MATRIX ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS

MODULE 4: VECTOR CALCULUS

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Jain (Deemed-to-be) University 1

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences

 MODULE 04
Vector Calculus – Velocity and Acceleration Vectors, Unit tangent and Unit normal
vectors, Laplacian operator, Gradient, Curl, Divergence & amp; Directional derivatives.

Lab Practice:
Lab exercise 1: Finding velocity, acceleration, unit vector, unit tangent, Gradient, curl,
divergence and directional derivatives using MATLAB software.
Lab exercise 2: 3D vectors visualization and solution of real-world examples.

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CONTENT

VECTORS

• 4.1.0* Velocity and Acceleration

4.1.1* Problems on Velocity and Acceleration

4.1.2* Unit tangent and Unit Normal Vectors
4.1.3* Problems on Unit tangent and Unit Normal Vectors
4.1.4* Gradient, Curl and Divergence
4.1.5* Directional derivatives

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Real –world applications in engineering and science

Field / Application How Vector Calculus are Used

Aerospace Engineering Velocity calculations are crucial for launching satellites into
(trajectory of objects in motion) orbit or sending spacecraft to explore other planets.
Civil Engineering(bridges, dams,
To withstand the forces of moving vehicles or flowing water
and highways)
Meteorology (hurricanes,
To predict weather patterns and monitor the movement of
tornadoes, and other extreme
atmospheric phenomena
climate activities)
The movement of vehicles on curved paths, like race tracks,
Vehicle dynamics, Path planning helps robots navigate complex environments and plan their
movements to avoid obstacles.
Gradient, Curl, and Divergence: [Link]
[Link]

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Introduction to Vectors

More Than Just Numbers - The Need for Vectors

When we study quantities in physics or mathematics, some have only magnitude, such as
temperature or mass. These are called scalars because they tell us ‘how much’ but not ‘in
which direction. But in the real world, many quantities such as force, velocity, or
displacement depends on direction as well as magnitude.

For example, if we push a box with a force of 10 newtons, it matters which direction we
push it. That’s why we use vectors, which describe both how much and which way.

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Example: Think of an airplane flying north at
200 km/h, while a wind blows east at 50 km/h.
The plane doesn’t move exactly north or east,
it moves northeast, along a new direction. The
final motion is found using vector addition.

Applications of Vectors
Physics: Describing motion, forces, and fields.
Engineering: Structural analysis and design.
Computer Graphics: 3D modeling, animation, and game design.
Navigation: Determining direction and position.
Mathematics: Used in linear algebra, geometry, and calculus for transformations and space analysis.
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Introduction:

Vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities like force,
velocity, acceleration etc., have lot of significance in physical and engineering fields. A
quantity which has only magnitude but no direction is called a scalar e.g. Length, Volume
etc.
→ → →
If 𝑎 = 𝐴𝐵 is a vector, then the magnitude of the vector is 𝑎 = 𝐴𝐵. The magnitude of the
vector is also known as length or module of the vector.
If the magnitude of the vector is one unit, then it is called a unit vector. A unit vector in
→
→ ∧ ∧
the direction of the vector 𝑎 is usually denoted by 𝑎 and is given by 𝑎 = → .

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Vectors lying in the same plane are called the co-planar vectors.
→ →
The position vector of a point P with respect to the fixed-point O is the vector 𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃 .
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
Position vector of a point is also written as 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘, where 𝑖 , 𝑗 and 𝑘 are unit
vectors along 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes respectively.

Scalar Product

→→ → → → →
 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 = |𝑎 ||𝑏 | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 , 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏

→ →
 if 𝜃 = 90 then 𝑎 . 𝑏 = 0

∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
 𝑖 . 𝑖 = 1 , 𝑗 . 𝑗 = 1 , 𝑘 . 𝑘 = 1 , 𝑖 . 𝑗 = 0 , 𝑗 . 𝑘 = 0 , 𝑘 . 𝑖 = 0.
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Vector Product
∧ ∧ ∧
→ 𝑖 → 𝑗 𝑘 → → ∧
𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = |𝑎 ||𝑏 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛 ,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

∧ → →
where 𝑛 is the unit vector ⊥ to both 𝑎 and 𝑏

∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
 𝑖 × 𝑖 = 0 , 𝑗 × 𝑗 = 0 ,𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0 ,𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 ,𝑗 × 𝑘 = 𝑖 ,𝑘 × 𝑖 = 𝑗 , 𝑖 × 𝑘 = −𝑗 ,
∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘 and 𝑖 × 𝑘 = −𝑗 .

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Scalar Triple Product
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
→ → → → → →
 [𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 ] = 𝑎 . (𝑏 × 𝑐 ) = 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 .
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

 Equation of line passing through (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) and direction ratios 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are

= = .

