Prof. Dr. I.

Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

Equilibrium and Elasticity

12-1 Static Equilibrium
In this chapter we study a special case of the dynamics of rigid objects covered in the last two
chapters. It is the (very important!) special case where the center of mass of the object has no
motion and the object is not rotating.

Conditions for Equilibrium of a Rigid Object

For a rigid object which is not moving at all we have the following conditions:
1. The (vector) sum of the external forces on the rigid object must equal zero:

F  0 (1)

When this condition is satisfied we say that the object is in translational equilibrium.
 it really only tells us that aCM is zero, but of course that includes the case where the object
is motionless.
2. The sum of the external torques on the rigid object must equal zero.

  0 (2)

When this condition is satisfied we say that the object is in rotational equilibrium. (It
really only tells us that  about the given axis is zero, but —again— that includes the
case where the object is motionless.)

When both 1 and 2 are satisfied we say that the object is in static equilibrium.
Nearly all of the problems we will solve in this chapter are two–dimensional problems (in the xy
plane), and for these, Eqs. 1 and 2 reduce to

F x 0; F y 0;  z 0 (3)

Two Important Facts for Working Statics Problems:

i. The force of gravity acts on all massive objects in our statics problems; its acts on all the
individual mass points of the object. One can show that for the purposes of computing the
forces and torques on rigid objects in statics problems we can treat the mass of the entire
object as being concentrated at its center of mass; that is, for an object of mass M we can
treat gravity as exerting a force Mg downward at the center of mass.
 This result depends on the fact that the acceleration of gravity, g is usually constant over
the volume of the object. Otherwise it is not true.

ii. While there is only one way to write the conditions for the forces on a rigid object
summing to zero, we have a choice in the way we write the equation for the total torque.
Eq. 3 does not specify the choice of the axis for calculating the torque. In general it
matters a great deal which axis we pick! But when the sum of torques about any one axis
is zero and the sum of forces is zero (translational equilibrium) then the sum of torques
about any axis will give zero; so for statics problems we are free to pick the most

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

convenient axis for computing   0 . Often this will be the point on the object where

several unknown forces are acting, so that the resulting set of equations will be simpler to
solve.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
In Summary: In order to guarantee static equilibrium (it is not moving) for an object, we must
have
1) it is not translating (not moving up, down, left, or right), i.e net force = 0 AND
2) it is not rotating, i.e net torque = 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If a stationary mass is acted on by several forces F1 , F2 , F3 ,.. , then in order to NOT translate, the
net force must be zero.
Fnet  Ftotal  F  F1  F2  F3  0
 F1x  F2x  F3x   0 , F1y  F2y  F3y  0

 F x 0, F y 0 Equilibrium possible, but not guaranteed.

Example: Even though the net force is zero, the object might not be in static
equilibrium. Here is a case (two forces acting on a bar) where the net force is zero,
but the forces cause the object to rotate:

--------------------------------------------------
If you want to easily rotate an object about an axis, you want a large lever arm r and a large
perpendicular force F:

bad better best

axis
no good!
(F = 0)
no good!
(r = 0)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

i- Static equilibrium problem with Fnet = 0 , but no torque.

Example: A weight W = 100 N is hung from two ropes as shown in

the figure. Find the magnitude of the tension in the horizontal rope.
Answer:
T2 sin30 = 100 ⇒ T2 = 200 N

T2 cos30 − T1 = 0

(200)cos30 − T1 = 0

⇒ T1 = 173 N
-----------------------------------------------------------
Example: The figure shows a mass m hanging from two strings. Find T1 and T2 .
Answer: Knowns: m,  ,  , and unknowns: string tensions T1 = ? T2 = ?
Forces on knot: Notice that lengths of force arrows in diagram below have nothing to do with
the lengths of the strings in diagram above.

Because the forces on the mass m must cancel, the tension in the bottom string = T3 = mg.
The knot is a point object; there are no lever arms here, so no possibility of rotation, so we don't
have to worry about torques. Apply equations of static equilibrium to the knot:

F x 0  T1 sin   T2 sin   0 OR T1 sin   T2 sin 

[|Fleft| = |Fright|]
F y 0  T1 cos   T2 cos   mg  0 OR T1 cos   T2 cos   mg
[|Fup| = |Fdown|]

Now have 2 equations in 2 unknowns (T1 and T2), so we can solve. (I'll let you do that!)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii- Static equilibrium problem with  net  0 , but no Forces.

