Unit 5: Education

Informal and Formal Education

●​ Formal education: takes place in the classroom with a syllabus and set content to be taught and
learnt.
●​ Informal education: takes place outside the classroom, mostly at home or work, through daily
interactions.

Education as a means of socialization and social control

●​ Education is a means of secondary socialization.
●​ In schools, children not only learn lessons from the curriculum but also learned social
expectations and how to socialize with people outside your family.
●​ School is an agency of social control. It imposes rewards and sanctions on its students to mold
them according to societal standards. Rewards might include awards or verbal praise while
sanctions might include detention or physical punishments.
●​ Some believe that those in power can influence the topics taught in school. Children may be
taught that their leader/president is the best. This is shown in North Korea’s case where
Kim-Jong-un is painted as the wisest man and the country’s history is construed and manipulated.

Functionalist view
●​ Believe that school ensures the smooth running of society.
●​ Schools pass on norms and values and continue socialization begun by the family. Since children
are socialized into the same values, they might feel a sense of belonging and camaraderie.
●​ The values children are socialized into are not universal and differ between classes. The
bourgeoisie who send their children to private schools, learn that they are superior to others.

Feminist view
●​ Believe that schools reinforce patriarchy and the belief that men are superior
●​ Women regularly have less access to education than men.
●​ Boys are often taught that they are superior to girls while girls may learn to lower their
expectations and be more likely to accept traditional gender roles.
○​ Teachers encourage boys to focus on their careers and assume that girls only have a
future of marriage and motherhood.
○​ Head teachers and principals are often male while women work as teachers or assistants.
This can subconsciously reinforce that men are better leaders.
○​ Girls are taught different knowledge. The subject of Home Economics is often
encouraged for women which teaches them nutrition, cooking, decorating etc.

Marxist view
●​ Believe that school reinforces the power of the bourgeoisie and makes the working class feel
inferior.
 ●​ School teaches children that society is meritocratic and that earning good grades would mean
success in life. However, marxists believe that this is not true and that it makes the working class
accept their situation, causing fatalism.
●​ Schools prepare students in the working class and prepare them for skills the capitalist needs.

Education and Social Mobility

●​ Functionalists believe that society is meritocratic and that there is an equality of opportunity.
They see that education permits social mobility and that a bright child will have a bright future,
no matter their class, ethnicity or gender.
●​ Other sociological perspectives disagree with this opinion of meritocracy. They point out the
heavy influence of gender, class and ethnicity on a student’s educational achievement. For
example, if children are competing in a race with one another to obtain prized occupations in,
then working class children start with a handicap.
●​ Mrxists believe that success depends less on talent and more on your class background. They see
that education does not facilitate social mobility. Middle and higher class families can provide
advantages to their children like private tutors, access to books and other resources. Any mobility
that is allowed or possible is considered a safety valve to prevent build up of resentment.

Different types of schools

●​ Schools can be divided based on age. Pre-school is for ages 3-5 and helps young kids get used to
being in a school setting. Primary school is for ages 5-11 and provides basic education. Secondary
schools are for ages 11-16 and provide education of various subjects, some of which determine
the child’s future career. These school stages are often compulsory in most countries.
●​ Tertiary schools are a form of non-compulsory schooling and usually involve going to a
university or college. This type of schooling is for students aged 18 or older and involves
studying your chosen career field.
●​ State schools: schools that are run directly or indirectly by the government.
●​ Private schools: schools that are run independently and are not run or funded by the government.
●​ Faith schools: a form of private schools which are religious in nature and are funded by a
religious organization.

For Private schools:

-​ Smaller class sizes
-​ People studying in a private school are preferred in employment

Against Private schools:

-​ It is wrong that the wealthy can buy a better education.
-​ Higher classes are able to pass on their privilege to their children.
-​ Education is often not a lot better than state schools.

●​ Selective schools: schools that only admit pupils of certain academic prowess and exclude others.
●​ Single sex schools: mostly private schools that segregate students based on sex.
●​ Comprehensive schools: schools that accept all students regardless of ability.
For Comprehensive schools-
-​ Equal opportunity and same level of education.
-​ Inclusive of everyone regardless of gender, ethnicity or class.

Against Comprehensive schools:-

-​ May limit students who have higher educational abilities who have to study at the same level as
lower ability students.
-​ Are often large and impersonal meaning the student is often unheard by teachers and
administrators.
-​ The simultaneous existence of comprehensive and private school means that there will still be a
class divide. The rich will go to private schools while the poor will go to state schools.
-​ Comprehensive schools often use streaming and selection meaning students still receive different
education on the basis of talent.

