WIRELESS TRANSMISSION:

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no

physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.

When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it

converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range.
The receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital
data.

Features

 No physical medium is required for transmission.

 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure.

A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

1. Infrared

Infrared is used for short-range communication like TV remotes, mobile phones, personal
computers etc. In science, the Infrared is part of a spectrum that is not visible to the human
eye. The limitation of infrared rays is that they cannot penetrate any obstacles and can only
use for short-range. Also, Infrared is used in night vision cameras as it has thermal
properties. It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to
430-THz.

Uses:

As we have already have discussed they are used in TV remotes, Pc devices like mice, and
keyboards.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

If we talk about the merit part of infrared then we can say Infrared is one of the secure
wireless communication mediums as it is used for short-range. Also, unlike other wireless
mediums, infrared is quite inexpensive, and this is some reason it is used in many electronic
devices.

Now, let’s talk about the disadvantaged part of Infrared waves so they can only be used in
short-range communication. Also, they cannot penetrate any obstacles like walls or any
building.

2. Radio Waves

So we have seen the limitation of infrared waves, so here’s another wireless communication
that does not have limitations like infrared. Here we are discussing radio waves that can
travel large distances as well as can penetrate any wall (Omni-directional, these waves can
move in all directions). These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
The requirement of radio waves is antennas, sending antennas where one can transmit its
message and the other is receiving antennas. The frequency range of radio waves 3 KHz
– 1GHz. Also, radio waves of frequency 300 KHz-30 MHz can travel long distances.
Moreover, they are Susceptible to interference meaning they can penetrate any walls.

Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.

Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be

absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High
frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF
bands are spread upwards. When they reach
Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Uses:
Radio waves are used in AM and FM radios, and cordless phones. Also, some private and
government organization reserves certain radio frequencies for direct communication.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

Radio waves have some advantages like they can travel long distances in all directions and
can pass through any obstacles, and since they are wireless communication mediums so
there is no need of digging and spreading wires. But, yes radio waves have some
disadvantages too like radio waves are not effective in bad weather conditions, and they
are less secure as they can travel large distances.

3. Microwaves

Microwaves are a line of sight transmission, meaning both the antennas sending and
receiving should be properly aligned. Also, the distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Microwaves have a frequency Range between
1GHz – 300GHz. Basically, we used Microwaves in mobile phones communication and
television distribution.

Unlike radio waves, they are unidirectional, as they can move in only one direction, and
therefore it is used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as
radar and satellite.

Uses:

Microwaves are used in mobile phones communication and television distribution.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

If we talk about the advantages of microwaves then we say that it is a very fast way of
communication that can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time. Also, it is a wireless
communication medium so there is no need of digging and spreading wires.

Now demerits of microwaves are the first expense, their installation and maintenance are
very expensive that turns this into a very expensive mode of communication. Moreover,
Microwaves are also not very effective in bad weather conditions.
Comparison of Infrared, Radio waves, Microwaves

[Link] Infrared Radio Waves Microwaves

Infrared is used for short- Radio waves are Microwaves are a line of
range communication like TV the type of wireless sight transmission,
remotes, mobile phones, communication that meaning both the
1 personal computers, etc. In can travel large antennas sending and
science, the Infrared is part of distances as well as receiving should be
a spectrum that is not visible can penetrate any properly aligned.
to the human eye wall
The frequency range of The frequency range Microwaves have a
2 infrared rays 300GHz – of radio waves:3KHz frequency Range
400THz – 1GHz. between 1GHz – 300GHz.
The limitation of infrared rays It can travel large They are unidirectional,
is that they cannot penetrate distances as well as as they can move in only
any obstacles and can only can penetrate any one direction, and
use for short-range. Also, wall (Omni- therefore it is used in
3 Infrared is used in night vision directional) point-to-point
cameras as it has thermal communication or
properties. The frequency unicast communication
range of infrared rays 300GHz such as radar and
– 400THz satellite.
Advantages of
microwaves then we say
Infrared is one of the secure Radio waves can
that it is a very fast way of
wireless communication travel to long
communication, that can
mediums as it is used for distances so it is used
carry 25000 voice
short-range. Also, unlike other for long distance
4 channels at the same
wireless mediums, infrared is communication and
time. Also, it is a wireless
quite inexpensive, and this is there is no need of
communication medium
some reason it is used in digging and
so there is no need of
many electronic devices. spreading wires.
digging and spreading
wires.
Microwaves are used in
Infrared waves are used in TV Radio waves are used
mobile phones
5 remotes, mobile phones, in AM and FM radios,
communication and
personal computers and cordless phones.
television distribution.