Example: A uniform 100 kg beam is held in a vertical position

by a pin at its lower end, a cable at its upper end, and by applying a
horizontal force P = 75 N as shown in Figure. Find the tension in
the cable.
Answer: Take the torque about the pin
75  5
 o  T  8  cos 30  75  5  0  T   54.13
8  cos 30
----------------------------------------------

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

iii- Static equilibrium problem with Fnet = 0 and  net  0

Example: Consider a playground seesaw. The mass of the plank is 2.0 kg, the masses of two
children on it are 25 kg and 30 kg with the 30 kg child sitting 2.5 meters from the center of the
plank (the fulcrum) as shown below. Where must the second child sit in order for this system to
be in equilibrium?

Answer:
Noting that a normal force directed upwards acts at the point of the fulcrum, the FBD’s for the
first condition yield:

F y  0  N  (30  35  2) g  0

Note that while this is all true it is not, by itself, particularly useful.
To apply the second condition we must first choose an axis about which to compute torques.
The axis that makes the most physical sense would be one directly through the board over the
fulcrum, but we could choose any axis that made computations easier. In this case choosing the
axis associated with the fulcrum eliminates the forces created by the mass of the board itself
since these act on the center of mass of the board which is located directly over the fulcrum.

  0   30g    2.5 m    25g    x m   0

Solving this equation for x yields a distance of 3 meters.

-----------------------------------------------------------
Example: A store welcome’s sign with mass mS is hung from a uniform bar of mass m B and
length L. The sign is suspended from a point ¾ of the way from the wall. The bar is held up with
a cable at an angle  as shown.

a- Calculate the tension T in the cable.

b- If the wall is exerting some force FW on the left end of the bar. What are the components
Fwx and Fwy of this force?
Answer:
a- Knowns: mB , mS , L,  , Unknown: tension T = ?
Torque diagram, showing forces and lever arms about the pivot:
Choose pivot as the axis:

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

  0  +L (Tsin  ) – (3/4)L(mSg) – (L/2)(mBg) = 0 L's cancel, so

 34 mS  1
mB  g
T sin   3
mSg  1
mB g  T  2
4 2
sin 
b- All forces on bar:

Method I: Assume we know tension T (from previous problem). Then can use

F x 0, F y 0  Fwx = T cos  , Fwy = m B g + mS g – T sin 

Method II: Assume that we do not know tension T.

Torque is always computed with respect to some axis or pivot point. If the object is not moving
at all, we can pick any point as the axis. We can always pretend that the object is about to rotate
about that point. Let us choose the right end of the bar as our pivot point. Then the tension force
does not produce any torque (since the lever arm is zero), and the (unknown) variable T does not
appear in our torque equation.

L L
  0 
4
mSg 
2
mB g  LFwy  0 (L's cancel)
mS g mB g
Fwy  
4 2
(Still have to get Fwx using method I above.)
What is the magnitude of the total force on the bar from the wall?
Fw  Fw  Fwx 2  Fwy 2
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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

12-2 SOME EXAMPLES OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

Example: Fig. 1 shows a three boxes of masses m1, m2 and m3
hanging from a ceiling. The crossbars are horizontal and have
negligible mass and same length L. If m3 = 1.0 kg, then m1 is equal to:
Answer:
 3L  L 
 1  0   m3   
 4
   m 2      m 2  3m 3
 4
 4
  3L  L 
1
  0   m
 3
 m 
2 
  4    m1    
 4
 
 m 3  12m1  12 kg
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: A uniform ladder whose length is 5.0 m and whose weight
𝐹𝑁
is 4.0×102 N leans against a frictionless vertical wall. The foot of the
ladder can be placed at a maximum distance of 3.0 m from the base
of the wall on the floor without the ladder slipping. Determine the 5.0 m
coefficient of static friction between the foot of the ladder and the
floor. 4m 𝑁
Answer: 
4 𝑓𝑠 O
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 53.1° 3m
3
Applying ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 = 𝐹𝑁 − 𝑓𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑠 = 𝐹𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝑊𝐿𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟
Also ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 = 𝑁 − 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 ⇒ 𝑁 = 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 4 × 102 𝑁
About O, ∑ 𝜏 = 0 = 𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 × 2.5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 53.1 − 𝐹𝑁 × 4 = 0