 Equation of a plane: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the d r's of the normal.

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In this chapter the basic concepts of Differential Calculus of scalar functions are extended to
vector functions. Here we study vector differentiation, gradient, divergence, curl, solenoidal
and irrotational fields.

Vector and Scalar Functions and Fields

→ ∧ ∧ ∧
Let the position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in space be 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are all
functions of a single parameter ′𝑡′, then 𝑟⃗ is said to be a vector function of ′𝑡′ (also called
vector point function) denoted as 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗ 𝑡 .
 Vector functions whose values are vector 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝑃 , 𝑉 𝑃 , 𝑉 (𝑃) is depending
on the point 𝑃 in space.
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Scalar valued function
It is a function that takes one or more values but returns a single value.
For example: 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧 is a scalar valued function. A n-variable scalar
valued function acts as a map from the space 𝑅 to the real number line i.e., 𝑓: 𝑅 𝑅.
Therefore, Scalar functions, whose values are scalars 𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑃 is depending on 𝑃.
In applications, the domain of definition for such a function is a region of space or a
surface in space or a curve in space. A vector function defines a vector field in that region
(or on that surface or curve). A scalar function defines a scalar field in a region or on a
surface or a curve.

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Examples:
Scalar field
 The temperature at any instant
 Density of a body
 Potential due to gravitational matter

Vector Field
 Velocity of a moving fluid at any instant
 The gravitational intensity of force

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Vector Field (Velocity field)
At any instant the velocity vectors 𝑉(𝑃) of a rotating body B constitute a vector field, the
so-called velocity field of the rotation. If we introduce a Cartesian coordinate system
having the origin on the axis of rotation, then
𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑤 × 𝑟 = 𝑤 × 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘 ,
where (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are the coordinates of any point P of B at the instant under consideration.
If the coordinates are such that the z-axis is the axis of rotation and w points in the positive
z-direction, then 𝑤 = 𝜔𝑘 and

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑣= 0 0 𝜔 = 𝜔 −𝑦, 𝑧, 0 = 𝜔 −𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 .
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

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Derivative of a Vector Function:

→ →
A vector function 𝑟 𝑡 [𝑜𝑟 𝑣 (𝑡)] is said to be differentiable at a point t if the following limit

exists:

→ → →
→ ( ) ( )
𝑟 (𝑡) = = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
→

→ →
The vector 𝑟 (𝑡) is called the derivative of 𝑟 (𝑡).

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 →
In terms of components with respect to a given cartesian coordinate system, 𝑟 (𝑡) is
differentiable at a point 𝑡 iff its three components are differentiable at 𝑡, and then the
→
derivative 𝑟 (𝑡) is obtained by differentiating each component separately,
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ,𝑦 𝑡 ,𝑧 𝑡 .
If follows that the familiar rules of differentiation yield corresponding rules for
differentiating vector functions.

→ →
1. (𝐶𝑟 ) = 𝐶𝑟
→ → → →
2. (𝑟 + 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 + 𝑟

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In particular
→ → → → → →
3. (𝑟 . 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 . 𝑟 + 𝑟 . 𝑟
→ → → → → →
4. (𝑟 × 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 × 𝑟 + 𝑟 × 𝑟
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
5. (𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 ) = (𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 ) + (𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 ) + (𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 )
[The order of the vectors must be carefully observed because cross product is not
commutative].
→
Derivative of a vector function 𝑟 (𝑡) with constant length is either the zero vector or is ⊥
→
𝑡𝑜 𝑟 (𝑡).
→ → → → → → → →
∵ Let 𝑟 = 𝐶, then |𝑟 | = 𝑟 . 𝑟 = 𝐶 and (𝑟 . 𝑟 ) = 2(𝑟 . 𝑟 ) = 0.

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Geometrical Meaning of derivative of a vector
As 𝛿𝑡 → 0, 𝜃 → 𝑃 which means that the chord PQ appears to be the tangent to the
→
curve at P. Thus, geometrically we can say that is a vector along the tangent to the
curve at P.

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 →
𝒅𝒓
Physical Meaning of (Velocity and Acceleration)
𝒅𝒕
→
Since 𝑟 = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘 represents the position vector of a point moving along a
→
curve, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and accordingly 𝑟 is a function of the time variable 𝑡.
→
→
∴𝑣= gives the velocity of the particle at time 𝑡.
→ → →
→ →
Further 𝑎 = = = represents the rate of change of 𝑣 and is called the
acceleration of the particle at time 𝑡.
→
→
Further, |𝑣 | = = is the speed of P where 's' is the arc length measured from a
fixed point on the curve onto the point P along the curve.

