Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation

Undergraduate Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Contents
 Basic Concepts
 Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
 Relationship between PM and FM Waves
 Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation
 Wide-Band Frequency Modulation
 Transmission Bandwidth of FM and PM Waves
 Generation of FM Waves
 Demodulation of FM Signals

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 2

Limitations of Amplitude Modulation
 Susceptibility to noise
 Vulnerable to noise and
interference, impacting signal
quality
 Transmission medium often
introduce amplitude distortion
 Power inefficiency
 Higher power levels for
sufficient signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR)
 SNR determines signal quality
and power inefficiency
 Limited range and application
 Suited for short-range and low-
fidelity applications (e.g., basic
radio broadcasting)

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 3

Angle Modulation: Definitions
 Angle Modulation: A technique where the angle (frequency
or phase) of the carrier signal 𝑐(𝑡) is varied according to the
information-bearing signal, 𝑚(𝑡)
 Amplitude of 𝑐(𝑡) is maintained constant
 Nonlinear modulation – add complexity
 Spectrum of the modulated signal, 𝑠(𝑡) is not related in any simple
fashion to 𝑚(𝑡)
 Types of Angle Modulation
 Frequency Modulation (FM): The instantaneous frequency of 𝑐(𝑡) is
varied linearly with 𝑚(𝑡)
 Phase Modulation (PM): The instantaneous phase of 𝑐 𝑡 is
adjusted linearly with 𝑚(𝑡)

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Basic…
 Key feature: Improved noise performance at the expense
of bandwidth efficiency and system complexity
 Better Noise Immunity: Angle modulation is less susceptible to
noise compared to AM
 Signal strength remains relatively constant
 Improved power efficiency

 Inefficient Bandwidth: Requires larger bandwidth than AM

 More complex system
 Practical insight
 FM radio: Clear audio despite noise
 Satellite links: Use PM/Frequency-shift keying for phase stability
 Mobile & Wi-Fi: Rely on phase-based digital schemes (QPSK,
QAM)

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Angle Modulation: Basic Definitions
 Angle modulator modulate the angle of the carrier signal
(complex envelope) with the message signal m(t).
 what is meant by the phase and frequency of a bandpass signal
𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜓 𝑡 ?
Take 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0

 c 𝑡 is a rotating phasor of length 𝐴𝑐 and angle, 𝜓 𝑡

 Instantaneous frequency is rate of change 𝜓 𝑡 .
1 𝑑𝜓 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡

 In the case of an unmodulated carrier, 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0

 Phasor rotates at a constant angular velocity of 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
 𝜃0 is a constant, angle of the unmodulated carrier at time 𝑡 = 0

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Angle Modulation: Basic Definitions……
 Angle-modulated signal (PM or FM) can be expressed as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜓 𝑡 ,𝜓 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + θ(𝑡)
message signal 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙𝑚𝑛 𝑡
 Phase modulation: the phase angle of the Carrier signal in direct
proportion to the message signal.
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑛 (𝑡), assume 𝜃0= 0
𝒙𝑷𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝑲𝒑 𝒎 𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒎𝒏 (𝒕)
 - phase deviation constant (Max phase deviation):

 𝜃 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑝 (units of radians per Δ𝜃
unit =
of 𝑀𝐴𝑋{
m(t)) is 𝜃
the𝑡 phase-sensitivity
}= factor of the
modulator. 𝑀𝐴𝑋{ 𝜓 𝑡 −𝜔𝑐 𝑡 }

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 7

Angle Modulation: Basic Definitions…
 Frequency modulation: the instantaneous radian frequency of the
Carrier signal in direct proportion to the message signal.
1 𝑑𝜓 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙𝑚 𝑛 𝑡
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∙𝑚𝑛 𝑡
𝜓 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥∫𝑡∞ 𝑚 𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
 𝑓𝑑 𝑡 - frequency deviation
𝒕
𝒙𝑭𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝋(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 𝒎 𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒎𝒏 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
∞

 Max frequency deviation constant:

𝑀𝑎𝑥 |𝑓 𝑖 𝑡 −𝑓𝑐 | = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 |𝑓 𝑑 𝑡 | = Δ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐾𝑓 is the frequency phase-sensitivity factor of the modulator. (units Hertz per unit of m(t))

