CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

Teacher’s conduct is the term used for the behavioral expression of the act of teaching, done for

aiding the learning by a student or a group of students. It therefore includes all the verbal and

nonverbal behaviours demonstrated by a teacher in an effort to impart education within an

academic setting.

The influence of teacher’s behaviour plays a vital role in the academic success of students.

Behaviour is a description of the observable outcome of teacher and student performance in

different activities of institutions. Behaviour may be positive or negative and effective or

ineffective. The meaning of behavior is to conduct or carry oneself or behavior in what we do,

particularly in response to outside stimuli; anything that an organism does that involves action

and response to stimulation (UNESCO, 1986).

Behavior is an observable, identifiable phenomenon (Joyce, 1980). Teachers also need to be

considerate in the way in which they react to students’ comments. Generally, teachers react by

using praise, acceptance, remediation, or criticism in responding to students answers (Derk,

1974).

2.1 Demographic and Professional Background of Teachers

The first purpose of this chapter was to assess the relationship between students’ achievement in

school and teachers’ professional background, professional development and teaching practices.
Students’ achievement in school depends on a complex interaction of factors both within and

outside the classroom. These factors range from teacher’s background, qualifications, subject

majors and years of experience to the professional development that the teacher has received to

support their teaching and training that the teachers have learned to accomplish their teaching,

methodlogies and other factors.

Several teachers are not qualified to teach but due to inadequate number of teachers, they are

teaching and that could be one reason for the poor academic performances of students in the

school.

Teachers’ qualification in this study measures the educational attainment (education level) of the

teachers. That is the highest qualification obtained by the teachers in any subject. It was

classified according to the highest qualification the teacher has obtained, namely Certificate,

Diploma, Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral degrees. A number of studies have examined the ways

in which teachers’ highest qualifications are related to students’ achievement. Many of the

studies found that teachers’ qualifications correspond positively with students’ achievement and

teachers’ with highest degree correlates positively with good students’ achievement (Bett et al,

2001).

Out of the eight (8) teaching staff of ST. Augustine Junior High School only seven (7) of them

are trained teachers, one (1) volunteer teacher.

A number of studies found teachers’ years of experience to have a positively correlate with

students’ achievement. For example, Betts, et al (2003) found that teachers’ experience

significantly correlates with students’ achievement in school.

Gender of Teachers Number of Teachers Percentage of Teachers (%)

Males 5 62.5

Females 3 37.5

Total 8 100

Table 2.1: Professional-Teaching Experience of Teachers

Teaching Experience (Years) Percentage of teachers (%)

1–5 25

6 – 10 37.5

11 – 15 37.5
Table 2.2: Professional Qualification of Teachers

Qualification Percentage (%)

Untrained 12.5

Certificate 25

Diploma 37.5

Bachelor’s Degree 12.5

Masters 12.5

2.3 Attendance and Punctuality to School

The relationship between passion and learning in the classroom is strong. I believe that passion is

likely to affect student academic engagement as well. One reason is that, teacher passion may

causes engagement is demonstrating (Bettencourt et al, 1983). Teachers who act devotedly or in

ways that communicate to their students that the task at hand is engaging or imperative may

cause similar feelings and/or beliefs from their students. On the other hand, teachers who

communicate that the activity is unexciting or a waste of time may stimulate negative reactions

from their students. Enthusiastic teaching is also likely to be more fun for students (Good et al,

1980).
The Ghana Education Service has made the work of the school management easy by setting rules

and regulations for all schools and among them are; attendance, punctuality and usage of contact

hours. These rules are communicated to all teachers clearly through meeting with the

management of the GES and handbooks. The teaching staff and management of ST. Augustine

Junior High School have been doing their best over the years not to go against the regulation, as

teachers make sure that they report to school punctually especially the teachers on duty. They

make sure that they oversee the cleaning of the school compound on time, conduct assembly on

time and start classes on time. All the above mentioned is not a sweet-talk but facts because there

are records of teachers attendance in the school office. Over the past four (2) years the school has

kept that mark of 97% attendance. All teachers stay in the community but not all are indigenes

therefore, their only source of delight is to always be in school and doing what is expected of

them.