Patterns in educational achievement and experience in relation to gender, ethnicity and

social class.
Gender
●​ In the past, schooling was reserved for boys while girls would learn their essential skills from
other females in the family. In most modern countries, this has changed and everyone has been
given access to regardless of gender. However, in many developing countries, girls are
disadvantaged in terms of education. Families with limited income choose to educate boys
thinking that they will help support them in the future. Girls on the other hand, are believed to
have a future of marriage and motherhood and that educating them is unnecessary.
●​ The United Nations emphasizes the need for girls’ education, arguing that it is necessary to a
country’s development. It has been shown that educating girls helps improve living standards and
the health and nutrition of families since educated women are less likely to have many children,
helping combat overpopulation. Despite this, 57% of those who are uneducated are women.
●​ In the past, the curriculum differed based on gender. Boys learnt woodwork and metalwork while
girls learnt domestic science and textiles. Nowadays, this has changed, however, due to prior
socialization by families and guardians, girls and boys still differ on choice of subjects. Subjects
like science are dominated by boys while arts are dominated by girls.
●​ Subconscious messages are often passed to female students. For example, girls may see
laboratories dominated by men, science diagrams picturing boys and teachers often being male as
well. This may illustrate to young girls that science is only for boys. Equally, boys may be
discouraged from subjects like Home Economics and Sociology.

Why do girls achieve higher grades?

●​ It has been argued that girls mature earlier than boys. The age of maturity for girls has been
suggested to be 16, when children in many countries take their exams, meaning they understand
the importance of studies at a critical age.
●​ Some schools use schemes to encourage girls to score higher, especially in subjects like science.
Positive discrimination can be used meaning girls might get easier access to lab equipment than
their male peers.
 ●​ Girls know that they no longer have to be mothers and housewives. This might motivate them to
study and build a career for themselves. Girls now also have better female role models.

Why do boys achieve lower than girls?

●​ Teachers may not correct behavior such as poor study habits in boys believing it to be normal.
Such behavior might not be tolerated for girls. This would mean that boys would be rambunctious
and girls would be more studious.
●​ Boys may be affected or influenced by the anti-learning subculture. They might think that being
studious would worsen their image in the eyes of their peers and make them seem uncool.
●​ Boys tend to be overconfident, which may be due to how they are raised, which can mean they
overestimate their abilities and fail to study enough.

Ethnicity
Why do some ethnic groups achieve lower?
●​ Ethnicity cannot be separated from class. Most ethnic minority groups are immigrants who are in
the working class. This means that pupils face both ethnic and class inequality.
●​ Ethnicity and gender are often linked. Asian families are more likely to push traditional gender
roles on girls which may limit their aspirations and motivation to study.
●​ Factors within school:-
○​ Teachers may be prejudiced towards certain ethnic groups and label them deviant. This
can cause a self-fulfilling prophecy.
○​ Lessons may be ethnocentric and teach the majority history, culture and religion. Pupils
may feel that their culture is undervalued. They may feel the lesson does not apply to
them and thus not focus on it.
○​ School administrators and teachers may not take action against racist bullying towards
ethnic minorities. This can harm the mental health of minorities and make them feel
unwanted, leading to underachievement.
●​ Some minorities may not understand the host language. They could have difficulty understanding
lessons and teachers leading to lower grades.

Social Class
●​ Working class children are hampered by material and culture deprivation.
●​ Working class students may be insecure about their status which could be reinforced by teachers.
This could mean that they believe they can’t do w​ ell and underachieve as a result.
●​ Children may be labeled or streamed leading to their underachievement.
●​ Children of a higher class have access to better schooling, private tuitions and other resources.

Material, cultural and linguistic influences

Material Influences
Material deprivation refers to the standard of living of pupils and their ability to afford basic necessities
that can lead to underachievement in school. Ethnic minorities and single mother families are more likely
to be in the working class or under the poverty line. Boys are also preferred to be educated when
resources are limited. Children from the working class or below the poverty line may face certain
disadvantages:-
 ➔​ Not having a quiet place to study in a small or overcrowded home.
➔​ Not having an adequate diet causes lethargy and lack of concentration in school.
➔​ Not having access to certain resources such as books or computers that are needed for school.
➔​ Attending a disadvantaged school due to the area they live in.
➔​ Having to limit aspirations since they know their family cannot afford higher education or an
expensive university.

These disadvantages are called home factors and affect how they do in school. Middle class or the ruling
class are able to provide their children with private tutors, subject books and extra sessions with their
teachers.

Culture Influences
Social Class:-
Some sociologists argue that the working class has formed a culture of their own and it can affect their
achievement in school. This idea refers to cultural deprivation. Cultural deprivation stems from values
and attitudes rather than a lack of money or resources. Some aspects of the working class culture that
hamper educational achievements include:-
●​ A fatalistic attitude - believing that you cannot change your prospects.
●​ The need for immediate rather than deferred graduation - those in the working class often prefer
to enter the workforce immediately rather than attain higher education since the job will provide a
wage immediately even though a higher education could lead to higher paid jobs in the future.
●​ Loyalty - some may think that it is unfair to others if they move up the social ladder.
●​ The absence of role models who promote education - there might not be any people who received
benefits from education in the community which could mean that families might see it as
unimportant and unnecessary.
However, the existence of a working class culture has been questioned. Many parents do see the
importance of education but may lack the knowledge upper class people hold. They may also lack cultural
capital.
-​ Culture Capital: comprises the social assets of a person such as tastes, values and behaviors. The
advantages a parent with cultural capital can give to their child can be a familiarity and love of
books, visiting museums and knowing the importance of education.
Through Culture Capital parents would also know how the school system works and how to use it to their
advantage.