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 Angle Modulation: Analysis summary
 Instantaneous frequency
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + Δ𝑓∙𝑚𝑛 𝑡 𝐹𝑀
1 𝑑𝜓 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = = 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 Δ𝜃 𝑑𝑚𝑛 𝑡
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑐 + = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑃𝑀
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
 Modulated signal angle:
𝑡
𝜓 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
∞
𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + Δ𝜃𝑚𝑛 𝑡 . 𝑃𝑀
𝑡 𝑡
=
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑓𝑑 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋Δ𝑓 𝑚𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐹𝑀

 Max. phase deviation: Δ𝜃 =

∞ ∞

𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑀
2𝜋Δ𝑓| ∫𝑡∞ 𝑚 𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 ​ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑀
 Max. freq. deviation: Δ𝑓 =
𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑀
Δ𝜃 𝑑𝑚𝑛 𝑡
𝑃𝑀
2𝜋
Sem. I, 2025/26
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 9
Example
Sketch FM and PM waves for the pulse modulating signal
m(t) shown in below. The constants kf and kp are 105 Hz/V
and 𝜋 rad/V , respectively, and 𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
2

𝑘𝑝 𝑑𝑚 𝑡 1 𝑑𝑚 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡) = 108 + 105 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + = 108 +
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡

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 Example: Sinusoidal Modulating Signal
 Assume that: 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚 cos (2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡), and 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋f𝑐 𝑡)

 FM Modulated signal:  PM Modulated signal:

𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋f𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘p 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋f𝑐 𝑡 + sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
 Instantaneous frequency:
𝑓𝑚
 Instantaneous frequency:
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡) 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 −𝑘𝑝 𝑚𝑓𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡)
Δ𝑓 = | 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 −𝑓𝑐 ​ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 Δ𝑓 = | 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 −𝑓𝑐 ​ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚𝑓𝑚

 Instantaneous phase:  Instantaneous phase:

𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡)
𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡)
𝑓𝑚
 Modulation indices:  Modulation indices:
𝑘𝑓 𝑚 Δf 𝛽𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚
𝛽𝑓 = =
𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑚

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 11

Cont.…

(a) Carrier wave

(b) Sinusoidal modulating signal

(c) Amplitude-modulated (carrier

suppressed) signal

(d) Phase-modulated signal

(e) Frequency modulated signal

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Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
1. Constancy of Transmitted Power
 From both PM and FM equations
𝑆𝑃𝑀 𝑡 = Ac cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ,𝑆𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) = Ac cos [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑓 ∫𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡]

we see that amplitude = 𝐴𝑐 for all t.

Neither 𝑘𝑝 nor 𝑘𝑓 affects the instantaneous amplitude — only the
angle changes.
 Implication:
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 ​ = ​ ​ = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 1 Ω)
2𝑅 2
Power remains constant regardless of modulation depth.
 Why it matters:
 Nonlinear RF amplifiers can be used → more power efficiency.
 FM transmitters can operate near saturation without distortion.
 Makes angle modulation ideal for high-power radio links.

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Properties…
2. Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process

Angle modulation violates superposition → it is nonlinear.

 If 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚1 (𝑡) + 𝑚2 (𝑡) then

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 (𝑚1 (𝑡) + 𝑚2 (𝑡))] ≠ 𝑠1 (𝑡) + 𝑠2 (𝑡)

Why it matters:
 Frequency components mix → sidebands overlap in nonlinear
ways.
 Spectral analysis is harder — no simple linear spectrum like AM.
 But nonlinearity = strength → it helps suppress additive noise.

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Properties…
3. Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
 In AM, zero-crossings are evenly spaced — tied to the carrier
frequency.
 In FM/PM, they shift with m(t) → irregular spacing.
Physical meaning:
Information in angle modulation resides in the timing of zero-
crossings.
Two special cases where regularity remains:
 m(t) increases linearly → frequency settles at a new constant
value.
 m(t) = constant → carrier shifts to a fixed offset frequency.

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Properties…
4. Difficulty Visualizing the Message Waveform
In AM, the envelope directly shows 𝑚(𝑡)
In FM/PM, 𝑚(𝑡) is hidden inside phase or frequency variations.

Reason:
Because the process is nonlinear — the waveform no longer visually
reflects amplitude variations.

Implication:
 Hard to infer message by eye → needs coherent demodulation.
 Useful for secure or interference-resistant communication.