Every teacher is seen in the class during classes’ hours, the head-teacher does not give teachers

the chance to sit under trees especially during class hours since he himself is seen in class during

class hours. Teachers have embraced the rule of not visiting colleagues during classes’ period.

Teachers who wish to absent themselves from school are required by management to send a

notice in the form of written with concrete reasons. Phone calls are not allowed unless otherwise

a serious issue that cannot be handled. The circuit supervisor of the school also does a great job

by visiting and supervising work every two weeks.

The attitudes of both teachers and management has contributed positively to the achievement of

learners as learners are actively engaged in both curricular and extra-curricular activities at the

right time. This has gone long way in creating that love of the officers of the school, and the

school has always kept that sanity expected of them.

Teaching practices refer to instructional techniques that teachers use to accomplish their

classroom learning objectives. It lay down the ways of presenting instructional materials or

conducting instructional activities. Teachers’ teaching practices form the classroom-learning

environment. The impact of the new knowledge about teaching and learning on the classroom

instructional practices is a shift from teacher-centered to leaner-centered approach of teaching.

Teacher particularly English teachers are expected to challenge, motivate and fill in gaps in

students’ educational backgrounds by spreading information in a way that encourages students to

think critically (Crawford, et al 1977).

A study was conducted by the researcher to examine teachers approach to duties such as lesson

planning and presentation style, level of teacher-learner interactions, motivation techniques,

average exercises and tests given within a week in the school. The sample comprised of all

teachers and all learners in the school. Two questionnaires were used with a five-points rating

scale in order to collect the views of teachers and learners about the teachers’ behaviour

regarding to academic achievement of the students.

The researcher personally visited the school and collected views about the behaviour of teachers

on academic achievements of students. Analysis of the teacher’s intention showed that the

teacher linked the subject matter to the everyday lives of the students. They adjusted themselves
with the prevailing situations and circumstances and tried for continuous development in their

knowledge and skills. They also used diverse evaluation techniques while teaching. Teachers’

teaching practices comparison report shows that 72.5% of the teachers assigned homework in all

or almost all lessons while 85% did that at least once a week. 60% used official presentations to

introduce content at least once a week, 72.5% involved students in cooperative groups work at

least once a week and 60% used whole class discussion at least once a week. They awarded

marks fairly and also participated in co-curricular activities. Teachers focused on personality

building of the students.

There is the saying that “one cannot judge with the words of only Mr. A, but must here from Mr.

B too before passing a judgement”, so another study was done by collecting the views of

students about the teachers in the school. Investigation of the student’s views showed that the

teacher related the subject matter with the lives of the students. Teachers gave individual

attention to their extra time and they provided significant information to explain the points of the

subject matter to the students. Teachers also motivate students with kind words when they do

well in class.

Teachers used reference books, prepared notes, teaching and learning materials (TLMs) and

encouraged students to participate in co-curricular activities. Teachers also focused on

facilitating character building of the students and get response with constructive criticism.

Diverse assessment procedures, such as an observation, rating scale, peers appraisal, and check-

lists, were used to assess the students. The relationship between the teacher’s behaviour and

corresponding academic achievement (marks) of the students showed that there was highly

positive significant correlation between the behaviors of teachers with the academic
achievements of students. The higher positive behavior of teachers towards their students led to

the higher academic achievement of the students.

2.5 The Concept of Reading

Excellence education is a concern and a task to all nations of the world. This is due to the fast

changing technology and hence changing job demands have forced the emphasis of education to

change. Today, we live and work in an era controlled by computers, worldwide communication

and a global economy. Jobs that add to this economy will require workers who are prepared to

absorb new ideas, to see patterns and solve unusual problems. As a result, today’s employers

require workers with higher ability skills than in the past. Thus, the ability to solve problems, to

make conjectures, and to communicate verbally and in writing are increasingly valued in the

workforce and all this can only be achieved when the individual is able to read and understand

whatever comes his/her way.

Several studies has shown that, the socio-economic status of a country, and the standard of living

of the individual has great impact on the academic achievement of learners, hence learners who

come from deprived homes, learning under poor socio-economic backgrounds are likely to

perform poorly in their academic work. Therefore, not all children will arrive at school with the

kinds of literacy skills that help them thrive academically. They will need more time, more

assistance, and additional opportunities at school to acquire the kinds of literacy experiences that

are critical for later academic success.