ITectonic Plates and Plate Tectonics
The Earth’s lithosphere, which includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, is broken into
about a dozen large tectonic plates and several smaller ones. These plates are rigid but “float”
on the semi-fluid asthenosphere below, which allows them to move very slowly over time.
Although their movement is only about 2–10 centimeters per year (about the speed at which
fingernails grow), over millions of years this motion drastically reshapes Earth’s surface.
The movement of tectonic plates is responsible for the distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes,
mountain ranges, ocean trenches, and even the formation of new land. For instance, the Pacific
Plate, which is the largest, is mostly oceanic and interacts with several others to form the Ring
of Fire, an area of intense seismic and volcanic activity.
Forces that Drive Plate Motion:
● Mantle convection currents: Heat rising from the core causes material in the mantle to
move in circular currents. These currents drag the plates on top.
● The weight of a sinking oceanic plate at a subduction zone pulls the rest of the plate
downward.
● Newly formed crust at mid-ocean ridges is slightly elevated, and gravity causes it to slide
away from the ridge.
● Friction between the lithosphere and the flowing mantle can also help move plates.
Major Plates: Pacific, North American, South American, African, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and
Antarctic.
Minor Plates: Philippine, Nazca, Arabian, Cocos, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, etc.
1. Convergent Boundaries (Plates Collide)
● Oceanic–Continental: Oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust.
Features: trenches, volcanic arcs (Andes, Cascades).
● Oceanic–Oceanic: One plate subducts under the other.
Features: trenches, island arcs (Japan, Philippines, Mariana Islands).
● Continental–Continental: Both resist subduction, crumpling into mountains.
Features: Himalayas, Alps.
2. Divergent Boundaries (Plates Move Apart)
● Magma rises to create new crust.
● Features: mid-ocean ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge), continental rifts (East African Rift
Valley).
● Often associated with volcanic activity and shallow earthquakes.
3. Transform Boundaries (Plates Slide Past Each Other)
● Plates move laterally, causing stress to build until released as earthquakes.
● Features: faults (San Andreas Fault, Philippine Fault Zone).
● Earthquakes are shallow but can be devastating.
Seismic Waves
When an earthquake occurs, energy stored in rocks is released and travels outward as seismic
waves. These waves give scientists clues not only about the earthquake’s strength and location
but also about the structure of Earth’s interior.
Types of Seismic Waves
Body Waves (travel through Earth’s interior)
P-waves (Primary):
● Fastest, arrive first at seismic stations.
● Move in a compressional “push-pull” motion (like a slinky).
● Travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
S-waves (Secondary):
● Slower, arrive after P-waves.
● Move side-to-side (shearing motion).
● Only travel through solids, not liquids — evidence that Earth’s outer core is liquid.
Surface Waves (travel along Earth’s surface; most destructive)
● Love waves: Horizontal, side-to-side shaking.
● Rayleigh waves: Rolling motion, like ocean waves, moving ground up and down and
side-to-side.
Why They Matter:
● The delay between P- and S-wave arrivals is used to calculate the distance to the
epicenter.
● Seismic waves refract and reflect inside Earth, helping scientists “see” Earth’s layers
(e.g., Mohorovičić discontinuity, Gutenberg discontinuity).
Triangulation Method in Determining Epicenter
Finding the epicenter of an earthquake requires data from multiple seismic stations.
Step-by-step:
1. Each station notes the time difference between P- and S-wave arrivals.
2. This time difference is converted into a distance using wave speed data.
3. A circle with that radius is drawn around the station.
4. With at least three stations, the circles intersect at a single point: the earthquake
epicenter.
Example: The 1990 Luzon Earthquake in the Philippines was located this way, showing the
importance of triangulation in disaster response.
Earth’s Interior
The Earth is composed of concentric layers, each with unique properties. Knowledge of these
layers mostly comes from seismic data, as humans have never drilled beyond a few kilometers
into the crust.
Crust
● Outermost, thinnest layer (5–70 km).
● Oceanic crust: Thinner (~5–10 km), denser, mainly basalt.
● Continental crust: Thicker (~30–70 km), less dense, mainly granite.
Mantle
● Extends to ~2,900 km depth.
● Made of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium.
● Upper portion includes the asthenosphere, a semi-fluid zone that allows plate
movement.
● Convection currents in the mantle drive tectonic activity.
Outer Core
● Liquid layer of iron and nickel, ~2,200 km thick.
● Flowing liquid generates Earth’s magnetic field (geodynamo effect).
Inner Core
● Solid sphere of iron and nickel, radius ~1,220 km.
● Temperatures up to 6,000°C but remains solid due to extreme pressure.
Seafloor Spreading
Proposed by Harry Hess, seafloor spreading explains the renewal of oceanic crust. At
mid-ocean ridges, magma rises, solidifies, and pushes older crust away. This creates
symmetrical patterns of crust age on both sides of the ridge.
Evidence:
● Magnetic stripes: Reversals of Earth’s magnetic field are recorded symmetrically on
both sides of ridges.
● Age of rocks: Youngest near ridges, oldest near continents.
● Sediment thickness: Thinner near ridges, thicker farther away.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is slowly pushing South America and Africa farther apart at about 2.5
cm/year.
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener proposed in 1912 that continents were once part of a supercontinent, Pangaea,
which later broke apart.
Evidence:
● Fit of continents (puzzle-like).
● Fossils of land species (e.g., Mesosaurus) found on widely separated continents.
● Rock and mountain similarities (Appalachians in North America match mountains in
Scotland and Norway).
● Paleoclimate evidence (glacial deposits in warm areas, coal in Antarctica).
Weakness: Wegener could not explain the mechanism — he suggested continents “plowed”
through the ocean floor, which scientists rejected.
Plate Tectonics Theory
Developed in the 1960s, this theory combined Wegener’s drift idea and Hess’s seafloor
spreading into one unifying explanation of Earth’s geology.
Key Points:
● Earth’s lithosphere is broken into plates.
● Plates move due to mantle processes (convection, slab pull, ridge push).
● Boundaries between plates are where most geologic activity occurs.
This theory explains earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, and the distribution of mountains and
ocean basins.