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Properties…
5. Bandwidth vs Noise Performance Tradeoff
 Angle modulation has better noise performance over AM
 Amplitude is a constant and independent of 𝑚(𝑡)
 Additive noise mainly affects affect amplitude of the carrier
 However, the bandwidth requirement increases
 I.e., exchanging an increase in transmission bandwidth for an
improvement in noise performance
 Such a tradeoff is not possible with AM

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Relationship Between PM and FM Waves
• FM and PM are uniquely related to each other
• FM is a PM produced by ∫𝑡0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 and FM is produced from PM
by ⅆ𝑚(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Ref: Communication Systems Engineering By John G. Proakis, Masoud Salehi

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 Angle Modulation: Analysis summary
 Instantaneous frequency
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + Δ𝑓∙𝑚𝑛 𝑡 𝐹𝑀
1 𝑑𝜓 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = = 𝑑𝜃 𝑡 Δ𝜃 𝑑𝑚𝑛 𝑡
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑐 + = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑃𝑀
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
 Modulated signal angle:
𝑡
𝜓 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
∞
𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + Δ𝜃𝑚𝑛 𝑡 . 𝑃𝑀
𝑡 𝑡
=
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑓𝑑 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋Δ𝑓 𝑚𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐹𝑀

 Max. phase deviation: Δ𝜃 =

∞ ∞

𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑀
2𝜋Δ𝑓| ∫𝑡∞ 𝑚 𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 ​ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑀
 Max. freq. deviation: Δ𝑓 =
𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑀
Δ𝜃 𝑑𝑚𝑛 𝑡
𝑃𝑀
2𝜋
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𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 19
Spectrum of Angle-Modulated Signal
 Consider sinusoidal modulated signal
𝑆 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋f𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽sin 2𝜋f𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒[𝐴𝑐 𝑒𝑗𝛽∙sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 ∙𝑒𝑗2𝜋f𝑐𝑡 ]

 Expansion with Taylor series and complex sinusoidal

2
𝑗𝛽∙sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒[ (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)∙(1+ 𝑗𝛽∙ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + +
2!
3 4
𝑗𝛽∙sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 𝑗𝛽∙sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
+ + …..)]
= 𝐴𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡−𝐴𝑐 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 −
3! 4!

𝐴 𝑐𝛽 2 𝐴 𝑐𝛽 3
sin2 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + sin3 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ..
 Approximated Angle modulated signal
2! 3!

𝑆 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos [2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 )𝑡]

𝑛=−∞

𝐽𝑛 𝛽 is 𝑛𝑡ℎ order Bessel function of the first kind and argument 𝛽,

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Spectrum of Angle-Modulated Signal
∞
𝐴𝑐
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝐽 𝛽 [δ 𝑓−𝑓𝑐 −𝑛𝑓𝑚 + δ 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 ]
2 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛

∞
𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐽2𝑛(𝛽)
2 𝑛=−∞

 The spectrum consists of a carrier-frequency component plus an

infinite number of sidebands components at frequencies fc  nf m
(n=1,2,3,…)
 The relative amplitude of the spectral lines depend on the value of
Jn()
 The value of Jn() becomes very small for larger of n
 The number of significant spectral lines (i.e., is having appreciable
relative amplitude) is a function of 
 With  <<1, only J0 and J1 are significant, so the spectrum will consists of
carrier and two sideband lines  Narrowband Angle modulated
 But if  >>1, there will be many sideband lines  Wideband Angle
[Link]
I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 21
Narrowband Angle Modulation
 For narrow-band 𝛽 must be small compared to one radian
(typically < 0.3)
 Expanding 𝑠 𝑡 and using the approximations
𝑛 𝛽
−1 ( )𝑛
cos [𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ] ≈ 1 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 ≈ 2
𝑛!

 Narrow-band FM signal is approximated as

sin [𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ] ≈ 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

𝑠 𝑡 ≈ 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 −𝛽𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡

𝛽𝐴𝑐
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − [ cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 − cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]
2