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Tangential Acceleration and Normal Acceleration
Remarks
→ → →
1) Component of a vector 𝐴 along a given vector (direction) 𝐷 is the resolved point of 𝐴
→
→ ∧ ∧
given by 𝐴. 𝑛, where 𝑛 = → .
| |
→ →
2) Component of a vector 𝐴 ⊥ 𝑎𝑟 to the vector 𝐷 (along the normal) is given by
→ → → → → ∧ ∧
|𝐴 − (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐷)| = 𝐴 − 𝐴. 𝑛 𝑛 .

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Unit vector normal to the space curve
Let 𝐴 be a fixed point on the curve and let the length of the arc 𝐴𝑃 be 𝑠, where
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and
→
𝑟 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝚤̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝚥̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘 .
The unit tangent vector
→ → → → →
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 /𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 /𝑑𝑡 𝑇
𝑇= ∵ = = → = → .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠/𝑑𝑡 |𝑑𝑟 /𝑑𝑡| |𝑇 |
We have 𝑇 𝑇 = 1

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Differentiating the above equation with respect to 𝑠 we get

2𝑇. = 0 ⇒ 𝑇. = 0 ⇒ 𝑇 is ⊥ 𝑡𝑜

⇒ is a normal to the space curve

 Unit vector normal 𝑁=

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Tangent to a Curve

The tangent to a curve C at a point P of C is the limiting position of a straight-line L through

P and a point Q of C as Q approaches P along C.

If C is given by r → (t), with P and Q corresponding to t and t + t respectively.

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Then the following vector has the direction of L;
1
𝑟(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑟(𝑡)
𝛿𝑡
In the limit, this vector becomes the derivative
→
𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 [𝑟(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑟(𝑡)] …(1)
→
→ →
provided r(t) is differentiable. If 𝑟 (𝑡) ≠ 0, we call 𝑟 (𝑡) a tangent vector of C at P
because it has the direction of the tangent. The corresponding unit vector is the unit
tangent vector.
→ → → →
𝑢= → 𝑟 Both 𝑟 and 𝑢 point in the direction of increasing 𝑡.
| |

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Hence their sense depends on the orientation of C. It is reversed if the orientation is
reversed.
 Tangent to C at P is given by
→ → →
𝑞 (𝑤) = 𝑟 + 𝑤𝑟
→ →
This is the sum of position vector 𝑟 of 𝑃 and a multiple of the tangent vector 𝑟 of C at
P. Both vectors depend on P, the variable 𝑤 is the parameter.

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Problem 1. Find the components of velocity and acceleration at 𝑡 = 2 on the curve
→
𝑟 = (𝑡 + 1)𝚤̂ + (4𝑡 − 3)𝚥̂ + (2𝑡 − 6𝑡)𝑘 in the direction 𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 2𝑘.

Solution:
→ →
→ →
Velocity 𝑣 = = 2𝑡𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ + (4𝑡 − 6)𝑘, Acceleration 𝑎 = = 2𝚤̂ + 4𝑘
→ →
(𝑣 ) = 4𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ + 2𝑘 and (𝑎 ) = 2𝚤̂ + 4𝑘
̂ ̂
The unit vector in the given direction 𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 2𝑘 is 𝑛 =
→ →
Components of velocity and acceleration are 𝑣 . 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 . 𝑛
→ ∧ → ∧ ̂ ̂
∴ 𝑣 . 𝑛 = (4𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ + 2𝑘 ). (𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 2𝑘 ) = and 𝑎 . 𝑛 = (2𝚤̂ + 4𝑘 ). =

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Problem 2.
a)

b)

Solution:

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Problem 3.

Solution:

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Problem 4. A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are
𝑥 = 𝑒 , 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡, 𝑧 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 where t is the time. Find the velocity and
acceleration at any time t and also their magnitudes at t= 0.

Solution:
We have 𝑟⃗ = 𝑒 𝑖 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡
⃗
Velocity 𝑣⃗ = = −𝑒 𝑖 − 6𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡𝑗 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡𝑘
Acceleration
⃗
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑒 𝑖 − 18𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡𝑗 − 18𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡𝑘s
𝑣⃗ = −𝑒 + 36(sin 3𝑡 + cos 3𝑡) = 𝑒 + 36

𝑎⃗ = 𝑒 + 324(sin 3𝑡 + cos 3𝑡) = 𝑒 + 324

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𝑣⃗ 𝑎𝑡 t=0 is given by 1 + 36 = 37

𝑎⃗ at 𝑡 = 0 is given by 1 + 324 = 325

Note: 𝑣⃗ and 𝑎⃗ at 𝑡 = 0 are respectively called the initial velocity

and initial acceleration.

