[Link] Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex with example.
1. Simplex Communication
Definition:
Simplex is a one-way communication mode in which data flows only from
sender to receiver. The receiver cannot send data back.
Example:
Television broadcast
Radio transmission
Keyboard → Computer
2. Half-Duplex Communication
Definition:
Half-duplex allows communication in both directions, but not at the same time.
Devices take turns to transmit and receive.
Example:
Walkie-talkie
CB radio
Push-to-talk intercom systems
3. Full-Duplex Communication
Definition:
Full-duplex allows data transmission in both directions simultaneously. Both
sender and receiver can send and receive at the same time.
Example:
Telephone conversation
Video calling
Modern Ethernet networks
[Link] FDM in detail.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a multiplexing technique in which the
total available bandwidth of a communication channel is divided into multiple
non-overlapping frequency bands. Each signal is transmitted simultaneously
using a different frequency band.
Working Principle:
The total bandwidth is split into multiple smaller frequency ranges.
Each signal is assigned a unique frequency band.
Guard bands are provided between adjacent channels to prevent overlap
and interference.
All modulated signals are combined and sent together through a single
channel.
At the receiver, a demultiplexer and band-pass filters separate individual
signals.
Advantages:
Allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.
Efficient use of bandwidth for continuous data signals.
Simple and reliable technique.
Applications:
Radio broadcasting
Television transmission
Cable TV systems
Telephone systems
[Link] TDM in detail. with advantages and disadvantages.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a multiplexing technique in which multiple
signals share the same transmission medium by dividing time into small slots.
Each signal uses the entire bandwidth, but only for a short, fixed time interval.
Working Principle:
The total transmission time is divided into frames.
Each frame is further divided into time slots.
Every input signal is assigned a specific time slot in each frame.
Signals are transmitted sequentially, one after another, in a cyclic manner.
At the receiver, a demultiplexer separates the signals using
synchronization.
Types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM: Fixed time slots are assigned to each channel, even if
no data is transmitted.
2. Statistical TDM: Time slots are dynamically assigned only to active
channels, improving efficiency.
Advantages:
Efficient use of bandwidth for digital signals.
No need for guard bands.
Disadvantages:
Requires accurate synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
Delay may occur due to waiting for time slots.
4. Explain Circuit switching - phases.
Circuit Switching is a switching technique in which a dedicated communication
path is established between the sender and receiver before data transmission
begins. The connection remains reserved for the entire duration of
communication.
Phases of Circuit Switching:
1. Connection Establishment Phase
o A dedicated path is set up between source and destination.
o Network resources like bandwidth and switches are reserved.
o Example: Dialing a telephone number.
2. Data Transfer Phase
o Actual data (voice or data) is transmitted over the established path.
o The channel remains exclusively used by the communicating parties.
o No addressing is required during transmission.
3. Connection Release (Termination) Phase
o After communication ends, the connection is terminated.
o Reserved resources are released and made available to other users.
[Link] different types of transmission media.
Transmission media refers to the physical path through which data is
transmitted from sender to receiver. It is broadly classified into guided (wired)
and unguided (wireless) media.
1. Guided (Wired) Transmission Media
a) Twisted Pair Cable
Two insulated copper wires twisted together.
Reduces noise and interference.
Types: UTP and STP.
Used in telephone networks and LANs.
b) Coaxial Cable
Central conductor with insulation and metallic shielding.
Better noise immunity than twisted pair.
Used in cable TV and broadband.
c) Optical Fiber Cable
Uses light signals for data transmission.
Very high bandwidth and long-distance communication.
Immune to electromagnetic interference.
Used in backbone networks and high-speed internet.
2. Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media
a) Radio Waves
Omnidirectional and can penetrate walls.
Used in radio and TV broadcasting.
b) Microwaves
Require line-of-sight transmission.
Used in satellite communication and mobile networks.
c) Infrared
Short-range communication.
Used in remote controls and short-distance data transfer.
[Link] Multiplexing- defination+ need.
Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication in which multiple
signals are combined and transmitted over a single communication channel
simultaneously. At the receiver, the combined signals are separated back into
their original form using a demultiplexer.
Need for Multiplexing:
1. Efficient Utilization of Bandwidth – Allows maximum use of available
channel capacity.
2. Cost Reduction – Reduces the number of physical transmission lines
required.
3. Simultaneous Transmission – Enables multiple users or signals to
communicate at the same time.
4. Improved System Performance – Supports high data traffic over limited
resources.
[Link] a short note on analog signal and digital signal.
Analog Signal
An analog signal is a continuous signal that varies smoothly with time and can
have infinite values within a given range. It represents physical quantities like
sound, temperature, or pressure.
Digital Signal
A digital signal is a discrete signal that represents data using binary values (0
and 1). It changes in steps rather than continuously.