Indirect method for

generating a narrow-band
FM wave

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 Narrowband Cont.…
𝑆 𝑓
𝐴 𝑐 𝐽𝑜 (𝛽) • Phasor comparison of narrow-band
𝐴 𝑐 𝐽1 (𝛽) 2 𝐴 𝑐 𝐽1 (𝛽)
FM and AM waves for sinusoidal
modulation.
4 4
−𝑓 𝑐 + 𝑓 𝑚 𝑓 𝑐 −𝑓 𝑚
𝑓
−𝑓 𝑐 −𝑓 𝑚 −𝑓 𝑐 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
𝐴 𝑐 𝐽−1 (𝛽) 𝐴 𝑐 𝐽−1 (𝛽)
4 4
𝑆 𝑓
𝐴
= 𝑐 𝛿 𝑓−𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
𝛽𝐴
− 𝑐 [𝛿 𝑓−𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚
4
−𝛿 𝑓−𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 ] Narrow-band FM wave

 Two sidebands at 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚​.

 same as DSB-SC but with 90°
phase shift in sidebands.
 Bandwidth ≈ 2 𝑓𝑚 .
AM wave

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 23

Wideband Angle Modulation
 Consider a single tone sinusoidal modulating signal with an
arbitrary value 𝛽 and
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
 The wide-band modulated signal is given as
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos [ 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 𝑡]

 Fourier transform 𝑆 𝑓 gives discrete spectrum of 𝑠 𝑡

𝑛=−∞

∞
𝐴
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 [δ 𝑓−𝑓𝑐 −𝑛𝑓𝑚 + δ 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 ]
 Infinite number of delta functions spaces at 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑚
2 𝑛=−∞

∞
𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐽2𝑛(𝛽)
2 −∞

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 24

 Spectrum of Angle-Modulated Signal
1. For different integer (positive
and negative) values of n, we
have
𝐽𝑛 (𝛽)= 𝐽−𝑛 (𝛽), for n even
𝐽𝑛 (𝛽)= −𝐽−𝑛 𝛽 , for n odd

2. For large values of the

modulation index we have

𝑛 𝛽
−1 ( )𝑛
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 ≈ 2
𝑛!

3. The equality holds exactly for

Plots of the Bessel function for varying order 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽) .
arbitrary 𝛽

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 25

Spectrum of Angle-Modulated Signal

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 26

Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signal
 Power bandwidth (98% of the power) of angle-modulated signal
(Carson’s rule)
𝐵𝑇 ≈ 2𝑛𝑓𝑚 = 2 𝛽 + 1 𝑓𝑚
 Power bandwidth (Carson's bandwidth) of PM and FM signals
2 𝛽𝑓 + 1 𝑓𝑚 = 2 Δ𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 𝐹𝑀
𝐵𝑇 ≈ 2𝑛𝑓𝑚
2 𝛽𝑝 + 1 𝑓𝑚 𝑃𝑀

 These expressions hold for a general modulating signal as well

 fm - the max. modulating frequency or bandwidth

 Note: Angle modulation with large modulation index expands

spectrum!

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 27

Arbitrary Modulation
 For arbitrary angle modulating signal m(t) bandwidth limited
to Bwm, the deviation ratio (modulation index) is defined as
Δ𝑓
D=
 D plays the same role as the modulation index  plays for
Bwm

sinusoidal modulation
 Replacing  by D and fm by Bwm we have

𝐵𝑇 ≈ 2 𝐷 + 1 Bwm

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 28

Cont.…
 For Narrowband signals (modulation index is very small,  << 1)
 The signal bandwidth is:
𝐵𝑇 ≈ 2𝑛𝑓𝑚 = 2𝑓𝑚
 For Wideband signals (Modulation index is high,  >> 1)

2 𝛽𝑓 𝑓𝑚 = 2 Δ𝑓 𝐹𝑀
𝐵𝑇 ≈ 2𝑛𝑓𝑚
 Wideband FM 2 𝛽𝑝 𝑓𝑚 = 2 Δ𝜃 𝑓𝑚 𝑃𝑀
 The bandwidth is twice the frequency deviation
 Does not depend on the modulating frequency
 Wideband PM
 The bandwidth depends on modulating frequency

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 29

Ex: Amplitude Spectrum Sinusoidally Modulated FM Signal
 Investigate the ways in which variations in the amplitude modulating
wave affect the spectrum of the FM wave.
 Consider a case when the frequency of the modulating wave is fixed,
but its amplitude is varied, producing a corresponding variation in the
frequency deviation.

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 30

Example 3:
 A carrier is FM modulated by a sinusoidal modulating signal 𝑚(𝑡) of
frequency 2 KHz, it results in frequency deviation of 5KHz.
 Find the BW occupied by the FM waveform.
 If the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is increased by a factor of 3
and its frequency lowered by 1KHz. Find the new BW.

