UTKALMANI GOPABANDHU INSTITUTE

OF ENGINEERING, ROURKELA

LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY- SOVAN KUMAR SAHOO
SUBJECT- MECHANICAL OPERATION

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
Class 1

In the process industries, this operation is usually carried out in order –

(i) to increase the surface in order to increase the rate of a physical or chemical process. In most
reactions and unit operations (e.g., leaching) involving solid particles, the rate increases by
increasing the area of contact between solid and second phase since the rate is proportional to
the area of contact between the phases involved. In combustion process, the rate of combustion
is proportional to the area presented to the gas. Thus, the rate of combustion of solid particles is
high if the particles are of small size. In leaching, the rate of extraction increases because of the
increased area of contact between the solid and the solvent.

II) to effect the separation of two constituents in cases where one is dispersed in small isolated
pockets.

iii) to meet stringent specifications regarding the size of commercial products.

(iv) to accomplish intimate mixing of solids in a solid-solid operation since the mixing is more
complete if the particle size is small.

(v) to improve dissolution rate, solubility, binding strength and dispersion properties. (vi) Many solid
materials exist/present in sizes that are too large to be used directly. Thus, such materials must be
reduced in size before use. Size reduction machines more commonly reduce the size of solids by (a)
compression

CLASS2

Rittinger's Law • It states that the work required for the crushing operation is directly proportional to
the new surface created. Mathematically, the law can be written as

P/•m = Kr( 1/d- 1/D)…(2.1) where P = power required by machine

•m = feed rate to machine

Kr is constant (known as Rittinger's constant)

d,D= volume-surface mean diameter of the feed and product respectively.

Kick's Law • It states that the work required for crushing a given material is proportional to the
logarithm of the ratio between the initial and final diameters. P •m = K k ln (D/d) … (2.2) where Kk is a
constant (known as Kick's constant) and D and d are the initial and final sizes respectively. • Since the
energy required is directly related to the reduction ratio (D/d), the energy required to crush a given
quantity of material from a 100 mm size to a 50 mm size is the same as that required to reduce the
particle size from 12 mm to 6 mm. • Kick's law is more accurate than Rittinger's law for coarse
crushing where the amount of surface produced is considerably less.
• Bond has proposed a law intermediate between Rittinger's and Kick's law for estimating the power
required for crushing and grinding operations. • It states that the work required to form particles of
size Dp from very large feed is proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume ratio of the
product (Sp /vp ), Sp /vp = 6/φsDp .

Crushing Efficiency • It is defined as the ratio of the surface energy created by crushing to the energy
absorbed by the solid. ηc = es (Ab – Aa ) Wn …

where ηc = crushing efficiency Wn = energy absorbed by material, J/kg es = surface energy per unit
area, J/m2 Ab = area of product, m2 Aa = area of feed, m2 .

Example 2.1 : A certain crusher accepts a feed material having a volume-surface mean diameter of 19
mm and gives a product of volume-surface mean diameter of 5 mm. The power required to crush 15
tonnes per hour is 7.5 kW. What will be the power consumption if the capacity is reduced to 12
tonnes per hour ?

Classification of size reduction equipments

1. Crushers (coarse and fine) (a) Jaw crusher (b) Gyratory crusher (c) Crushing rolls

2. Grinders (Intermediate and fine) (a) Hammer mills (b) Rolling-compression mills (i) Bowl mills (ii)
Rolling mills (c) Attrition mills (d) Revolving mills (i) Rod mills (ii) Ball mills; pebble mills (iii) Tube mills
3. Ultrafine grinders (a) Hammer mills with internal classification (b) Fluid-energy mills (c) Agitated
mills

4. Cutting machines (a) Knife cutters, dicers, slitters.

Working of jaw crusher

The Blake Jaw Crusher Principle : • It works on the principle of compression. It reduces size by
compressive force. Construction : • A schematic diagram of the Blake jaw crusher is

. It has a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. The movable jaw is pivoted at the top. The jaws are set to form
a V open at the top. The swinging jaw (movable jaw) which reciprocates in a horizontal plane usually
makes an angle of 20 to 30o with the fixed jaw (which is nearly vertical). Fixed jaw Movable jaw Shaft
Toggle Eccentric Flywheel Pitman Tie rod Spring • The jaws are usually made of manganese steel or
some other material that will withstand abrasion. The faces of the crushing jaws are usually
corrugated for concentrating the pressure on relatively small areas. • In addition to the jaws, crusher
consists of a pitman, toggles, flywheel, eccentric shaft, drawback rod and springs and frame. In this
machine, an eccentric causes the pitman to oscillate in a vertical direction, and this vertical
movement is communicated horizontally (reciprocating motion) to the movable jaw by the toggles. •
The speed of operation should not be high or otherwise a large quantity of fines is produced as the
material cannot escape quickly and gets repeatedly crushed. Since the crushing action is intermittent,
the loading on the machine is uneven and due to this the crusher incorporates a heavy flywheel. •
Since the maximum movement of the jaw is at the bottom (discharge), there will be little tendency
for the crusher to choke. Protection of Machine : • The machine is usually protected so that it is not
damaged if accidental pieces of iron such as hammer heads, stray bolts, etc. enter into the crusher,