STRUCTURE OF THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM:

 Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication.

 Telephone Network uses Circuit Switching.
  Originally, the entire network was referred to as a Plain Old Telephone System (POTS)
which uses analog signals.
 With the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there comes a feature to
carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both analogous and digital.
 Telephone of the subscriber or end user.
 End office − Local central office directly connected to end user at a distance of 1 – 10km.

Local Loops: A two-way connection between the telephone and the end office. Local Loops are
the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or
local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is 4000 Hz. It is very interesting to examine
the telephone number that is associated with each local loop. The office is defined by the first three
digits and the local loop number is defined by the next four digits defines.

Toll office: Switching centres which are called tandem offices when located within the same local
area.

Toll connecting trunk: Lines that connect end offices with toll offices.

Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between offices.
Through multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly
transmission is performed through optical fibers or satellite links.

Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To avoid
this, the telephone
company uses switches
that are located in
switching offices. A
switch is able to connect
various loops or trunks and
allows a connection between different subscribes.

Transmission Media Used:

 Local loop − analog twisted pair cables.

 Toll connecting trunk − fibre optic links

 Between switching offices − fibre optic cables and microwaves

Communication for different Transmissions:

 Both caller and callee are attached to same end office.

 In this case, a direct electrical connection is set up between the local loops of the
subscribers by the switching mechanism of the end office.
 Caller and callee are attached to different end offices.
 In this case, the end office of the caller sets up a connection with one or more connected
toll offices, which then performs the switching job.

IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE:

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move
around within the area of network coverage. The 802.11 structure is designed to
accommodate mobile stations that participate actively in network decisions. Furthermore,
it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. The Wi-Fi standard represents a
set of wireless LAN standards developed by the Working Group of IEEE LAN/MAN
standards committee (IEEE 802). The term 802.11x is also used to denote the set of
standards. Various specifications and amendments include 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11e,
802.11g, 802.11n etc.

Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. It can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless
routers that bridge connections for base stations.

 Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.

Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities
and acts as a connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.

Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to
create an ESS.

SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access
points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.

Basic Service Set:

The Basic Service Set configuration consists of a group of stations and relies on an Access
Point (AP), which serves as a logical hub. Stations from different BSSs interact through the
AP, which functions as a bridge, linking multiple WLAN cells or channels.

Operating Modes

Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the following types:

 Infrastructure BSS: Communication between stations takes place through access

points. The AP and its associated wireless clients define the coverage area and form
the BSS.
  Independent BSS – Supports mutual communication between wireless clients. An ad-hoc
network is spontaneously created and does not support access to wired networks. In the
IBSS configuration, also referred to as independent configuration or ad-hoc network, no
single node is required to act as a server. The stations communicate directly with one
another in a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS covers a limited area instead of a large
network. Typically covering a specific area, IBSS is used for specific, short-term purposes
with a limited number of nodes.

Ad-Hoc Network: An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect
and communicate with each other.
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or Adhoc wireless
network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network.
They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing
network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the
network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to
other specified nodes in the network.

Extended Service Set:

ESS connects multiple BSSs and consists of several BSS cells, which can be interlinked through wired
or wireless backbones known as a distributed system. Multiple cells use the same channel to boost
aggregate throughput to network. The equipment outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile
stations comprise a single MAC layer network where all stations are virtually stationary. Thus, all
stations within the ESS appear stationary from an outsider’s perspective.