Ethnicity:-
A person’s culture and ethnic background can deeply affect how they approach school. Louise Archer, a
British sociologist, researched why Chinese pupils excelled in comparison to other pupils. She found that
Chinese families put a greater emphasis and importance on education and enforced a necessity to excel. A
student she interviewed described it to be as such, White children are told to try their best while Chinese
children are told to be the best.
Gender:-
Boys and girls are socialized into different gender roles which stay with them as they enter school age.
Boys think in terms of attaining a high paying career in the future which makes them more likely to work
hard and enter a good university. Girls believe they are destined for motherhood and marriage, making
them think that achieving high grades isn't necessary.
This is changing nowadays and girls are encouraged to pursue a career and the emphasis on marriage and
motherhood has decreased.

Linguistic Influences
Social Class:-
Sociologist Basil Bernstein divided language into two types; restricted code and elaborated code.
●​ Restricted Code: a form of language spoken with family and close friends which is usually
informal.
●​ Elaborated Code: a form of language used in careful explanation and detail which is usually
formal.
He further suggested that due to culture capital, middle and upper class children have an easier time than
working class children in terms of speaking in elaborated code. This ability can make them seem more
able or talented in the eyes of teachers and gives them a competitive advantage.

Ethnicity:-
Students who are part of a ethnic minority may have a different native language. Due to this, they may
have difficulty understanding the teacher and by extension, the lesson. This might also affect their accent
and pronunciation in the host language. Teacher’s might deem how they speak the language inappropriate.
These problems mean that a student might be underachieving even if they have the capacity to understand
and succeed.

The influence of school, teachers, pupil subcultures and the peer group on educational
achievement.
Social Class:-
Studies have shown that good schools make a significant difference in a student’s academics. Features of
a good school include:
●​ Teachers are well prepared
●​ Teachers focus on rewards and praise rather than sanctions
●​ There is a mixture of abilities
Research has also suggested that the teacher-student relationship can also influence educational
achievements. Teachers often have a stereotype of the ideal student based on dressing, speech and
conduct. While middle class students are more likely to meet this stereotype, working class students might
be perceived as lacking familial support or being disruptive.

The way students are perceived by their teachers can heavily affect their achievements. Suppose a teacher
sees a student as lazy, deviant and incapable of study. The student can take this criticism in two ways:-
●​ Self fulfilling prophecy: the student believes the criticism and believes that they can’t succeed,
causing them to underachieve.
 ●​ Self negating prophecy: the student takes the criticism as a challenge and works harder to prove
the teacher wrong causing their grades to improve.
Research by Rosenthal and Jacobson(1968) supported the idea of the self fulfilling prophecy. Students
who were praised and encouraged by teachers achieved higher progress than those who were negatively
labeled and those who weren’t labeled at all.

Students are also labeled through streaming which divides students based on their abilities. This causes
the same effects as teacher perception.

Ethnicity:-
Teachers often label students based on ethnicity which can possibly create a self fulfilling prophecy.
Students from certain ethnic minority groups are likely to be placed in lower level streams which can
negatively impact their self perception.

In the UK, African-Caribbean students are more susceptible to labeling and negative perceptions by
teachers. When students from these groups are labeled negatively such as being troublemakers, it can be
hard to escape from the stereotype and can eventually become the students' master status.
-​ Master Status: the defining characteristic of an individual and the single most important
describing aspect of the person, in the eyes of others. The person can eventually internalize this
status and believe it to be true.

Chinese and Indian students, on the other hand, have high expectations imposed on them. This means that
students may not be praised for their achievements and might not be offered help since they’re expected
to handle it on their own.

Gender:-
Female peer groups are more likely to be in tune with the school and learning and often support one
another during studies. Such peer groups are also more likely to spend time talking with one another
which can be more helpful than common male hobbies like sports and gaming since it helps with
language skills.

Boys are often surrounded by a masculinity culture which paints studying and working hard as feminine
meaning they often choose not to study due to the fear of appearing uncool and being ostracized by their
friend group.

Girls and boys both have stereotypes imposed on them. Boys are expected to be troublemakers and non
studious while girls are expected to be demure and focused. These stereotypes and labeling can cause a
self fulfilling prophecy.

Measuring intelligence, selection and its relationship to educational achievement

It can be argued that varying educational achievements are simply due to a pupil’s intelligence. According
to achievement patterns, this would mean that upper class students are simply more intelligent than
working class children. This view is not accepted by sociologists and other explanations such as
discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, gender or class are more commonly used.
It is possible that intelligence is innate on some level, however, how it develops is based on the child’s
environment. Gardner suggests the existence of multiple forms of intelligence. What we call intelligence,
is described by Gardner as verbal and logical reasoning. Other forms of intelligence may include
emotional or linguistic intelligence.