Hammer Mill Principle : Size reduction is achieved by impact and attrition.

 Ball Mill Principle :

• It works on the principle of impact, i.e., size reduction is done by impact as the balls drop from
near the top of the shell. Unit Operations-I 2.15 Size Reduction of Solids

Construction : • A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating about its axis. The axis of
the shell may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal. It is partially filled with
balls. The grinding medium is the balls which may be made of steel, stainless steel or rubber. •
The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined with an abrasion-resistant material such
as manganese steel or rubber. The length of the mill is approximately equal to its diameter.

Open Circuit Grinding

Open circuit grinding consists of one or more grinding mills arranged in series or
parallel without classification equipment. This method discharges a final ground as
it comes from a mill and there is no return of coarse discharge back to the mill.
Some examples of open circuit grinding are : (i) Ball mill, (ii) Rod mill and
(ii) Combination of ball mill and rod mill.
Practice Questions
1. Give the classification of size-reduction machines.
2. Name the four common ways of breaking solids in size-reduction machines.
3. Describe the construction of Blake jaw crusher.
4. Write in brief the construction and operation of ball mill.
5. What do you mean by closed-circuit grinding and open-circuit grinding ?
6. State why centrifuging is not desirable in a ball mill.
7. Define critical speed and give the formula for calculating the critical speed.
8. Define angle of nip and give the relationship between angle of nip, feed size, gap
between rolls and diameter of rolls.
9. Draw a neat diagram of jaw crusher and name its parts.
10. State Rittinger's and Kick's law.

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Objective of size separation
operation :
The screening operation is industrially carried out in order to
(i) remove the fines from a feed material before a reduction equipment such as jaw
crusher, ball mill or rod mill,
(ii) prevent an incompletely crushed material (oversize) from entering into other unit
operations,
(iii) produce a commercial or process-grade material to meet specific particle size limits,
(iv) remove the fines from a finished product prior to shipping.
An ideal screen is the one which sharply separates the feed mixture in such a way
that the smallest particle in the overflow is just larger than the largest particle in the
underflow. The ideal separation defines a cut diameter Dpc (a typical particle
dimension) which makes the point of separation between the undersize and oversize
fractions and is nearly equal to the mesh opening of the screen
Type of Screen Analysis
There are two methods of reporting screen analysis : (1) Differential analysis,
(2) Cumulative analysis.
Differential Analysis : The screen analysis in which the weight fraction of the
material retained on each screen is reported in a tabular or a graphical form as a
function of the mesh size/screen opening is called differential analysis.
Cumulative Analysis : The screen analysis in which the cumulative weight fraction
of the material retained (cumulative oversize) or passing through (cumulative
undersize) each screen is reported in a tabular or a graphical form as a function of
the screen opening is called cumulative analysis.
Definition and Derivation of the Effectiveness of a Screen
Material Balances over a Screen :
Consider that the feed to a screen consists of materials A and B, where A is the
oversize and B is the undersize material. Out of the total materials fed to the screen,
some part of it is removed as overflow and remaining part of it is collected as
underflow.
Let F be the mass flow rate of feed, (kg/h)
D be the mass flow rate of overflow, (kg/h)
B be the mass flow rate of underflow, (kg/h)
xF be the mass fraction of material A in feed.
xD be the mass fraction of material A in overflow.
xB be the mass fraction of material A in underflow.
The mass fractions of material B in feed, overflow and underflow are 1 – xF, 1 – xD, and
1 – xB respectively.
Overall material balance over a screen is
F = D + B … (3.2)
Material balance of 'A' over a screen is
xF.F = xD.D + xB.B … (3.3)
From Equation (3.2), we have
F – B = D … (3.4)
Unit Operations-I 3.10 Size Separation of Solids
Substituting the value of D from Equation (3.4) into Equation (3.3), we get
xF.F = xD (F – B) + xB.B … (3.5)
xF.F = xD.F – xD.B + xB.B
(xD – xF) F = (xD – xB) B … (3.6)
B
F
=
xD – xF
xD – xB
… (3.7)
Similarly, elimination of B from Equations (3.2) and (3.3) gives
D/F=xF – xB/xD – xB
… (3.8)
The effectiveness of a screen (screen efficiency) is a measure of the success of the
screen in closely separating undersize and oversize materials. In the case of a
perfectly functioned screen, all the oversize material 'A' would be in the overflow and
all the undersize material would be in the underflow.
The screen effectiveness based on the oversize material is the ratio of the amount
of oversize material A that is actually in the overflow to the amount of oversize
material A in the feed.
Screen effectiveness
based on material A = EA =[Link]/[Link]
=
Quantity of oversize in the overflow
Quantity of oversize in the feed
… (3.9)
Similarly, the screen effectiveness based on the undersize material is given by
EB =
B (1 – xB)
F (1 – xF)
… (3.10)
The overall effectiveness of a screen can be given by
E = EA . EB … (3.11)
where E is the overall effectiveness of a screen.
Substituting the values of EA and EB from Equations (3.9) and (3.10) into
Equation (3.11), we get
E=
D.B. xD (1 – xB)
F2 xF (1 – xF)
… Substituting the values of D/F and B/F from Equations (3.8) and (3.7) into
Equation (3.12), we get
E =(xF – xB) (xD – xF) . xD (1 – xB)/(xD – xB)2 (1 – xF) xF
Rake Classifier
The rake classifier such as the Dorr classifier consists of a rectangular tank with a
sloping/inclined bottom. The tank is provided with movable rakes (reciprocating
rakes). The feed in the form of suspension (slurry) is introduced continuously near
the middle of the tank. The lower end of the tank has a weir overflow (discharge
weir) from which the fines that are not settled leave with the overflow liquid.