Other components include:

 Distribution System (DS): Links APs within the ESS.

 Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks.

 Roaming: In an environment with multiple access points (like a large office building or
campus), a device can move from the range of one AP to another and still maintain its
connection. This is possible due to the underlying architecture of the IEEE 802.11 standard
which allows for roaming between APs.

 Authentication and Association: Before a station can send or receive data frames on a
WLAN, it needs to establish its identity with an AP. This process is called authentication.
After authentication, the station then establishes a data link-layer connection with the AP
through a process called association.
802.11 Wireless Standards:

IEEE Frequency/Medium Speed Transmission Range

Standard

802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2Mbps 20 feet indoors.

802.11a 5GHz Up to 25 to 75 feet indoors; range can be affected by

54Mbps building materials.

802.11b 2.4GHz Up to Up to 150 feet indoors; range can be affected

11Mbps by building materials.

802.11g 2.4GHz Up to Up to 150 feet indoors; range can be affected

54Mbps by building materials.

802.11n 2.4GHz/5GHz Up to 175+ feet indoors; range can be affected by

600Mbps building materials.

Digital Modulation and Multiplexing

Cables and wireless channels transmit analog signals such as voltage, light intensity or loudness in
continuous mode. The conversion process between the bits and the signals that represent them is
called digital modulation.

1. Baseband Transmission

The most direct form of digital modulation is to use a positive voltage for presentation 1 and a
negative voltage to represent 0. For an optical fiber, the presence of light can represent 1 and the
absence of light – 0. This scheme is called NRZ (No Return to Zero).
2. Passband Transmission

Digital modulation is achieved by transmitting in a passband transmission by regulating or

modulating a carrier signal in a bandwidth (bandwidth called passband). Here can modulate the
amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal. Each of these methods has a corresponding
name. In ASK (Amplitude Shift-Keying), two different amplitudes are used to represent 0 and 1.
More than two levels can be used to represent more characters. Likewise, two or more different
tones are used with FSK (Frequency Shift Keying). In the simplest form of PSK (Phase Shift
Keying), the carrier wave is systematically shifted by 0 or 180 degrees at each symbol period. Since
there are two phases, this is called BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying). “Binary” here refers to two
characters and not to the fact that the characters represent 2 bits.

What is Modulation?

Modulation is a process by with some characteristic of a career wave is varied in accordance with
modulating message signal.

1. Amplitude Shift Keying:

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a digital modulation technique. It transmits the digital information
by varying the amplitude of a carrier signal. In ASK, a high-amplitude carrier signal is used to
represent a binary ‘1,’ and a low-amplitude carrier signal represents a binary ‘0.’

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying:

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively
inexpensive.

 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying:

 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this.

 It has lower power efficiency.

2. Frequency Shift keying: In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency
for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of
the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying:

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by ASK.

 It has lower chances of an error.

 It provides high signal to noise ratio.

 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.

Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying:

 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.

 It has lower power efficiency.

3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple signals
coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single communication/physical
line.

The Multiplexer (MUX) mainly combines 'n' input lines in order to generate '1' output line (this is
simply many-to-one) on the sender side. And on the receiver side, this stream is fed into the
Demultiplexer (DEMUX), which then separates the stream back to its component transmission
(this is one-to-many) and then directs them to their corresponding lines.

The main aim of the multiplexing technique is to share scarce resources.

In the above diagram, the word link refers to the physical path, and the word channel simply
refers to the portion of the link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. Thus 1
link can have many channels.

History of the Multiplexing:

In telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried by using a single wire. Also,
Multiplexing was originated in telegraphy in the 1870s. Now, this technique is widely applied in
communications. George Owen Squier in telephony was credited with the development of
telephone carrier multiplexing in the year 1910.

Need for the Multiplexing:

As we have already told you that multiplexing is basically a set of techniques that mainly allows the
transmission of multiple signals simultaneously across a signals data link. At the time when there
is a need to transmit many signals from the sender side that sends simultaneously then multiplexer
is used to convert many signals into one so that on the receiving end we can get them
simultaneously. As it is very expensive to send many signals differently and it also requires more
wires to send. Thus there is a need for multiplexing. Let us take an example of T.V cable distributor
who sends many channels through a single wire.