Intelligence is measured through IQ tests which produce varying patterns in results. For example, middle
class students often achieve higher scores than working class pupils. More controversially, some
sociologists argue that there is a link between ethnicity and intelligence. There are problems with IQ tests
which means these opinions should be questioned:-
●​ IQ tests are not taken frequently even though intelligence develops meaning results should not be
trusted.
●​ Performance in IQ tests can be affected by the student’s mental or physical health at the time of
the test.
●​ Some who do not score high in IQ tests still succeed later in life.
●​ IQ tests only test logical intelligence meaning it might not represent true intelligence.

Hidden and Official Curriculum

Official Curriculum
●​ The official curriculum consists of subjects and their respective topics.
●​ Most countries have a national curriculum which is necessary to be taught at all schools. National
exams often take place as well which determines how effective schools are in educating their
pupils.
●​ A national curriculum can help control what is taught to pupils and provide students with an equal
playing field. However, a national curriculum can prevent the teaching of more interesting and
perhaps more relevant topics.

Hidden Curriculum
●​ The hidden curriculum consists of unspoken and implied topics that teach pupils values, norms
and beliefs of society.
●​ Features of a hidden curriculum:-
○​ The physical structure of a teacher at front and rows of students at the back implies that
teachers are in control and have higher authority than students.
○​ School rules and deadlines imply that you do what you are told by people of authority
even if you don't agree.
○​ The emphasis on punctuality implies that time is not your own.
●​ Functionalists, Marxists and Feminists all agree to the existence of a hidden curriculum but differ
on the values it encompasses.
○​ Functionalists believe that the hidden curriculum teaches skills and values necessary for
the smooth running of society.
○​ Marxists believe that the hidden curriculum ensures the power of the ruling class and the
working class to remain passive and conforming.
○​ Feminists believe the hidden curriculum encourages both boys and girls to conform to
traditional gender roles.
Vocationalism
●​ Vocational schools prepare students for a particular trade, craft or profession.
●​ In many countries, vocational schools have a lower status than traditional schooling and are often
associated with the working class.
●​ Governments have tried to prevent this phenomenon since they believe its necessary for some
people to enter the workforce earlier and partake in more manual jobs [which vocational schools
often prepare you for]
●​ Critics of vocationalism have argued:-
○​ Pupils from these schools are used as a form of cheap labor under the guise of an
apprenticeship.
○​ These schools are often used to occupy individuals without jobs in order to decrease the
unemployment rate.
○​ The purpose of education shouldn’t be forming a workforce and should instead be
providing individuals with fulfilling futures which can only be done with a more varied
education.

Unit 2: Crime, Deviance and Social Control

The Difference between Crime and Deviance
●​ Crime: acts that play formal written laws.
●​ Deviance: acts that break the norms, values and beliefs of society.
●​ Crime and deviance are relative and the definition varies over time. An act is not considered
deviant by nature and the same acts are not always considered crimes. For example, killing
someone is usually a crime but in battle, it's considered a heroic act.

Formal and Informal Social Control

●​ Informal social control is imposed by regular citizens of society through methods such as
sarcasm, isolation and rewards and sanctions.
●​ Formal social control is imposed by the government and its agencies or people in positions of
authority.
●​ Crime is usually dealt through formal social control imposed by government agencies. These
agencies include:
○​ The police: investigating and catching criminals.
○​ The courts: sentencing offenders and deciding their innocence or guilt.
○​ The penal system: composed of prisons and jails that impose the punishment decided by
the courts.

Measurements of Crime
Official Statistics
●​ Official crime statistics measure the numbers of criminals and offenders in an area.
●​ Crime statistics are often taken at face value and assumptions are made about the extent of crime
and characteristics of offenders. However, this data is socially constructed since the data only
represents the type of crime the statistician deems appropriate. Interprevists also argue that the
data tells more about the people who compiled them than the actual extent of criminal activity.
 ●​ The main sets of official statistics on crime include:
○​ Police counts on different types of crime
○​ Court records on the number of convictions for different crimes and characteristics of the
convicted.
●​ The crimes that are not detected and recorded in these statistics are termed the Dark Figure.

Self-reporting Studies
●​ Confidential surveys that ask the respondent about if and what type of crimes they have
committed.
●​ Since their identities are not revealed, criminals are more likely to mention their crimes which
provides a more valid extent of crime and means the dark figure isn’t nearly as large.
●​ Self reports often provide a different image than official statistics. While data from official
statistics says that most crime is caused by men and working class individuals, self reports show
that a significant number of women and middle class individuals commit crimes.
●​ However, as the respondent is not being observed, they are more likely to exaggerate, downplay
or lie about their crimes.
○​ Some people might only mention trivial crimes like not paying for a train ticket meaning
the data might not represent serious offenses.
○​ Most self report studies are conducted through adolescents meaning white collar crimes
and serious crimes like murder are usually ignored.