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 31

Example 2:
 An angle-modulated signal with carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 = 1MHz
is described by the equation:
𝑆(𝑡) = 10cos (𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 4 sin 1000𝜋𝑡 2sin (2000𝜋𝑡))
a. Find the power of the modulated signal.
b. Find the max frequency deviation and max phase deviation β.
c. Estimate the bandwidth of S(t).
d. If the max frequency of the message signal is scaled up by a factor
of 4. how would the bandwidth of the modulated signal change,
assuming its FM or PM signal.
If needed take (kp = 10rad/v, kf =15kHz/v)

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 32

Important Properties of Angle-Modulated Signals: Summary

 FM/PM signal is a nonlinear function of the message

 The signal’s bandwidth increases with the modulation index
 The carrier spectral level varies with the modulation index, being 0
in some cases
 Narrowband FM/PM
 Signal’s bandwidth is twice that of the message (same as for AM)
 Amplitude of the FM/PM signal is constant
 Hence, the power does not depend on the message
 Angle modulation has better noise performance over AM
 Additive noise mainly affects affect amplitude of the carrier
 However, the bandwidth requirement increases
 I.e., exchanging an increase in transmission bandwidth for an
improvement in noise performance
 Such a tradeoff is not possible with AM

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 33

Generation and Demodulation of
Analog Modulated Signals

Undergraduate Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Generation of Analog Modulated Signals
 Practical Angle Modulators
 Narrowband Angle Modulator
 Wideband Angle Modulator
 Direct method
 Indirect method

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 35

Narrowband Angle Modulator

𝑠 𝑡 ≈ 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 −𝛽𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]

𝛽𝐴
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑐 [ cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 )𝑡
2
− cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 ]

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 36

Direct method
 Uses sinusoidal oscillator, with one of the reactive elements (e.g.,
capacitive element) in the tank circuit of the oscillator being directly
controllable by the message
 PM Modulator:

 FM Modulator:

 Simple, real-time modulation.

 Frequency deviation/Phase shift ∝ input voltage.
 Used in low-cost radios and narrowband angle modulated signals in SDRs systems.
 Limitations: Frequency stability and drift issues.
 requires frequency stabilization with feedback around the oscillator

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 37

Direct Wideband Angle Modulator

 Explain how it operates

 Hint: consider it without feedback first
 Explain why feedback is required
 Explain why frequency divider is required

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 38

Indirect Wideband Angle Modulator: Armstrong
modulator
 Generate NBFM via
phase modulator.
 Multiply frequency (×N)
to increase Δf →
WBFM.
 Mix to desired carrier
frequency.

Block diagram of frequency multiplier.

 Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier

and mixers in order to increase the frequency deviation and
modulation index of FM wave.
 Advantages: Excellent frequency stability, used in broadcast FM
transmitters.

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 39

Example
 Design commercial FM modulator to transmit a radio
station at 96MHz at 3KW.
 Note that the Max. freq. deviation for commercial radio
stations is 75KHz with max transmission band with of
150KHz with 25 KHz guard band to each side.
 The audio signal has max bandwidth of 15KHz.

 Take (𝛽𝑓 = 0.02 and 𝑓𝑐 = 200𝐾𝐻𝑧 for NBFM), use multiple

sets of frequency multipliers

WBFM
BPF
𝑚(𝑡)
NBFM × 53 ×2 ×

𝑐1 (𝑡) 𝑐2 (𝑡)

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 40

EX:
Consider FM radio broadcasting that uses the resource of free space
radio wave propagation. The shared use (multiplexing) of the FM band is
done with the help of a combination of frequency multiplexing and
location multiplexing (stations far enough away from each other can use
the same transmission frequency). The standard assigned the spectrum
of 87.5- 108.5 MHz, where each station is spaced about 200KHz apart (
𝑓(𝑖)𝑐 = 87.5𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 200𝑖 𝐾𝐻𝑧). spaced about 10KHz apart Each

 IF There are 103 FDM channels and each station provides an audio
signal of about 15KHz bandwidth (Wi=15KHz). The efficiency of FM
broadcast band?

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 41

FM/PM Demodulation
 Recover message from frequency variation.
 Methods:
 Slope Detector (Frequency Discriminator) (analog, simple).
 PLL Demodulator (modern, accurate).