Advantages of Multiplexing

Given below are some advantages of using Multiplexing:

 With the help of multiplexing, more than one signal can be sent easily over a single medium
or link.
 Multiplexing helps in the effective utilization of the bandwidth of the medium.

Types of Multiplexing

There are three types of Multiplexing:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of a

single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-channel
cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel. These unused strips
between each channel are known as guard bands.

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing i.e., FDM is an analog technique.

 With this technique, signals having different frequencies are combined in a composite signal
and then transmitted on the link
 It is mainly applied at the time when the bandwidth of the link is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signal to be transmitted.
 In this, each signal is of a different frequency.
  The channel is usually separated by the strips of unused bandwidth that is the guard bands
in order to prevent the signals from overlapping.
 In the case of frequency division multiplexing, suppose the input signal is in the digital form
then it must be converted to analog before giving it as the input to the modulator.

Advantages

 The Simultaneous transmission of a large number of signals is done easily.

 The demodulation of FDM multiplexing is easy.
 There is no need for synchronization between the transmitter and receiver for proper
operation.
 In the case of slow narrowband fading, there is only one single channel that gets affected.

Disadvantages

 Communication channels must have a very large bandwidth.

 There occurs the problem of crosstalk while using FDM.
 In the case of wideband fading, all channels in the FDM gets affected.
 There is a need for a large number of filters and modulators.

Applications

 One of the main applications of FDM is that it is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

 Another application of FDM is that it is used in television broadcasting.
 FDM is also used by first-generation cellular telephones.

2. Time Division Multiplexing:

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing a

portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each connection
occupies a portion of time in the link.

In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth) at different
times.

 Time-Division multiplexing is a digital technique for multiplexing.

 In this technique, the channel/link is divided on the basis of time instead of frequency.
  The total available time on the channel is divided between the different users on the
channel.
 A particular time interval is allotted to each user on the channel and it is known as time
slot/slice.
 In the time-division multiplexing, the data rate capacity should be much greater than the
data rate that is required by the sending and receiving device.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

Synchronous TDM:

Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the input frame already has a
slot in the output frame. Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of
time slots.

Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot remains
empty in the output frame.

In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit at the beginning of each frame.

Advantages

 This
technique is easy to implement.
 The performance is guaranteed in using this technique.

Disadvantages

 If a user has no data to transmit in that case time slots will get wasted.
 In this multiplexing, the capacity of the transmission link must be always higher than the
total capacity of the input lines.

Asynchronous TDM:

Asynchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where the output frame collects data
from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.

In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the slot that is being
sent to the output frame.
 Statistical
TDM is a
more
efficient
type of
time-
division
multiplexing as the channel capacity is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.

Advantages

 In this multiplexing, there is an efficient use of the capacity of transmission.

Disadvantages

 In this Multiplexing, frames are of different sizes.

 There is a need for the buffer address information is also needed because there are no
separate slots assigned for each user.
 This technique does not provide a fixed waiting time guarantee.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to increase the

capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals simultaneously over a single
optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each signal is carried on a different wavelength of
light, and the resulting signals are combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the
receiving end, the signals are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their
respective destinations.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing i.e WDM is an analog technique.

 This technique is similar to FDM.

 With the help of Wavelength Division multiplexing different signals that include: optical or
light signals are transmitted through the Optical fiber.
 With the help of the WDM technique, the high data rate capability of optical fiber cable
gets utilized.
 With this technique, various light waves from different sources are combined into a
composite light signal and this signal is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
 On the receiver side, this composite light signal gets broken down into different light waves
with the help of Demultiplexer.
 The process of combining and splitting the light waves is done with the help of Prism.
 This Prism helps to bend the beam of light on the basis of the angle of incidence and
frequency of light.
 In the WDM technique mainly the role of the multiplexer is played by the Prism and it then
combines the various optical signals in the order to form a composite signal after that this
composite signal is transmitted through an Optical fiber cable.
Advantages

 With the help of WDM, the full-duplex transmission is possible.