Victimization Studies
●​ Surveys that ask the respondent if they have been a victim of a crime, usually within the previous
year.
●​ Respondents are more likely to report crimes they have been a victim of rather than those they are
an offender of.
●​ However, these studies do not cover victimless crimes such as drug use or tax fraud.
○​ Some topics may be sensitive to talk about leading to more under-reporting
○​ The study relies on the victim’s memory. The victim might misremember some details or
may forget a crime that took place.

Patterns and explanations of crime by age, class, gender and ethnicity

Age
●​ Most crimes are committed by young people usually between 15-25 years of age.
●​ Juvenile delinquents are offenders under the adult age of the country, usually 18. Most countries
have a separate juvenile judicial system which includes juvenile detention centers. Young
offenders are placed in different facilities in order to prevent them being influenced by adult
criminals.
●​ Juveniles can commit two types of crimes:
○​ Status crimes - those which are only considered a crime due to the offender’s age such as
drinking or driving underage.
○​ Major crimes - those which are considered a crime regardless of age such as theft.
●​ Most crimes committed by juveniles are non violent. Some sociologists consider these crimes to
be a part of growing up. In traditional societies, there was a distinct shift from child to adult and
 set responsibilities were given to individuals. However, in modern society, individuals have an
extended period of time and are not given any guidelines on how to live life meaning they
experiment to figure out their identity.
●​ Some factors associated with high rates of crime in young people are:
○​ Parenting style - being too lenient or too strict has seen to lead to increased crime
○​ Criminal influences - children growing up around other offenders can lead to crime later
on.
○​ Socio-economic class - those in single parent families are more likely to offend due to a
greater risk of poverty and unemployment.
○​ Gender - boys are more likely to offend than girls due to a culture of masculinity,
however, girls are committing more crimes in recent years.
●​ Older people:
○​ Usually, very little crime is committed by older individuals.
○​ Some older criminals are prosecuted for crimes committed in their younger years such as
war crimes which are often prosecuted years later.
○​ As modern industrial societies continue to have an aging population, this pattern is
changing. In Japan, one in every seven crimes is committed by individuals 65 or older.
Japan has already begun building facilities to house such criminals.

Social Class
Working class crime
●​ Official crime statistics suggest that most crimes are committed by working class individuals.
●​ Crime committed by the working class is also referred to as Blue Collar crime
●​ Some explanations for blue collar crime include:
○​ They have been socialized into a different set of values.
○​ They have a different culture which focuses on immediate gratification
○​ Relative deprivation - a feeling that you are generally worse off than the people you
associate with and compare yourself to leading to a higher crime rate.
●​ Marxists argue that official statistics only show what has been defined as crime and the ruling
class decides the definition of crime. This means that the working class’ actions are criminalized
while the ruling class rarely faces punishment. The phenomenon is in favor of the bourgeoisie
because:-​
○​ By punishing individuals from the working class, the attention is driven away from the
true problem. It reinforces the belief that individuals, not institutions, are to blame for
social problems.
○​ Neutralizes potential opposition since working class leaders can just be prosecuted for
crime and be imprisoned.

Middle class crime

●​ Statistics show that less crime is committed by middle class individuals in comparison to other
classes, however, this might be due to the fact that common crimes committed by them are
under-reported.
●​ Crime committed by the middle class is also called white collar crimes and usually comprises non
violent crimes such as tax fraud and are usually committed for financial gain.
 ●​ White collar crime is treated differently than blue collar crimes and offenders are seen in a
different light. When HMRC in the UK decided to crack down on tax evasion, they did not do so
through arresting and prosecuting the offenders but instead offered amnesty to all who agreed to
pay the amount they stole. In comparison, working class individuals who falsely claim benefits
are tried in court even though the amount stolen is a-lot smaller.
●​ White collar crimes are less likely to be reported in official statistics since companies do not like
to publicize the criminal case. More often than not, companies choose to dismiss employees who
steal without involving the police which means these crimes aren’t part of official statistics.
●​ Middle class people are more skilled in negotiating their cases and understand the judicial system
better. They are also able to hire better lawyers and have access to better resources. This means
that they are less likely to be prosecuted than working class individuals.

Ruling class crime

●​ Crime is defined by the ruling class meaning most crimes committed by the ruling class are not
considered crimes.
●​ Crimes committed by those in power and authority are called state or corporate crimes.
●​ State crimes are those committed by the state or its representative. Such crimes are when the
country’s laws or international treaties are broken. Some crimes are those which have not been
defined but are universally agreed to be wrong. These crimes include:
○​ Terrorism
○​ War crimes
○​ Torture
○​ Genocide
●​ Corporate crimes are those committed by companies and firms and overlap with white crimes,
however, they focus on crimes committed by whole companies instead of individuals. Corporate
crimes are not prosecuted often since large firms can easily manipulate the judicial system.
Corporations often don’t even need to break laws since they can easily set their own laws. These
crimes include:
○​ Bribery
○​ Breaking health and safety laws
○​ False advertising
○​ False accounting