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Problem 5. If 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 4𝑡 − 3, 𝑧 = 2𝑡 − 6𝑡 represents the parametric equation
of a curve, determine i) The unit tangent vector at any point on the curve ii) The angle
between the tangents at 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 2.
Solution:
We know that the position vector 𝑟⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘
→
𝑟 (𝑡) = (𝑡 + 1)𝚤̂ + (4𝑡 − 3)𝚥̂ + (2𝑡 − 6𝑡)𝑘
→ →
The Tangent vector 𝑇 = = 2𝑡𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ + (4𝑡 − 6)𝑘
→
∧ ∧ ̂ ̂ ( ) ̂ ̂ ( )
(i) Unit tangent vector 𝑇 = →  𝑇= =
| | ( ) ( )

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 → →
(ii) (𝑇 ) = 2𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ − 2𝑘 . . . 𝐴(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
→ →
(𝑇 ) = 4𝚤̂ + 4𝚥̂ + 2𝑘 . . . 𝐵(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
Let 𝜃 be the angle between the tangents at 𝑡 = 1 and 𝑡 = 2.
→→
.
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = → → = = or 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 is the required angle.
| || |

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Problem 6. Find the unit tangent vector and the unit normal vector to the curve
→ ∧ ∧ ∧
𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘 at 𝑥 =

Solution:
→

We know that unit tangent vector 𝑇 = → & the unit normal vector 𝑁 =

→
Given 𝑟⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡𝚤̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝚥̂ + 𝑡𝑘, 𝑇 = = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝚤̂ + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝚥̂ + 𝑘 ,

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 ∧ ∧ ∧
→ ∧ −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝑖 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝑗 + 𝑘
𝑇 = 5∴𝑇=
5
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑥= ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 = ⇒ 2𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
2 2 4 8

(− 2𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 𝑘)
∴𝑇=
5
→
Also = = |𝑇 | = (−2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝚤̂ + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝚥̂ + 𝑘)

= −4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝚤̂ − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝚥̂ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡𝚤̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡𝚥̂

= and 𝑁 = (𝑖 + 𝑗) is the unit normal vector.

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Problem Based Learning: Autonomous drone delivery along a helical path

A delivery drone must climb around a cylindrical building while keeping a steady
forward/upward speed so it can drop a package at a balcony. To avoid wind gusts and to
keep sensors stabilized the drone follows a smooth helical path. This helix wraps around
the building with radius 3m while steadily ascending at 4m/s in the 𝑧-direction.
In order to analyze and interpret for making decision,
a) Model the drone’s position with vector-valued function of time to describe where the
drone is at time t.
b) Find the velocity to know how fast and in which direction the drone is moving at each
instant.
c) Find the change in speed with respect to change in time.
d) Find the unit tangent and normal vectors to understand how the drone moves and turns
along the curved path.

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Problem Based Learning: Autonomous drone delivery along a helical path

e) If the drone follows a helical flight path,

what is happening exactly at the moment
it’s at 45° around the circle? How fast is it
moving, how is it turning, and how is it
accelerating?

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Solution:
Step 1: The drone flies around a cylindrical building which means it moves in a circle
when seen from the top view (in the x–y plane).
Simultaneously, it ascends, which means its height (z-coordinate) keeps increasing at a
steady rate. So, the motion combines circular motion (horizontal) + uniform upward
motion (vertical).
Hence, the drone’s path forms a helix (spiral curve) around the cylinder.
A point moving counterclockwise around a circle of radius 𝑎 centered at the origin can
be described as: 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡 .
Here, the building has a radius of 3m, so we set 𝑎 = 3:
𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 3 sin 𝑡 .
Now, the drone is climbing upward while circling the building.
If it rises at a constant vertical speed of 4 m/s, then: 𝑧 = 4𝑡.
This is a straight-line motion along the vertical direction, i.e., constant rate of change of
height.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 40

Step 2: To describe the full 3D path, we combine horizontal and vertical components
into one vector-valued function:
𝑟 𝑡 = x t , y t , z t = 3 cost, 3 sint, 4t .
Here:
𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 describes the circular (horizontal) motion,
𝑧 𝑡 gives the upward motion,
Together they form a helix (a curve wrapping around a cylinder as 𝑡 increases).

Step 3: Velocity 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 4

Acceleration 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 = −3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, −3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0 .

Interpretation: velocity gives the instantaneous direction & speed of motion.

Acceleration tells how velocity changes directionally (turning) and in magnitude
(speeding up / slowing down).

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 41

Step 4: Speed (magnitude of velocity)
Speed 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 +4 =5

Interpretation: The speed is constant 5m/s for this helix. (curved path does not imply
changing speed).

Step 5: Unit tangent vector

𝑣 𝑡 (−3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 4)
𝑇 𝑡 = =
𝑣 𝑡 5

𝑇 𝑡 Gives the direction of motion at each instant.