𝑊𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 × 2.5 × cos 53.1 400 × 2.5 × cos 53.1

𝐹𝑁 = = = 150.1 𝑁
4 4
𝑓𝑠 𝐹𝑁 150.1
𝜇𝑠 = = = = 0.38
𝑁 𝑁 400
-------------------------------------------------
Example: A uniform steel bar of length 3.0 m and weight 20 N rests on
two supports (A and B) at its ends. A block of weight W = 30 N is placed at
a distance 1.0 m from A (see Figure). The forces on the supports A and B
respectively are:
Answer:

 B  0   30    2.0 m    20   1.5 m   N B   3.0 m   0

 N A  30 N

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

 A  0   30   1.0 m    20   1.5 m   N A   3.0 m   0

 N B  20 N
-------------------------------------------------------------
Example: A uniform 0.20 kg meter stick can be 0.05 Kg
balanced horizontally on a knife edge if 0.050 kg com
point mass is placed at the 100-cm mark. Find the d 100 cm
(50 – d)
position of the knife edge measured from the zero-cm F
mark.
Answer: Mg mg
Taking torque about knife edge F
0.2 × d × g = 0.05 × (50 − d) × g
(0.2 + 0.05)d = 0.050 × 50
d = 10 cm
Position of knife edge from zero-cm mark = 50+10 = 60 cm

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

Extra Problems
Q: A uniform meter stick has mass M = 1.25 kg. As shown in the figure, this
meter stick is supported by two vertical strings, one at each end, in such a
manner that it makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. Find the tension in
each string.
Answer:

F y  0  T1 T 2  1.25g N

h 
 0  T 2    h cos 20    Mg    cos 20   T 2 
Mg
 O
2  2
 6.1 N

1.25g
T1  1.25g   6.1 N
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q: A thin right angled rod is made of a uniform material. The shorter end is
half the length of the longer end. It is hanging by a string attached at point O
(see figure). At equilibrium, calculate the angle α between the shorter rod
and the vertical.
Answer:
m  L  L 
 O  0   2 g    4 sin     mg    2 sin(90   ) 
 cos  
sin 
  4    76
cos 
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Q: Consider the assembly shown in Figure, where four objects are
held in equilibrium by horizontal massless rods. What is the weight of
ball C?
Answer:

----------------------------------------------
Q: A uniform rigid rod having a mass of 50 kg and a length
of 2.0 m rests on two supports A and B as shown in the
Figure. When a block of mass 60 kg is kept at point C at a
distance of x from the center, the rod is about to be lifted
from A The value of x is:
Answer:
0.5  50
 B  0   60 g    x  0.5  50 g    0.5  x  0.5 
60
 0.9 m

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

------------------------------------------------------------------
Q: To know the location of the CM of a person, one has to use the arrangement shown in figure
#. A plank of weight 40 N is placed on two scales separated by 2.0 m. A person lies on the plank
and the right scale reads 314 N and the left scale reads 216 N. What is the distance from the right
scale to the person’s CM?
Answer

Calculate the torque about the CM of the person:

(216N)(2 — x) — (40N)(1 — x) — (314N)(x) = 0
and x = 0.80 m. Note that the person’s weight (which we could find using Sum Fy = 0) does not
enter into the calculation because I chose the “pivot” at the CM.
----------------------------------------------------------------
Q: A scaffold of mass 50.0 kg and length 5.00 m is supported in a horizontal position by a
vertical cable at each end. A person of mass 80.0 kg stands at a point 1.00 m from one end of the
scaffold as shown in. In the equilibrium position of the system (scaffold + person), what is the
tension in the cable T1 and the cable T2?

Answer:
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃

∑ 𝜏 = 0 = 𝑇2 × 5 − 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛 × 𝑔 × 1 − 𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 𝑔 × 2.5

(𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛 × 1 + 𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 2.5) 80 × 1 + 50 × 2.5

𝑇2 = 𝑔= ( ) × 4.8 = 402 𝑁
5 5

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇1 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝑇2 + 𝑇1 − 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛 × 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 𝑔 = 0

𝑇1 = (𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛 + 𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 )𝑔 − 𝑇2 = 130 × 9.8 − 401.8 = 872.2 ≈ 872 N

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: A 5-kg beam 2 m long is used to support a 10-kg sign by means of a cable attached to
a building, as shown in the figure. What is the tension in the cable and compressive force exerted
by the beam?