Gender
Female crimes
●​ Female crimes are often under-reported which can explain why official statistics show that female
crimes are not committed as often. Female dominant crimes such as prostitution and shoplifting
aren’t as visible as other crimes and offenders are usually good at evading detection. This shows
that while the number of female offenses is underestimated, the statistics regarding serious
offenses are fairly accurate.
●​ Some sociologists argue the Chivalry Factor which says that women are treated leniently in courts
due to them seeming weak. However some studies have shown that courts are in fact harder on
women since crime is considered “against their nature”.
 ●​ Early explanations of less crime committed by women included:-
○​ Biological factors - the idea that crime is inherently masculine.
○​ Social factors - the idea that men and women are raised differently which leads to
differences in crime rates. It also refers to the idea that girls behave in a ‘’masculine
way’’ because they lack role models.
●​ Early explanations of the phenomenon are disregarded by most if not all sociologists. Modern and
more common explanations include:-
○​ Girls are not socialized into aggressive characteristics unlike boys.
○​ Girls have fewer opportunities to commit crimes since they are unable to leave the home
in many cultures.
○​ When at work, women are less likely to face situations where they can commit white
collar crimes.
●​ Crimes committed by women are increasing in recent years. This can be explained by factors
such as:-
○​ Women are more likely to have higher positions in society and in the workplace which
gives more opportunities for occupational crimes.
○​ Roles associated with men are now acceptable for women as well such as excess drinking
and rowdy behavior. Such aspects can lead to higher crime rates.
○​ Women are now increasingly fighting patriarchal norms such as rejecting male
domination. This can also mean that they reject the rules and laws of a patriarchal society.

Male crimes
●​ The main argument for a high level of male crime is masculinity. Men try to show their
masculinity in various ways. They can show this through raising and providing for their families
but often, they turn to crime to compensate for their inability to provide.
●​ Examples of these attempts to show masculinity include:
○​ Adventurous risk taking behavior - some behavior such as stealing or taking drugs are
considered crimes.
○​ Asserting masculinity - they might try to display their power through violence against
others, most commonly domestic violence.

Ethnicity
●​ Official statistics show that minority groups commit a large proportion of crime despite their
numbers in the population, however, sociologists face a central problem in identifying whether
the statistics represent the actual crime rate or how the judicial systems deal with the suspected
offenders.
●​ The problems with assuming that statistics are correct and representative are:-
○​ Victims might be biased and only report crimes committed by ethnic minorities due to
racial bias.
○​ The police might target certain areas with ethnic majorities or might target people of a
certain ethnicity. This police pattern can mean that crimes by ethnic minorities are
recorded more often.
●​ Explanations for higher crime rates in ethnic minorities are:-
 ○​ Marginalization and relative deprivation - when ethnic minorities are faced with
roadblocks in achieving goals such as education which can force people to turn to crime.
○​ Racism and discrimination - when people consistently face racial discrimination, people
can turn to crime in order to rebel and take revenge.
○​ Historical context - ethnic minorities whose ancestors faced colonialism might choose
crime as a way of showing their resentment and resistance.
●​ Much of the research on crime in the UK and US have been done on African-American and
African-Caribbean groups. Other minority groups might attract less attention since they are or
appear to be more law abiding. However, better explanations are that some ethnic minority groups
are closed off meaning they deal with their own crimes. Moreover, some minority groups might
have more economic success that protects them from prosecution.

Policing and Law Enforcement

●​ The police are government organizations that enforce laws and impose social control. The police
are allowed to use force in some situations and may carry weapons such as guns, tasers or batons.
●​ For marxists, the police are a state apparatus that are only controlled by the ruling class. The
bourgeoisie use the police to protect themselves. For example, the police is often used to quell
protests which suppresses the freedom of the proletariats.
●​ Due to the nature of policing, it is common for some groups to be targeted specifically. Young
men, especially those from minority ethnic groups, are often targeted for crimes. In the UK,
young Muslim men are targeted due to the fear of terrorism.
●​ One way the police target individuals is through surveillance which can be done through various
ways:-
○​ Computer surveillance - monitoring internet searches, emails and messages.
○​ Telephone surveillance - monitoring calls, often through phone tapping.
○​ Surveillance cameras
○​ Identity card systems
●​ Right wing viewers believe that there will always be bad people and thus crime cannot be
prevented. However, the police still attempts to prevent crime through various methods:-
○​ Traffic control cameras - people who know they are being observed are less likely to
speed
○​ Control of credit card fraud - the use of credit cards is observed to make sure that there
aren’t any irregularities such as a sudden spike in spending.
●​ The Broken Windows theory refers to the idea that when crimes such as breaking windows are
ignored, more crimes will inevitably take place since people do not observe any consequences.
This led to the zero tolerance policy in New York which aimed to erase any type of crime or
deviance. However, this idea has failed in some aspects. Even though the police removed the
homeless from the city, those people still remained homeless meaning the problem isn't solved
but merely hidden.