Step 6: Unit Normal vector

𝑇′ 𝑡
𝑁 𝑡 =
𝑇′ 𝑡
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 42
𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0 and 𝑇 𝑡 = .

Therefore, 𝑁 𝑡 = (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0).

Interpretation: 𝑁(𝑡) points inward toward the axis of the helix (normal to the
instantaneous direction of motion).

Step 7: If the drone follows a helical flight path, exactly at the moment it’s at 45° around
the circle. i.e., at 𝑡 =

Position: 𝑟 = 3 cos , 3 sin , 4 . = (2.1213, 2.1213, 3.1416)

describes the position of the drone at time 𝑡 = .

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 43

Velocity: 𝑣 =𝑟 = −3 cos , 3 cos , 4

𝜋
𝑣 = −2.1213, 2.1213, 4
4
gives the rate of change of position of the drone at time 𝑡 = .

𝑣 = 5 implies that the speed of the drone is 5 m/s. So, the drone is flying at constant
speed which shows that the it is smooth and steady flight.

Acceleration: 𝑎 = −2.1213, −2.1213, 0 .

𝑎 = 3 m/𝑠 constant turning acceleration.
This acceleration is the inward pull that keeps the drone curving around the cylinder
instead of flying straight off.
If the drone stopped applying that inward acceleration, it would spiral away in a straight
line (tangent to the helix).
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 44
Unit tangent: 𝑇 = −0.4243, 0.4243, 0.8 .
Always tangent to the path; used to orient the drone or its camera.

Unit Normal: 𝑁 = −0.7071, −0.7071, 0 .

Lies in the horizontal plane (no vertical component), so curvature is purely horizontal.

Critical thinking:

1. After one full revolution (𝑡 = 2𝜋), how much higher is the drone?
Answer: 𝑧 = 4 2𝜋 = 8𝜋m ≈ 25.13 m.

2. If speed is constant, does that mean there is no acceleration?

Answer: No, direction changes but acceleration exists.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 45

3. What would happen if the drone suddenly stopped producing this acceleration?
Answer: It would fly straight off tangentially, no longer circling.

4. What would happen to N 𝑡 if the drone flew in a straight line?

Answer: It would be undefined, since no curvature.

3D visualization

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 46

Gradient of a Scalar Field
Some of the vector fields in applications can be obtained from scalar fields. This is a
considerable advantage because scalar fields can be handled by the 'gradient'. Hence, the
gradient is of great practical importance.
Definition of Gradient:
The gradient denoted by 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 of a given scalar function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is the vector
function defined by,
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Here, we assume that 𝑓 is differentiable. It has become popular with physicists and
engineers to introduce the differential operator.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 47

 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence Gradient of a scalar point function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Problem [Link] 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 − 3𝑦 then find 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓
Solution:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Then 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝛻𝑓 = 𝚤̂ (2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 − 3𝑦 ) + 𝚥̂ (2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 − 3𝑦 ) + 𝑘 (2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 − 3𝑦 )
= 2𝚤̂ + (𝑧 − 6𝑦)𝚥̂ + 𝑦𝑘

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 48

Divergence of a Vector Field
Let 𝑣⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a differentiable vector function, where (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are Cartesian
→
Coordinates and let 𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 be the components of 𝑣 . Then the function

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = + + …(1)

is called the divergence of 𝑣⃗. Another common notation for the divergence of 𝑣⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝛻. 𝑣⃗

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝛻. 𝑣⃗ = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 . (𝑣 𝚤̂ + 𝑣 𝚥̂ + 𝑣 𝑘 ) = + +

with the understanding that the "product" 𝑣 in the dot product means the partial

derivative , 𝑒𝑡𝑐. This is a convenient notation, but nothing more.

Remark: 𝛻. 𝑣⃗ or 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ results in scalar, whereas 𝛻𝑓 or 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 results in the vector.
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 49
Problem 2. If 𝑣⃗ = 3𝑥𝑧𝚤̂ + 2𝑥𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑦𝑧 𝑘 then find 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗

Solution:
𝑣⃗ = 3𝑥𝑧𝚤̂ + 2𝑥𝑦𝚥̂ − 𝑦𝑧 𝑘
Here 𝑣 = 3𝑥𝑧, 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 and 𝑣 = −𝑦𝑧

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = + + = 3𝑧 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑧

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 50

Physical Meaning of Divergence
Theorem 1: (Invariance of the divergence)
The values of 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ depend only on the points in space (and, of course on 𝑣⃗) but
not on the particular choice of the coordinates in (1), so that w.r.t other Cartesian
coordinates x* y* z* and corresponding components 𝑣 ∗ , 𝑣 ∗ , 𝑣 ∗

𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = ∗ + ∗ + ∗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus, if 𝑣⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) represents any physical quantity, the divergence of 𝑣⃗ gives the
rate at which the physical quantity is originating at that point per unit volume.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences

5
1
Example:
Let us suppose that a fluid is moving such that its velocity at any point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given
by the vector point function 𝑣⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) consider a small parallelepiped of volume 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
trough which the fluid is passing.
If 𝑣⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣 𝚤̂ + 𝑣 𝚥̂ + 𝑣 𝑘

Then 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = + + gives the total gain in the volume of the fluid per unit volume
per unit time.
 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = 0 is called as the continuity equation of an incompressible fluid.
→
 A vector 𝑣 whose divergence is zero is called a solenoidal vector.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 52

Remarks:

If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a twice differentiable scalar function, then 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 and

by (1)

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = + + ⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝛻 𝑓,

𝛻 𝑓 is called the Laplacian of 𝑓.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 53

Curl of a Vector Field
Let (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be right-handed Cartesian coordinates and let 𝑣⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣 𝚤̂ + 𝑣 𝚥̂ + 𝑣 𝑘
be a differentiable vector function. Then curl of the vector field denoted by 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 𝛻
× 𝑣⃗ is defined as

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 𝛻 × 𝑣⃗ = = − 𝚤̂ + − 𝚥̂ + − 𝑘 …(1)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
Remark:
For a left-handed Cartesian coordinate system, the determinant in (1) has a minus sign in
front.

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 54

Problem 3: If 𝑣⃗ = 𝑦𝑧𝚤̂ + 3𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘 find 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗
With respect to right-handed Cartesian coordinates,
Solution:

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
Let 𝑣⃗ = 𝑦𝑧𝚤̂ + 3𝑧𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑘 then 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = = −3𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ + 2𝑧𝑘
𝑦𝑧 3𝑧𝑥 𝑧
Remark:
For any twice differentiable scalar field 𝑓, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 0 …(2)
i.e. if a vector function is the gradient of a scalar function, its curl is the zero vector.
Since the curl characterizes the rotation in a field, we also say more briefly that gradient
fields describing a motion are irrotational.
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 55
Theorem 1: (Invariance of the curl)
The lengths and direction of 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ are independent of the particular choice of Cartesian
coordinate systems in space.
Remark: A vector field 𝑣⃗ is solenoidal if 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ = 0 and irrotational if 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 0
Problem 4. Find the unit vector normal to the surface 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 = 4 at (−1, −1,2)
Solution:
Let 𝑓 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑧
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓(𝑜𝑟 𝛻𝑓) is a vector normal to the surface.
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 = 𝑦 𝑧 𝚤̂ + 3𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝚥̂ + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑧𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∴ (𝛻𝑓)( , , ) = −4𝚤̂ − 12𝚥̂ + 4𝑘 = −4(𝚤̂ + 3𝚥̂ − 𝑘)
(̂ ̂ ) ( ̂ 𝟑 ̂ 𝒌)
Hence the required unit vector normal 𝑛 = i.e., 𝑛 = =−
| | ( ) 𝟏𝟏

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 56

Problem 5. Find 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣⃗ and 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ where 𝑣⃗ = 𝛻(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦𝑧)
Solution:
Let 𝑓 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦𝑧
→ ∧ ∧ ∧
∴ 𝑣 = 𝛻𝑓 = (3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧)𝑖 + (3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧)𝑗 + (3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦)𝑘

→ → ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝑣 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 (3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧)𝑖 + (3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧)𝑗 + (3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦)𝑘

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧 + 3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧 + 3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
→
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑣 = 6𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 6(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 57

 ∧ ∧ ∧
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
→ →
Also, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣 = 𝛻 × 𝑣 =

(3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧) (3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧) (3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦)

∧
=𝑖 (3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦) − (3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧)
∧
−𝑗 (3𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦) − (3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧)
∧
+𝑘 (3𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑧) − (3𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑧)
∧ ∧ ∧ →
= 𝑖 −3𝑥 − (−3𝑥) − 𝑗 −3𝑦 − (−3𝑦) + 𝑘 −3𝑧 − (−3𝑧) = 0

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 58

 → → →
Problem 6. If 𝐴 is a constant vector, prove that div(𝐴 × 𝑟 ) = 0
Solution:
→ ∧ ∧ ∧ → ∧ ∧ ∧
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑗 + 𝑎 𝑘 be a constant vector and 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘

∧ ∧ ∧
→ 𝑖 → 𝑗 𝑘 ∧
∴𝐴×𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑖 (𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑦)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
→ → → →
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐴 × 𝑟 ) = 𝛻. (𝐴 × 𝑟 ) = ∑ 𝑖 . ∑ 𝑖(𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑦) = ∑ (𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑦) = 0
→ →
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐴 × 𝑟 ) = 0

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 59

Problem 7.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 60

Problem 8.
Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 61

Problem 9.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 62

Understanding Curl, Divergence, Gradient Through Visualization

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 63

Understanding Curl, Divergence, Gradient Through Visualization

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Example: Divergence Through MATLAB

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 65

Example: Divergence Through MATLAB

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 66

Problem 10.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 67

Problem 11.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 68

Problem 12.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 69

Problem 13.