…
Froth flotation processes are used for the separation of finely divided solids.
Flotation refers to an operation in which one solid is separated from another by
floating one of them at or on the liquid surface. In froth flotation, separation of a
solid feed mixture depends upon differences in the surface properties of the materials
involved. This technique is commonly used in mineral dressing. Mineral dressing
refers to the method of treating ores at or near the mine site to produce one or more
concentrates of valuable minerals and a tailings composed of waste or less valuable
minerals.
Froth flotation is used for treating the metallic ores that are finer than 48 to 65 mesh,
or coal and certain non-metallics that are finer than 10 to 48 mesh. It is not possible
to treat a coarser feed by froth flotation as the same cannot be suitably mixed and
suspended by a floatation machine.
Principle of operation :
Separation by froth flotation depends on differences in the surface properties of the
materials.
If the mixture is suspended in an aerated liquid (water), the gas bubbles will tend to
adhere preferentially to the constituent which is more difficult to wet by the liquid
(hydrophobic constituent) and so its effective density will be reduced to such an
extent that it will rise to the surface (i.e., it will float on the surface of the liquid) and
the material which has affinity for the liquid (hydrophilic material) gets surrounded
by the liquid and it will simply sink, thus, achieving a separation. Frothing agents
inducing the formation of a froth of sufficient stability are added to suspend or retain
the particles in the froth on the surface before they are discharged.
[Hydrophobic – failing to mix with water – which will not wet by water and
Hydrophilic – having tendency to mix with water – which will get wet by water].
Promotors, Collectors, Modifiers and Frothing Agents :
Almost all the minerals and inorganic solids are hydrophilic, as the surfaces of these
solids get easily wetted by water. Hydrophilic solids are unflotable as air bubbles do
not surround or cover them to form a particle bubble aggregate. However, these
solids can be made hydrophobic (water repellent) with the help of reagents known as
collectors or promotors. The collectors or promotors are the materials which
selectively render the desired particles air-avid and water repellent.
(i) Promotors : These are materials which are adsorbed on the surface of the
particles forming a unimolecular layer. A commonly used promotor is sodium
ethyl xanthate.
(ii) Collectors : These are materials which form surface films on the particles.
A commonly used collector is pine oil.
Types of Filtration : Cake Filtration and Deep Bed Filtration
Basically, there are two types of filtration.
(i) Cake filtration, (ii) Deep bed filtration.
In cake filtration, the proportion of solids in the suspension is large and most of the
solid particles are collected in the cake which can later be detached from the filter
medium.
In deep bed filtration, the proportion of solids is very small and the particles of the
solid being smaller than the pores of the filter medium will penetrate a considerable
depth and ultimately get trapped inside the filter medium and usually no layer of
solids will appear on the surface of the medium (e.g., water filtration).
medium
Slurry
Fig. 5.1 : Principle of filtration
Principles of Cake Filtration :
In cake filtration, the feed to be handled (two phase mixture) is called slurry, the bed
of deposited solids on a porous membrane (filter medium) is called cake and the
clear liquid leaving the filter medium is called filtrate.
A typical cake filtration operation is shown in Fig. 5.1. During the initial period of
flow, solid particles are trapped within the pores of a medium forming a true filter
medium. The liquid passes through the bed of the solids and through the filter
medium. In the early stage of filtration, the rate of filtration is high. As the cake
thickness increases, the rate of filtration decreases for a given pressure differential
across the filter medium. This is due to the fact that as the cake gradually builds upon
MIXING