 WDM is easy to reconfigure.
 Various Signals can be transmitted simultaneously with the help of WDM.
 This technique is less expensive and the expansion of the system is easy.
 This technique provides high security.
 As we are using an optical fiber in WDM; also Optical components are more reliable and
they also provide high bandwidth.

Disadvantages

 There is the use of optical equipment so cost increases.

 Utilization of bandwidth can be inefficient which causes difficulty in wavelength tuning.
 The main concern in this technique is scalability.

Switching:

The mechanism for exchange of information between different computer networks and network
segments is called switching.

Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes
out it is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and nodes.

Switching Techniques

Circuit-switching:

Circuit-switching is the real-time connection-oriented system.

In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the data transfer can
take place.

In telephone communication system, the normal voice call is the example of Circuit Switching.
Circuit switching is pass through three phases that are circuit establishment, data transfer and
circuit disconnect.

Message Switching:

This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety.

A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until

there are resources available to transfer it to the next switch. If the next switch is not having
enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.

This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole
path is blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message
switching has the following drawbacks:

 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.

Packet Switching:

The basic example of Packet Switching is the Internet. In Packet Switching, data can be
fragmented into suitably-sized pieces in variable length or blocks that are called packets that can
be routed independently by network devices based on the destination address contained certain
“formatted” header within each packet. The packet switched networks allow sender and recipient
without reserving the circuit. Multiple paths are exist between sender and recipient in a packet
switching network. They does not require a call setup to transfer packets between sender and
recipient.

Advantage Packet Switching

The main advantage of packet switching network is the efficiency. The other advantage is that, it
is faults tolerant.

In packet switching, the quality of data transmission is kept high (error free). There are two type
of approaches in Packet switching Datagram or Connectionless and Virtual Circuit or
Connection-Oriented.

Datagram or Connectionless Packet Switching

It is also known as datagram switching. In this type of network each packet routed individually by
network devices based on the destination address contained within each packet. Due to each
packet is routed individually, the result is that each packet is delivered out-of-order with different
paths of transmission, it depend on the networking devices like (switches and routers) at any
given time. After reaching recipient location, the packets are reassemble to the original form.

Virtual Circuit or Connection-Oriented Packet Switching

It is also known as virtual circuit [Link] this type of Networking packets are send in
sequential order over a defined route.
ERROR CONTROL

A condition when the receiver’s information does not match with the sender’s information. During
transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary bits travelling
from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.

Error Detection:

When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not guarantee
whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted by another device. An
Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end is not identical to the message
transmitted.

Types of Errors:

Errors can be classified into three categories:

 Single-Bit Error

 Multiple bits error

 Burst Error
Single-Bit Error:

The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is changed to 1.

Multiple bits error:

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

Burst Error:

The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.

The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.

Burst Errors are most likely to occur in Serial Data Transmission.

The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

 Error detection

 Error correction
Error Detecting Codes

In digital communication system errors are transferred from one communication system to another,
along with the data. If these errors are not detected and corrected, data will be lost. For effective
communication, data should be transferred with high accuracy .This can be achieved by first
detecting the errors and then correcting them.

Error detection is the process of detecting the errors that are present in the data transmitted from
transmitter to receiver, in a communication system. We use some redundancy codes to detect these
errors, by adding to the data while it is transmitted from source (transmitter). These codes are called
“Error detecting codes”.

Types of Error detection

1. Parity Bit

2. Check Sum

3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Error Detection Techniques:

Parity Bit:

One extra bit is transmitted in addition to the original bits to make the number of 1s even in the
case of even parity or odd in the case of odd parity.

While creating a frame, the sender counts the amount of 1s in it. If even parity is utilised and the
number of 1s is even, one bit with the value 0 is added. In this manner, the number of 1s remains
even. If the number of 1s is odd, a value 1 is added to make it even.