Crime related to new technologies

●​ Crime related to the internet or other technology is defined as cybercrime.
●​ Most cybercrimes are the equivalent of already existing crimes such as harassment and scams
which have adapted to new tech.
 ●​ Cybercrimes include:-
○​ Computer viruses and malware
○​ Internet scams
○​ Harassment through cyberstalking and cyberbullying
○​ Online trade in illegal goods
○​ Cyberterrorism where malware is spread to official government websites
●​ Policing cybercrime can be difficult since it can exist outside national borders. Crimes can be
committed with the victim in one country and the offender in another.
●​ Cybercrime is global and thus requires united action by all countries, however, this can be
difficult since laws vary based on governments. The internet was built without a central control
meaning it cannot be controlled or policed by governments.
●​ An example of a cyber group is Anonymous which opposes internet control. It often commits
cyberterrorism by hacking financial, government and security websites. However, it also acts as
an online vigilante group and often targets online pornography and other harmful actions.

Dealing with crime

Reasons for punishments include:-
-​ Incapacitation - people are punished through incarceration or restricting their actions/movement
in order to prevent them from committing crimes.
-​ Deterrence - people are punished in order to set and show consequences for those thinking of
committing similar crimes.
-​ Rehabilitation - people are rehabilitated in order to change their behaviors and prevent them from
committing further crimes. They are given other alternatives to crime through education and
training.
Common punishments include:-
-​ Imprisonment - confining offenders to prisons which separates them from society. In modern
societies, these prisons provide rehabilitation and alternatives to crime once they leave prison,
however, most people who enter prison commit serious offenses meaning they can’t be released.
-​ Conditional sentencing - the offender is not imprisoned but lives in society with strict restrictions
to follow. Offenders are usually tracked through tagging and ankle monitors.
-​ Fines - offenders pay a sum of money to the court as punishment.
-​ Community sentencing - the offender has to do unpaid labor for the community for a set amount
of time and usually matches their crime.

Sociological explanations of deviant and criminal behavior

Functionalism
●​ Functionalists believe that a small, controlled amount of crime is necessary. They point out that in
a city of saints, even a minor deviance could be considered a crime.
●​ They further explain that society is based on a set of shared values. People are allowed to express
their opinions on values so that they can change over time. They thus argue that criminals have an
important role in society to allow changes in laws and prevent a dysfunctional balance between
laws and values.
Merton’s Theory on Deviant Behavior
●​ The ideas of Durkheim and Functionalism influenced Robert K. Merton who developed Merton's
theory on deviant behavior.
●​ The theory suggests that crime is caused due to a lack of opportunities for achieving normal goals
in society.
●​ In such a situation, there is a strain between the goals and means to achieve those goals which
causes some people to turn to crime in order to reach success.
●​ The American Dream encouraged individuals to work hard and promised them that they would
achieve their goals. However, Merton pointed out these goals were not attainable.
●​ When people are faced with strain, they can adapt to it in 5 ways:-
1.​ Conformity - using official means to reach your goals
2.​ Innovation - finding new means to reach your goals
3.​ Ritualism - using official means to reach more attainable goals
4.​ Retreatism - to reject both the official means and goals and finding a way to
escape them
5.​ Rebellion - to reject official means and goals and creating your own instead
●​ The theory declares that the lack of opportunities causes some people to fall into a life of crime.

Marxism
●​ Marxists believe that the ruling class creates laws that protect themselves and criminalize the
actions of the working class. They support the argument by pointing out that crimes involving
property are punished more severely than crimes of violence.
●​ Marxists say that law creation is as important as law enforcement and laws that limit inequality or
prevent exploitation need to be passed.
●​ A criticism of this view can be made by the fact that some laws are clearly in everyone's interests
or even against the ruling class’ interest such as health and safety laws which protect consumers
and can limit profits. However, marxists believe these laws are still in the ruling class’ favor like
health and safety laws help create a loyal, healthy workforce.

New Right
●​ Early longitudinal studies have shown that offenders are likely to be from poor or single-parent
families.
●​ New right sociologists extended the theory to say that changes in family structures have led to an
increase in crime. They compare traditional families to modern families and declare that the older
types of families provided stability and structure which helped prevent crime and deviance.
Changes in families include:-
○​ Increases in cohabitation
○​ Increases in divorce
○​ Greater independence of women
○​ Fewer male role models
●​ These changes influence younger people, especially young men, negatively and lead to a higher
level of crime since people no longer have a proper support system in the form of their family.
Relative Deprivation
●​ Material deprivation refers to a lack of basic material goods such as food or heating.
●​ Relative deprivation refers to feeling a lack of resources in comparison or relative to another
person/group.
●​ Marginalization refers to when groups do not have organizations or representatives to protect
their interests so they have no outlet for their anger leading to violence and crime.
●​ Some sociologists argued that people turn to crime due to marginalization and relative
deprivation. Offenders were often young men and victims were from the same community. They
argue that Marxists ignore that both offenders and victims are often from the working class and
crime was an important topic for victims meaning it couldn’t be written away as an invention of
the ruling class.