The practical aims of mixing are :

1. To promote a chemical reaction. It is the most important use of mixing in the
chemical industry, since intimate contact between reacting phases/substances is
necessary for a reaction to proceed properly.
2. To produce simple physical mixtures - of two or more uniformly divided solids,
two or more miscible liquids, etc.
3. To carry out physical change - formation of crystals from a supersaturated
solution.
4. To accomplish dispersion in which a quasi-homogeneous material is produced
from two or more immiscible fluids and from one or more fluids with finely
divided solids.
Based upon the objectives
Ribbon blenders mix solids by mechanical shuffling and are used to handle dry
powders.
A ribbon blender consists of a horizontal semicylindrical trough incorporating a
central shaft and a helical ribbon agitator. A typical ribbon blender is shown in
Fig. 6.20. In this mixer, two counteracting ribbons are mounted on the same shaft.
One of the ribbons moves the solids slowly in one direction, while the other one
moves the solids quickly in the other direction. The ribbons may be continuous or
discontinuous. Mixing takes place due to the turbulence generated by counteracting
ribbons and not only by motion of the solids through the trough.
 Transportation and storage
A conveyor is a conveyor is a conveyor, right? Wrong. There are two basic types of conveyors: powered and gravity
Powered conveyors have some sort of external energy source to keep the items on the conveyor moving, typically by
manipulating the conveyor surface. Gravity conveyors (as the name suggests) use the weight of the items being conveyed
to propel them where desired.

Of course, there are plenty of limitations for gravity conveyors, but the flip side is that they don’t have a motor system to
maintain – or to fix in the event that it breaks down. Powered conveyors do run that risk, but can move all sorts of items (of
just about any weight), even up an incline.

But the options don’t stop with powered or gravity; there are many varieties of warehouse conveyor technologies.

 Aero-mechanical conveyor.
 Automotive conveyor.
 Belt conveyor.
 Belt-driven live roller conveyor.
 Bucket conveyor.
 Chain conveyor.
 Chain-driven live roller conveyor.
 Drag conveyor.

Bucket conveyors move products (typically aggregate or bulk) vertically via reciprocating buckets. The conveyor is made of an
interconnected loop of troughs/buckets that stay level when moving from horizontal to vertical, preventing their contents from spilling
out. The conveyor is loaded with material at the front, or “boot”, and each bucket automatically deposits at the end of the run, also
known as the discharge. This process is a fast and automatic method of vertical conveying, as the same buckets which pick up
material are used to deposit it. The design of these machines depends heavily on the material being transported as well as th e
desired height that it must travel, but they are reliable and efficient if made correctly. They perform best when moving dry, light, or
powder material and are typically not used to move wet or sludge-like substances, as any buildup in the buckets will cause
discharging issues.

A screw conveyor or auger conveyor is a mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called a "flighting", usually within a tube, to
move liquid or granular materials. They are used in many bulk handling industries. Screw conveyors in modern industry are often used
horizontally or at a slight incline as an efficient way to move semi-solid materials, including food waste, wood chips, aggregates, cereal
grains, animal feed, boiler ash, meat, and bone meal, municipal solid waste, and many others. The first type of screw conveyor was
the Archimedes' screw, used since ancient times to pump irrigation water.
They usually consist of a trough or tube containing either a spiral blade coiled around a shaft, driven at one end and held at the other, or a
"shaftless spiral", driven at one end and free at the other. The rate of volume transfer is proportional to the rotation rate of the shaft. In
industrial control applications, the device is often used as a variable rate feeder by varying the rotation rate of the shaft to deliver a measured
rate or quantity of material into a process.
Screw conveyors can be operated with the flow of material inclined upward. When space allows, this is a very economical method of
elevating and conveying. As the angle of inclination increases, the capacity of a given unit rapidly decreases.
The rotating part of the conveyor is sometimes called simply an auger.