Solution:

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70
Problem 14.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 71

Problem 15.

Solution:

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 72

 → ∧ ∧ ∧
Problem 16: Show that 𝑭 = (𝟐𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝒛)𝒊 + (𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛 + 𝟐
𝟐𝒚𝒛 )𝒋 + (𝟐𝒚𝟐 𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚)𝒌 is a
conservative force field. Find its Scalar potential.
∧ ∧ ∧
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
→ →
Solution: 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹 = 𝛻 × 𝐹 = =0

(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧) (2𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧 ) (2𝑦 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦)

→
Hence 𝐹 is a conservative force field.
. →
Now consider 𝐹 = 𝛻𝜑, where 𝜑 a scalar potential
To determine, we have

𝜕𝜑 ∧ 𝜕𝜑 ∧ 𝜕𝜑 ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
𝛻𝜑 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 = (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑖 + (2𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧 )𝑗 + (2𝑦 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦)𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 73

 Therefore,

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 74

74
 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
1.
Ans

2.

Ans =

3.
Ans =

4.
Ans =

Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 75

75
Directional Derivative:
The rate of change of 𝑓 at any point P in any fixed direction given by a vector 𝑏 is
denoted by 𝐷 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 is called as directional derivative of 𝑓 at P in the direction of 𝑏 and
is defined as:
( ) ( ))
𝐷 𝑓 = = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 …(3) (s = distance between P and Q)
→

Where Q is a variable point on the ray C in the direction of 𝑏

The next idea is to use Cartesian coordinates and for 𝑏 a unit vector. Then the ray C is
given by
𝑟⃗(𝑠) = 𝑥(𝑠)𝚤̂ + 𝑦(𝑠)𝚥̂ + 𝑧(𝑠)𝑘 = 𝑝 + 𝑠𝑏……………………(4)
where 𝑠 ≥ 0, |𝑏| = 1 (𝑝 is the position vector of P)
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 76
Equation (3) now shows 𝐷 𝑓 = is the derivative of the function
𝑓 𝑥 𝑠 , 𝑦 𝑠 , 𝑧(𝑠) with respect to the arc lengths of C.
Hence, assuming that f has continuous partial derivatives and applying the chain
rule, we obtain 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: = + +

𝐷 𝑓 = = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ……….. …(5)

where primes denote derivatives with respect to (which are taken at 𝑠 = 0).
But, here
𝑟 = 𝑥′𝚤̂ + 𝑦′𝚥̂ + 𝑧′𝑘 = 𝑏 by (4).
→
Hence (5) is simply the inner product of 𝑏 and 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓, 𝐷 𝑓 = = 𝑏 . 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓
→
Remark: If the direction is given by a vector 𝑎 of any length (≠ 0), then
→
𝐷 𝑓 = = → 𝑎 . 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓. 𝑎 …(6)
| |
Department of Data Analytics and Mathematical Sciences 77
Problem 1. Find the directional derivative of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 at the point P:
(2, 1, 3) in the direction of the vector 𝑎⃗ = 𝚤̂ − 2𝑘.
Solution:
We have 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 4𝑥𝚤̂ + 6𝑦𝚥̂ + 2𝑧𝑘
At the point 𝑃, 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 8𝚤̂ + 6𝚥̂ + 6𝑘
From this and (6*)
. .
𝐷 𝑓 = (𝚤̂ − 2𝑘). (8𝚤̂ + 6𝚥̂ + 6𝑘) = = ≈ −1.789
→
The minus sign indicates that f decreases at P in the direction of 𝑎 .

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Problem 2. In which direction the directional derivative of 𝑥 𝑦𝑧 is maximum at
(2,1, −1) and find the magnitude of this maximum.
Solution:
We know that the directional derivative is maximum along the normal vector 𝛻𝑓.
Let 𝑓 = 𝑥 𝑦𝑧
∧ ∧ ∧
∴ 𝛻𝑓 = 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑥 𝑧 𝑗 + 3𝑥 𝑦𝑧 𝑘
∧
[𝛻𝑓]( , , ) = −4𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 12𝑘
which is the direction in which the directional derivative is maximum and its
magnitude is 4 (1 + 1 + 9) = 4 11.