Answer:

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Example: What horizontal force applied as shown here is required to

pull a wheel of weight Wand radius R over a curb of height h = R/2?
Answer:
The torque due to F about the contact point must balance the torque due
to gravity acting at the center of the sphere.

--------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: Two people carry a refrigerator of weight 800 N up a ramp
inclined at 30° above horizontal. Each exerts a vertical force at a corner.
The CM of the refrigerator is at its center. Its dimensions in the drawing
are 0.72 m x 1.8 m. What force does each person exert?
Answer:
F1 + F2 = 800 N, and the torque about the point of application of F1 is
zero.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-I December 5, 2017

Example: In the crane here the boom is 3.2 m long and weighs
1200 N. The cable can support a tension of 10,000 N. The weight is
attached 0.5 m from the end of the boom. What maximum weight
can be lifted?
Answer:
Calculate the torque about the base of the boom. The cable is one
side of a triangle with angles 30°, 135° and 15°

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

Equilibrium and Elasticity

12-3 ELASTICITY

I- Elastic Property of Matter. (Reading only)

(1) Elasticity: The property of matter by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original
shape and size after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
(2) Plasticity: The property of matter by virtue of which it does not regain its original shape
and size after the removal of deforming force is called plasticity.
(3) Perfectly elastic body: If on the removal of deforming forces the body regain its original
configuration completely it is said to be perfectly elastic. A quartz fiber and phosphor
bronze (an alloy of copper containing 4% to 10% tin, 0.05% to 1% phosphorus) is the
nearest approach to the perfectly elastic body.
(4) Perfectly plastic body: If the body does not have any tendency to recover its original
configuration, on the removal of deforming force, it is said to be perfectly plastic. Paraffin
wax, wet clay are the nearest approach to the perfectly plastic body. Practically there is no
material which is either perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic and the
behavior of actual bodies lies between the two extremes.
(5) Reason of elasticity: In a solids, atoms and molecules are arranged
in such a way that each molecule is acted upon by the forces due to
neighboring molecules. These forces are known as intermolecular
forces. For simplicity, the two molecules in their equilibrium
positions (at inter-molecular distance r = r0) (see figure) are shown
by connecting them with a spring.

In fact, the spring connecting the two molecules represents the inter-molecular force
between them. On applying the deforming forces, the molecules either come closer or go far
apart from each other and restoring forces are developed. When the deforming force is
removed, these restoring forces bring the molecules of the solid to their respective equilibrium
position (r = r0) and hence the body regains its original form.
(6) Elastic limit: Elastic bodies show their property of elasticity upto
a certain value of deforming force. If we go on increasing the
deforming force then a stage is reached when on removing the
force, the body will not return to its original state. The maximum
deforming force upto which a body retains its property of elasticity
is called elastic limit of the material of body. Elastic limit is the
property of a body whereas elasticity is the property of material of
the body.
(7) Elastic fatigue: The temporary loss of elastic properties because
of the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called
elastic fatigue. It is due to this reason
(i) Bridges are declared unsafe after a long time of their use.

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

(ii) Spring balances show wrong readings after they have been used for a long time.
(iii) We are able to break the wire by repeated bending.
(8) Elastic after effect: The time delay in which the substance regains its original condition
after the removal of deforming force is called elastic after effect. It is the time for which
restoring forces are present after the removal of the deforming forces it is negligible for
perfectly elastic substance, like quartz, phosphor bronze and large for glass fiber.
============================================

A- Stress
When a force is applied on a body there will be relative displacement of the particles and
due to property of elasticity an internal restoring force is developed which tends to restore the
body to its original state. The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross section of
the deformed body is called stress.
At equilibrium, restoring force is equal in magnitude to external force, stress can therefore
also be defined as external force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it to deform.
If external force F is applied on the area A of a body then,
Force F
Stress  
Area A
Unit of stress: N/m2 (S.I.), Dimension: [ ML1T 2 ]
Stress developed in a body depends upon how the external forces are applied over it. On this
basis there are two types of stresses: Normal and Shear or Tangential stress.
(1) Normal stress: Here the force is applied normal to the surface.
It is again of two types: Longitudinal and Bulk or volume stress
(i) Longitudinal stress
(ii) Bulk (Hydraulic) or Volume stress

Longitudinal stress Bulk (Hydraulic) or

Volume stress
i- Longitudinal stress (Reading)
a) It occurs only in solids and comes in picture when one of the three dimensions viz.
lengths, breadth, height is much greater than other two.
b) Deforming force is applied parallel to the length and causes increase in length.