The receiver just counts how many 1s are in a frame. If the number of 1s is even and even parity is
utilised, the frame is regarded as uncorrupted and approved. Even if the number of 1s is odd and
odd parity is utilised, the frame is not damaged.

There are two types of parity bits in error detection, they are

1. Even parity 2. Odd parity

Even Parity

 In even parity, the total number of ones in the data and parity bit combined is made even.

 If the data has an odd number of ones, the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total count
even.

 If the data already has an even number of ones, the parity bit is set to 0.

 Example: Let's say we want to transmit the binary data 1011 with even parity. The total
number of ones is 3 (odd). To make it even, we add a parity bit of 1. So, the transmitted
data becomes 10111.
Odd Parity

 In odd parity, the total number of ones in the data and parity bit combined is made odd.

 If the data has an even number of ones, the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total count
odd.

 If the data already has an odd number of ones, the parity bit is set to 0.

 Example: Let's say we want to transmit the binary data 1011 with odd parity. The total
number of ones is 3 (odd), so no additional parity bit is needed. The transmitted data
remains 1011.

The purpose of parity is to detect errors that may occur during transmission. When the data is
received, the receiving system can check whether the received parity bit matches the expected
parity. If there's a mismatch, an error is likely to have occurred.

Keep in mind that while parity can detect errors, it cannot correct them. For error correction, more
advanced error-checking methods like cyclic redundancy check (CRC) or checksums are often used.

Checksum:

At sender side,

 All the m bit segments are added and convert them into Binary.

 The result of the sum is then complemented using 1’s complement arithmetic.

 The value so obtained is called as checksum.

Example:

7+10+3 = 20

Converting 20 in to Binary

0 1 0 1 0 0 as per Check sum 4 bit is eligible

add 0 0 0 1 0100

0001

0101 ---------- >Binary to Decimal = 5

20 + 5 = 25 (Wrap Sum)

Now 0 1 0 1 convert it by using 1s Compliment

After 1s compliment we get 1 0 1 0 Converting to Decimal we get 10 as Check

sum.

The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.

At receiver side,

 All the m bit segments are added along with the checksum value.

 The value so obtained is complemented and the result is checked.

Now add 7+10+3+10 (Checksum) = 30

Converting 30 to Binary we get 0 1 1 1 1 0 as per Check sum 4 bit is eligible

add 0001 1110

0001

1111

Now 1 1 1 1 convert it by using 1s Compliment

We get 0 0 0 0 == No error

If the result is zero,

 Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.

 Receiver accepts the data.

If the result is non-zero,

 Receiver assumes that error occurred in the data during the transmission.

 Receiver discards the data and asks the sender for retransmission.

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is another error detection technique to detect errors in data that
has been transmitted on a communications link.

It is based on binary division.

CRC is a very effective error detection method. If the divisor is chosen according to the below
mentioned rules,
CRC can detect all single-bit errors

CRC can detect all double-bit errors provided the divisor contains at least three logic 1’s.

CRC can detect all burst errors that affect an odd number of bits.

CRC can detect all burst errors of length less than or equal to the degree of the polynomial.

CRC can detect with a very high probability, burst errors of length greater than the degree of the
polynomial.

CRC Generator:

CRC generator is an algebraic polynomial represented as a bit pattern.

Bit pattern is obtained from the CRC generator using the following rule: The power of each term
gives the position of the bit and the coefficient gives the value of the bit.
At Sender Side

 Data 1011011

 Sender has a code generator 1101.

 Sender appends (n-1) zero bits to the data.

Where n= no of bits in generator. i.e. (4-1) = 000

 Dividend appends the data with generator using modulo 2 division (arithmetic) or XOR
operator.

 Remainder of (n-1) bits will be CRC.

Cyclic redundancy check is 001. Thus, the sender sends 1011011001 to the receiver.

At Receiver Side

 Receiver has same generator 1011.

 Receiver divides received data (data + CRC) with generator.

 If remainder is zero, data is correctly received.

 Else, there is error.