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 42

FM Demodulators -- Frequency Discriminator
 FM-to-AM conversion and non–coherent demodulator

Possible candidate:
(differentiator over the band-pass signal bandwidth)

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 43

Frequency Discriminator – Phase Demodulation
 Discriminator can also be used for PM demodulation
 Differentiating the PM gives
ⅆ𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑚 𝑡
= −𝐴𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑝 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 PM demodulation: Differentiation + envelope detector + DC
blocking + integration

𝑑(∙)
Envelope ∙ 𝑑𝜏
𝑠(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 Detector 𝑚(𝑡)

Sem. I, 2025/26 44
Cont.… Frequency Discriminator
 Simplest analog FM demodulator.
 Bandpass filter with linear slope around carrier frequency → amplitude
changes proportional to frequency deviation.
 Envelope detector follows.
 Limitations:
 Poor linearity.
 Sensitive to frequency drift.
 Limited to narrowband FM.

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 45

Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
 A closed-loop feedback system with multiplier (gain 𝑘𝑚),
loop filter and voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
 Assume:
 Incoming FM signal: 𝑠 𝑡 =
𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 1 (𝑡) with
1 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓∫𝑡0 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
 Multiplier: phase detector
 Loop filter: Low pass filter
 VCO output: 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
2 (𝑡) with 2 t = 2𝜋𝑘𝑣∫𝑡0 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
1 t = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓
 𝑟 𝑡 is also an FM wave with
𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0
phase 2 𝑡
 Error signal 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡)∙𝑠 𝑡 𝑡
2 t = 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0

Sem. I, 2025/26 46
Phase-Locked Loop - Phase Detector Output
 Using trigonometric identify, we note that the error signal
has two components:
1. High frequency component of
𝑘𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑣 sin 4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 1 𝑡 + 2 (𝑡)
1
2
2. Low-frequency component of
1
𝑘 𝐴 𝐴 sin 1 𝑡 −2 (𝑡)
2 𝑚 𝑐 𝑣
 Loop-filter
 Low-pass filter
 Suppress the high-frequency component
 For small phase error, sin(x) ≈ 𝑥, hence, the error is
𝑒 𝑡 ∝1 𝑡 −2 (𝑡)

Sem. I, 2025/26 47
 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
 Feedback adjusts 2 t to keep error 𝑒 𝑡 = 1 𝑡 −
2 𝑡 small and nearly constant
 Phase locked: if 𝑒 𝑡 = 0
 When 1 𝑡 = 2 𝑡 , i.e.,
𝑡 𝑡
2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0 0
 Differentiating both sides, we
𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑣 𝑣 𝑡
 And
𝑘𝑓
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑚 𝑡
𝑘𝑣
 Output of the VCO 𝑣 𝑡 ∝𝑚 𝑡 , hence, 𝑣 𝑡 is the demodulated
signal
Sem. I, 2025/26 48
Phase-Locked Loop – Summary
 PLL locks a VCO to an incoming FM signal by continuously
comparing phases
 Phase detector (i.e., the multiplier) generates an error, 𝑒(𝑡)
 Loop filter keeps only the low-frequency part as a smooth
control voltage
 Voltage 𝑣 𝑡 tunes the VCO to follow the FM’s
instantaneous frequency
 When locked the control voltage is a scaled copy of the
original message 𝑚 𝑡

Sem. I, 2025/26 49
FM Demodulators -- Phased Locked Loop (PLL)
Detector
 In FM/PM systems, the carrier’s phase varies continuously with
the modulating signal.
 To demodulate accurately, the receiver must track and lock onto
this phase.
 The PLL does exactly that:
 Tracks the instantaneous phase of the incoming signal.
 Produces an error voltage proportional to the deviation (→ message
signal).

 Advantages:
 Excellent linearity.
 Automatic carrier tracking.
 Works over wide dynamic ranges.

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 50

Summary
 Amplitude modulation
 Is simple (envelope detector) but no noise/interference immunity
(low quality)
 Bandwidth is twice or the same as the modulating signal (no
bandwidth expansion)
 Power efficiency is low for conventional AM
 DSB-SC & SSB – good power efficiency, but complex circuitry
 FM/PM
 Spectrum expansion & noise immunity
 Good quality
 More complex circuitry
 However, ICs allow for cost effective implementation

Sem. I, 2025/26 Chapter 3 – Angle Modulation 51