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Problem 3. Find directional derivatives of

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Problem 4 . Find directional derivatives of

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Problem 5:

Solution:

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 HOMEWORK PROBLEMS

Find directional derivatives for the following

1. 𝜑 = at (1, -1, 1) in the direction of 𝐴⃗ = I -2j + k Ans= -1/2√6

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Interdisciplinary Engineering Case Study: VECTOR CALCULUS

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Interdisciplinary Engineering Case Study

A new smart building in Bengaluru has advanced sensors monitoring the temperature and
airflow inside its central atrium.
(i) The engineers notice uneven cooling, some areas are warmer than others, and air
seems to circulate differently near the top vents.
(ii) To optimize comfort, the analytics team decides to mathematically model how
temperature and air move in 3D space.
They define:
Temperature field: 𝑇(x, y, z) = 20 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 in °C
which tells how temperature changes across the atrium.
Air velocity field: F(x, y, z) = (𝑦, −𝑥, 𝑧) in m/s
which describes how air moves (wind direction and speed).
The goal is to understand how temperature changes, how air flows, and where air
rotates or accumulates.

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Step 1: Gradient of Temperature: Finding the hottest direction

𝜕𝑇 ∧ 𝜕𝑇 ∧ 𝜕𝑇 ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
∇𝑇 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘 = 8𝑥𝑖 − 6𝑦𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Interpretation:
The gradient points toward the direction of maximum increase in temperature.
Its magnitude tells how steeply temperature rises.
At point (1, 1, 2)
∧ ∧ ∧
𝛻𝑇 = 8𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 2𝑘 therefore, the temperature increases most rapidly in this direction.
If a sensor moves in this direction, it experiences the fastest temperature rise which is
useful for locating hotspots or optimizing cooling vents.

Step 2: Directional derivative of 𝑇

Let’s find the rate of temperature change in the airflow direction u = (1, 1, 1) (unit
direction flow)
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 ∧ ∧ ∧
∧ ∧ ∧ 𝑖 +𝑗+𝑘
∇𝑇. 𝑢 = 8𝑖 − 6𝑗 + 2𝑘 .
3
4
∇𝑇. 𝑢 = = 2.31
3
Interpretation:
Along the direction of airflow, temperature rises at 2.31°C per meter which means air
moving this way is carrying heat upward.

Step 3: Divergence: Is air accumulating or escaping?

𝜕𝑦 𝜕(−𝑥) 𝜕𝑧
∇F = + + =0+0+1 =1
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Interpretation:
Divergence measures net outflow, i.e., how much air “spreads out” from a point.
Positive divergence (+1) means air is expanding or moving outward.
In the atrium, that means air is rising and dispersing, helping ventilation but potentially
carrying warm air upward.
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Step 4: Curl: Detecting air rotation (vortex)
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 ∧
∇ × F = 𝜕/𝜕𝑥 𝜕/𝜕𝑦 𝜕/𝜕𝑧 = −2𝑘
𝑦 −𝑥 𝑧
Interpretation:
Curl indicates rotation or swirling of the vector field.
Here, curl = ⟨0, 0, −2⟩ means air rotates clockwise (looking down the z-axis).
In physical terms, there’s a vortex around the vertical axis, possibly near a ceiling fan or
exhaust vent.

Critical Thinking
1. At what locations would you place cooling vents to counteract the positive divergence
zones?
Answer: A positive divergence zone means air (or heat, or fluid) is flowing out faster
than it’s entering, this creates hot or high-pressure areas. Therefore, we can place cooling
vents at or near positive divergence zones. These vents will draw in or cool the excess
air/heat being pushed out, restoring equilibrium.
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Critical Thinking

2. What does a zero curl region indicate about air movement there?
Answer: A zero curl means no local spinning or rotational motion of air. Air particles
move straight or smoothly, without swirling eddies or vortices.

[Link] happens in case of zero divergence?

Answer: The air flow is steady, balanced inflow or outflow. Therefore, no need for vents.

3D Visualization

Here is a simplified 3D visualization combining the Temperature Field T and the Air
Velocity Field F.

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3D Visualization
Color Gradient (Cool → Warm) represents the
Temperature Field 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (The Scalar Field).
Black Arrows (Vectors) represent the Air Velocity Field
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (The Vector Field).

Interpretation:

Temperature (T) - Color: The blue/purple areas are

cooler, while the yellow/green areas are warmer. You can
see the temperature is generally higher near the sides with
large |𝑥|(due to the +4𝑥 term) and lower near the y-axis
(due to the −3𝑦 term), confirming the engineers'
observation of uneven cooling.
Air Velocity (F) - Arrows: The arrows show the air is
swirling counter-clockwise around the central z-axis (the
(y, -x) component) and also moving upward (the +z
component), which explains why the air "circulates
differently near the top vents."

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 THANK YOU

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HOMEWORK PROBLEMS

1.

2.

3.

(Not necessary to find the scalar potential in this problem as it is not asked)

4.

5. Find the directional derivative of

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