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

c) Area taken for calculation of stress is area of cross section.

d) Longitudinal stress produced due to increase in length of a body under a deforming force
is called tensile stress.
e) Longitudinal stress produced due to decrease in length of a body under a deforming
force is called compressional stress.
ii- Bulk (Hydraulic) or Volume stress (Reading)
a) It occurs in solids, liquids or gases.
b) In case of fluids only bulk stress can be found.
c) It produces change in volume and density, shape remaining same.
d) Deforming force is applied normal to surface at all points.
e) Area for calculation of stress is the complete surface area perpendicular to the applied
forces.
f) It is equal to change in pressure because change in pressure is responsible for change
in volume.
(2) Shear or tangential stress (Reading only): It comes in picture
when successive layers of solid move on each other i.e. when there is a
relative displacement between various layers of solid.
a) Here deforming force is applied tangential to one of the faces.
b) Area for calculation is the area of the face on which force is applied.
c) It produces change in shape, volume remaining the same.

Difference between Pressure and Stress

Pressure Stress
Pressure is always normal to the area. Stress can be normal or tangential.
Always compressive in nature. May be compressive or tensile in nature.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Example1. A and B are two wires. The radius of A is twice that of B. they are stretched by
the same load. Calculate the value of the factor C that satisfy the relation
between the stress on B, (Stress)B, and stress on A, (Stress)A, as :
(Stress)B = C × (stress)A .

Force F
Solution : Given that ra  2rb and Stress =  2
Area r
2
1(Stress)B  rA 
 Stress  2      (2) 2  (Stress)B = 4 × (stress)A [As F = constant]
r (Stress) A  rB 
The value of C = 4.
--------------------------------------------------------------------

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

Example2. On suspending a weight Mg, the length L of elastic wire and area of cross-
section A its length becomes double the initial length. Calculate the stress on the
wire.

Solution: When the length of wire becomes double, its area of cross section will become half
because volume of wire is constant (V  AL ) .
Force Mg 2 Mg
So the stress =   .
Area A/ 2 A
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Example3. One end of a uniform wire of length L and of weight W is attached
rigidly to a point in the roof and a weight W1 is suspended from
its lower end. If S is the area of cross-section of the wire, the stress
in the wire at a height 3L/4 from its lower end is

3W
Solution: As the wire is uniform so the weight of wire below point P is
4
 Total force at point P  W1 
3W
and area of cross-section = S
4
3W
W1 
Force
 Stress at point P   4
Area S
===========================================
B- Strain
The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain. Being the
ratio of two like quantities, it has no dimensions and units.
Strains are of three types:
(1) Linear strain: If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the
strain produced in the body is called linear strain or tensile strain.
Change in length( L)
Linear strain 
Original length( L)
Linear strain in the direction of deforming force is called longitudinal strain and
in a direction perpendicular to force is called lateral strain.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Example. A wire is stretched to double its length. Calculate the linear strain.

Change in length 2L  L
Solution: Strain   1
Original length L

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

Example. The length of a wire increases by 1% by a load of 2.0 N. Calculate the linear strain
produced in the wire.

Change in length 1 % of L L / 100

Solution: Strain    = 0.01
Original length L L

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
(2) Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume
alone the strain produced in the body is called volumetric strain.
Change in volume( V )
Volumetric strain 
Original volume(V )
----------------------------------------------------------------
(3) Shearing strain: If the deforming force produces a change in the
shape of the body without changing its volume, strain produced is called
shearing strain. It is defined as angle in radians through which a plane
perpendicular to the fixed surface of the cubical body gets turned under
the effect of tangential force.
x

L
-------------------------------------------------------
Example. A cube of aluminum of sides 0.1 m is subjected to a shearing force of 100 N.
The top face of the cube is displaced through 0.02 cm with respect to the bottom
face. The shearing strain would be

x 0.02 cm
Solution : Shearing strain     0.002
L 0.1m
---------------------------------------------------------
Note:  When a beam is bent both compression strain as well as an
extension strain is produced.
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Three elastic moduli are used to describe the elastic behavior (deformations) of objects as
they respond to forces that act on them. The strain (fractional change in length) is linearly
related to the applied stress (force per unit area) by the proper modulus, according to the
general stress–strain relation
Stress  modulus  Strain .
When an object is under tension or compression, the stress–strain relation is written as
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 Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