Labeling Theory
●​ Labeling: the ways people and certain acts are labeled as deviant.
●​ Labeling can give someone a master status that overrides all of their other characteristics. A
master status can also influence the person’s self image which can cause a self fulfilling prophecy
where individuals start committing deviant arts simply because they are labeled deviant.
●​ People who are labeled can also try to reject the role and prove society wrong.
●​ Sociologist Howard Becker applied the labeling theory to rule creation pointing out how some
laws are only created due to a change in labeling. For example, marijuana was legal in the US
until 1937 but as opinions changed and the drug was labeled deviant, the law relented and made it
illegal as well.
●​ Labeling is most likely to be effective when the label has power over those they label.
●​ Limitations:
○​ Some acts are always deviant and are not affected by labeling such as murder.
○​ The theory paints those who are labeled as victims but many choose to be deviant and
prefer to adhere to their label.
○​ The theory does not explain why some people are labeled more than others.

Masculinity
●​ Masculinity: attitudes and behaviors expected and associated from men.
●​ Statistics of all kinds show that men commit more crime and more serious crime than women.
Masculinity is used to explain this phenomenon.
●​ The dominant form of masculinity is hegemonic masculinity. This involves:
○​ Controlling all emotions except anger especially in public.
○​ Being physically strong
○​ Being competitive.
○​ Being willing to use violence
●​ As boys grow up, they are socialized into masculinity culture. Boys are labeled effeminate if they
do not show at least some aspects of hegemonic masculinity and can be bullied. This is why boys
over attempt to show their masculinity which can lead to juvenile crime. Such behavior in boys is
often written down as ‘’boys being boys’’ which can lead to boys being adult offenders in the
future and committing serious crimes.
 ●​ Girls are also socialized into certain values such as valuing appearance but this culture does not
lead to deviance.
●​ Criticisms of masculinity as an explanation of crime:
○​ Assumes that all men are socialized into hegemonic masculinity.
○​ Some aspects of masculinity such as protecting the weak are positive and do not lead to
crime.
○​ Assumes that all men conform to hegemonic masculinity.

Defining Crime and Deviance

Media and Law Enforcement Agencies
●​ Most people have little direct contact with crime and rely on the media for their information.
●​ Crime in the UK has been decreasing steadily for 20 years but many still believe that crime is
rapidly increasing due to media representation.
●​ Effects of believing that crime is rising -
○​ Growing market of protection goods such as pepper spray
○​ Avoiding specific areas due to a fear of crime
○​ Putting pressure on the government to tackle certain crimes even when the cost does not
justify the results
●​ The way that the media reports crime can lead to stereotyping of specific groups. The media
defines the group as a risk to social values and starts over-reacting on minor alterations.
●​ Media reporting in moral panic involves:-
○​ Exaggeration - when crimes are painted to be bigger than they actually are.
○​ Prediction - when it is claimed that the deviance will happen again if strong action not
taken
○​ Symbolisation - when they point out characteristics that can help identify the group
●​ Folk devils: people or groups that are portrayed by the media as deviant and are often blamed for
crimes.
●​ The media reporting in moral panic can encourage a strong response by the police force which
can lead to increased targeting and labeling, causing a self-fulfilling prophecy.

The Links between Subcultures, Crime and Deviance

●​ Subcultures are groups that differ in beliefs and values from the majority group.
●​ Subcultural theorists argue that deviance is a result of groups breaking off from society and
members committing crimes in order to adhere to the subculture’s values and fitting in with their
peers.
●​ Sociologist Albert Cohen argues that deviant subcultures emerge from status frustration. Working
class boys who are unable to attain traditional goals choose to reverse the norms and values and
form their own subculture. This subculture encourages deviance and can result in crime later on.
●​ This theory is developed further into 3 distinct deviant subcultures:-
○​ Criminal subcultures that commit utilitarian crimes such as theft. They are usually found
in developed subcultures where young people take criminals as role models and see crime
as an alternative to the traditional job market.
 ○​ Conflict subcultures are those that turn to gang warfare and extreme violence. Young
people have no role model and do not see crime or the traditional job market as adequate
options. They instead turn to extreme violence and often coerce their expenses.
○​ Retreatist subcultures are those that have failed in both the traditional and criminal job
market. They are desperate and depressed, usually falling into drugs or alcoholism.
●​ Some sociologists argue that the working class have formed their own subculture that can lead to
deviance. Factors that encourage deviance in teenage working class subcultures were:-
○​ Accepting fate: believing you have no other choice except crime
○​ Seeking autonomy: wanting to control your own life and resist against authority
○​ Virtues of toughness: wanting to seem strong
●​ However, it has been argued that delinquents share the same values and show remorse once they
are caught. Young people are going through a time of self discovery and confusion which can
lead to them feeling they have no control over their life. Individuals in such situations might turn
to crime in order to vent their frustration.
●​ Despite this, delinquents have been found to escape convictions and give excuses for their crime.