harmonic conjugates with respect to the intersections of line P Q

with sides AC and BD.

2. The three diagonal points form a self-polar triangle with respect to any conic
through the four vertices.

Desargues’ Theorem
If two triangles are in perspective centrally (i.e., corresponding vertices lie on concurrent
lines), then they are in perspective axially (i.e., corresponding sides meet on a line).
Euclidean Geometry 21

Pappus’s Theorem
Let A, B, C be points on one line and A′ , B ′ , C ′ be points on another line. Then the
intersection points (AB ′ ∩ A′ B), (AC ′ ∩ A′ C), and (BC ′ ∩ B ′ C) are collinear.

10 Complete Quadrilaterals

Miquel’s Theorem
Let ABCD be a complete quadrilateral (i.e., four lines, no three concurrent, forming six
intersection points). Then the four circumcircles of the triangles formed by taking three
lines at a time all pass through a common point, called the Miquel point.

Gauss-Bodenmiller Theorem
In a complete quadrilateral, the three diagonal points (intersections of opposite sides) are
collinear if and only if the four vertices lie on a conic.

Complete Quadrilateral Properties

In a complete quadrilateral ABCDEF formed by four lines, with diagonal triangle P QR:
[a)]

1. The three diagonal points P , Q, R form a self-polar triangle.

2. Each side of the diagonal triangle is the polar of the opposite vertex.

3. The diagonal triangle is the orthic triangle of any triangle inscribed in the circum-
conic.

Gauss Line Theorem

In a complete quadrilateral, the midpoints of the three diagonals are collinear (the Gauss
line).

Newton-Gauss Theorem
The center of the conic circumscribed to a complete quadrilateral lies on the Gauss line
of the quadrilateral.

11 Advanced Results and Classical Theorems

Japanese Theorem
In any cyclic quadrilateral, the centers of the four circles inscribed in the triangles formed
by three vertices each form a rectangle.
Euclidean Geometry 22

Apollonius Circle
The locus of points P such that PP B
A
= k where k ̸= 1 is a constant is a circle, called the
Apollonius circle of A and B with ratio k.

Lemoine Point Theorem

The symmedians of a triangle are concurrent at a point called the Lemoine point or
symmedian point K. This point has barycentric coordinates (a2 : b2 : c2 ).

Nagel Point
Let the A-, B-, and C-excircles of triangle ABC touch the opposite sides at X, Y , and Z
respectively. Then the lines AX, BY , and CZ are concurrent at the Nagel point, which
has barycentric coordinates (s − a : s − b : s − c).

Gergonne Point
Let triangle ABC have incircle touching BC, CA, AB at D, E, F respectively. Then
the lines AD, BE, CF are concurrent at the Gergonne point.

Isodynamic Points
For any triangle ABC, there exist two points S1 and S2 such that ∠AS1 B = ∠BS1 C =
∠CS1 A = 60◦ and ∠AS2 B = ∠BS2 C = ∠CS2 A = −60◦ . These are called the isody-
namic points.

Brocard Points
For any triangle ABC, there exist points Ω1 and Ω2 such that ∠Ω1 AB = ∠Ω1 BC =
∠Ω1 CA = ω and ∠Ω2 AC = ∠Ω2 CB = ∠Ω2 BA = ω, where ω is called the Brocard
angle.

Droz-Farny Line Theorem

Let ABCD be an orthodiagonal quadrilateral (diagonals perpendicular). If P and Q are
the midpoints of the diagonals, then the four triangles formed have orthocenters that lie
on a line through P and Q.

Schiffler Point
Let △ABC be a triangle with incenter I. The Euler lines of triangles AIB, BIC, CIA,
and ABC are concurrent at a point called the Schiffler point.

Carnot’s Theorem
Let △ABC be a triangle and P any point in the plane. Let da , db , dc be the signed
distances from P to sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Then

d2a + d2b + d2c = P A2 + P B 2 + P C 2 − GA2 − GB 2 − GC 2

Euclidean Geometry 23

where G is the centroid.

Routh’s Theorem
BD CE
Let cevians AD, BE, CF of triangle ABC form triangle DEF . If DC
= λ, EA
= µ,
AF
FB
= ν, then
[DEF ] (λµν − 1)2
=
[ABC] (λµ + λ + 1)(µν + µ + 1)(νλ + ν + 1)