A- Young's Modulus (E). (Tension and Compression)

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain within limit of
proportionality.
Normal stress F/A FL FL
E    L 
longitudinal strain L / L AL AE
Unit of Young’s modulus: N/m2 (S.I.).
If force is applied on a wire of radius r by hanging a weight of mass M, then
MgL
E
 r 2 L
Important points
i. If the length of a wire is doubled,
change in length( L) final length  initial length 2 L  L
Then longitudinal strain =   1
initial length( L) Initial length L
stress
 Young’s modulus =  E = stress [As strain = 1]
strain
So young’s modulus is numerically equal to the stress which will double the length of a wire.
FL
ii. Increment in the length of wire L   FL 
 r2E  As E  AL 

L
So if same stretching force is applied to different wires of same material, L  [As F
r2
and E are constant]
L
i.e., greater the ratio , greater will be the elongation in the wire.
r2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example1. The diameter of a brass rod is 4 mm and Young’s modulus of brass is
9  10 10 N / m 2 . The force required to stretch by 0.1% of its length is

Solution: r  2  103 m, E  9  1010 N / m2 , L  0.1% L  L  0.001

L
As F L L
E  F  EA  9  1010   (2  103 )2  0.001  360 N
A L L
--------------------------------------------------------------
Example2. A wire of length 2.0 m is made from 10 cm3 of copper. A force F is applied so
that its length increases by 2.0 mm. Another wire of length 8.0 m is made from
the same volume of copper. If the force F is applied to it, its length will increase
by:

Solution: FL FL2  L  L2 [As V, E and F are constant]

L  
AE VE

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

2
L2  L2   8 
2

       16
L1  L1   2 
 L2  16  L1  16  2 mm  32 mm  3.2 cm
--------------------------------------------------------------
Example3. A wire of length L and radius r is rigidly fixed at one end. On stretching the
other end of the wire with a force F, the increase in its length is L1 . If another
wire of same material but of length 2L and radius 2r is stretched with a force of
2F, the increase in its length will be

2
L F L  r 
2
L  2  2  2 2  1   2  2     1
Solution: FL 1
 r E L1 F1 L1  r2  2
L1  L2 i.e. the increment in length will be same.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Shearing When an object is under a shearing stress, the Equation
Stress  modulus  Strain
is written as
F x
G
A L
where x / L is the shearing strain of the object, x is the displacement of one end of the
object in the direction of the applied force F , and G is the shear modulus of the object. The
stress is F / A .
-----------------------------------------------------------
Hydraulic Stress When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due to a stress exerted
by a surrounding fluid, the Equation
Stress  modulus  Strain
is written as
F V
 pB , B  bulk modulus
A V
Hydraulic Stress Strain
where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid, V / V (the strain) is
the absolute value of the fractional change in the object’s volume due to that pressure, and B
is the bulk modulus of the object.
------------------------------------------
Example. A solid copper cube has an edge length of 85.5 cm. How much hydraulic stress must
be applied to the cube to reduce the edge length to 85.0 cm? The bulk modulus of copper is
1.40×1011 N/m2.

Answer:
∆𝑉 85 3 − 85.5 3
𝑝 =𝐵 = 1.40 × 1011 × × 10−6
𝑉 85.5 3 × 10−6

= 2.44 × 109 N/m2

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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

Extra problems
Problem. The force required to stretch a steel wire of 1 cm2 cross-section to 1.1 times its length would be
(Y  2  10 11 Nm 2 )
(a) 2  10 6 N (b) 2  10 3 N (c) 2  10 6 N (d) 2  10 7 N

l L  L1 1 .1 L1  L1
Solution : (a) L 2  1.1 L1 Strain   2  = 0.1.
L1 L1 L1
L
F  EA  2  10 11  1  10 4  0.1  2  10 6 N .
L
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem. A 2-meter long rod is suspended with the help of two wires of
equal length. One wire is of steel and its cross-sectional area is 0.1
cm2 and another wire is of brass and its cross-sectional area is 0.2
cm2. If a load W is suspended from the rod and stress produced in
both the wires is same then the ratio of tensions in them will be

(a) Will depend on the position of W

(b) T1 / T2  2
(c) T1 / T2  1
(d) T1 / T2  0.5

Tension
Solution : (d) Stress =  constant
Area of cross -section
T1 T T A 0 .1 1
  2  1  1    0 .5 .
A1 A2 T2 A2 0.2 2

Problem. A certain wire, hanging from a ceiling, stretches 0.9 cm when outward force with magnitude F is applied
to the free end. The same force is applied to a wire of the same material but with three times the diameter and
three times the length. The second wire stretches:
Answer:
Calculate the ratio:
L A 1L    3d / 2 
2
L1 FL / AE
 1 1 1 1  1 2  1 3
L2 F2 L2 / A2 E2 L2 A1 3L1    d / 2 2
L1 0.9
L2    0.3
3 3
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Problem. A 10.2 m long steel beam with a cross-sectional area of 0.120 m2 is mounted between two concrete
walls with no room for expansion. When the temperature rises, such a beam will expand in length by 1.20 mm if
it is free to do so. What force must be exerted by the concrete walls to prevent the beam from expanding?
Young's modulus for steel is 2.00×1011 N/m2.
Answer:
∆L
F= E × ×A
L

1.20 × 10−3
= 2 × 1011 × × 0.120 = 2.82 × 106 N
10.2
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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

Example. Two wires A and B are of same materials. Their lengths are in the ratio 1:2
and diameters are in the ratio 2:1 when stretched by force FA and FB
respectively they get equal increase in their lengths. Calculate the ratio FA/FB.

FL L
Solution: E  F  E r 2
 r 2 L L
2
FA E A  rA   LA   LB 
2
2 2
        1     1     8
FB EB  rB   LB   LA  1 1
--------------------------------------------------------------
Example. A uniform plank of Young’s modulus E is moved over a smooth horizontal
surface by a constant horizontal force F. The area of cross-section of the plank
is A. the compressive strain on the plank in the direction of the force is

Stress F/A F
Solution: Compressive strain   
Young' s modulus E AE
--------------------------------------------------------------
Example. A wire is stretched by 0.01 m by a certain force F. Another wire of same material
whose diameter and length are double to the original wire is stretched by the
same force. Then its elongation will be

FL  L  L
Solution: L  [As F and E are constants]
 r2E r2
2
L2  L2   r1  L 0.01
2
1 1
      (2)      L2  1   0.005m .
L1  L1   r2  2 2 2 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example. The load versus elongation graph for four wires of the same
material is shown in the figure. The thickest wire is
represented by the line

(a) OD
(b) OC
(c) OB
(d) OA
FL 1
Solution: (a) Young's modulus E   L  (As E, L and F are constant)
AL A
From the graph it is clear that for same load elongation is minimum for graph
OD. As elongation ( L ) is minimum therefore area of cross-section (A) is
maximum. So thickest wire is represented by OD.
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Prof. Dr. I. Nasser Chapter12-II December 5, 2017

A 5 m long aluminum wire ( E  7  10 N/m ) of diameter 3 mm supports a

10 2
Example.
40 kg mass. In order to have the same elongation in a copper wire
( E  12  1010 N/m2 ) of the same length under the same weight, the diameter
should now be, in mm

FL 4 FL [As r  d / 2 ]
Solution: L  
 r E  d 2E
2

If the elongation in both wires (of same length) is same under the same weight
then d 2 E = constant
2
 d Cu  E Al E Al 7  1010
    d Cu  d Al  3  2.29 mm
 d Al  ECu ECu 12  1010
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
On applying a stress of 20  10 N/m the length of a perfectly elastic wire is
8 2
Example.
doubled. Its Young’s modulus will be

Solution : When strain is unity then Young's modulus is equal to stress.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example. The dimensions of four wires of the same material are given below. In which
wire the increase in length will be maximum when the same tension is applied

Solution : If same force is applied on four wires of same material then elongation in each
wire depends on the length and diameter of the wire and given by L  L2 and
d
L
the ratio of is maximum for (d) option.
d2
-----------------------------------------------------------
Example. The Young’s modulus of a wire of length L and radius r is Y N/m2. If the length
and radius are reduced to L/2 and r/2, then its Young’s modulus will be

Solution : Young's modulus do not depend upon the dimensions of wire. It is constant for
a given material of wire.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Example. A fixed volume of iron is drawn into a wire of length L. The extension x
produced in this wire by a constant force F is proportional to

Solution : L 
FL

FL2

FL2 for a fixed volume L  L2
AE ALE VE

10