UNIT-3

DC MOTORS
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR
The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work.
It works on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic and electric field experience a force”.
And that force is called the Lorentz force. The Fleming left-hand rule gives the direction of the force.

Fleming Left Hand Rule

If the thumb, middle finger and the index
finger of the left hand are displaced from each other
by an angle of 90°,
the middle finger represents the direction of
the magnetic field.
The index finger represents the direction of
the current,
and the thumb shows the direction of forces
acting on the conductor.
The magnitude of force is given by
𝑭 = 𝑩𝑰𝑳 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏

For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced by a bipolar
machine Fig. (a).
When DC supply is connected to the coil, current flows through it which sets up its own field as shown
in Fig. (b).
By the interaction of the two fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant field
is set up as shown in Fig. (c).

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 The tendency of this is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line due to which force is exerted
on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.

Alternately, it can be said that the main poles

produce a field Fm. Its direction is marked in Fig.(d). When
current is supplied to the coil (armature conductors), it
produces its own field marked as Fr. This field tries to
come in line with the main field and an electromagnetic
torque develops in clockwise direction as marked in Fig.
(d).
In actual machine, a large number of conductors
are placed on the armature. All the conductors, placed
under the influence of one pole (say, North pole) carry the
current in one direction (outward).
Whereas, the other conductors placed under the
influence of other pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in
opposite direction as shown in Fig. A resultant rotor field
is produced. Its direction is marked by the arrow-head Fr.
This rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the main field
Fm and torque (Te) develops.
Thus, rotor rotates.

It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in each conductor or coil
side must be reversed when it passes through the magnetic neutral axis (MNA). This is achieved with the help of
a commutator.

Function of a Commutator
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of current in each armature
conductor when it passes through the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.

BACK EMF
It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors, as shown in Fig. (a), placed in
the main magnetic field, torque develops and armature rotates. Simultaneously, the armature conductors cut
across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in these conductors. The direction of this induced emf in the
armature conductors is determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule and is marked in Fig. (b).

It can be seen that the direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. That is why this
induced emf is called back emf (Eb).
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 The magnitude of this induced emf is given by the relation;
𝑷𝝓𝑵𝒁
𝑩𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒆𝒎𝒇, 𝑬𝒃 =
𝟔𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝒁
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝓𝑵
𝟔𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝒁
𝑬𝒃 ∞ 𝝓𝑵 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑬𝒃 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎𝑨
𝑬𝒃
𝒐𝒓 𝑵 = ; 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙
𝝓

A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine

working as motor, is shown in Fig. In this case, the supply voltage is
always greater than the induced or back emf (i.e., V > Eb).

Therefore, current is always supplied to the motor from the

mains and the relation among the various quantities will be;
Eb = V – Ia Ra.

Significance of Back emf

The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃
𝑰𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed decreases which reduces the value of
Eb. As a result, the value (V – Eb) increases which consequently increases Ia. Hence, motor draws extra current
from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the extra load.
Electro-magnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor
The electrical power which is supplied to a DC motor is converted into mechanical power. The conversion
of power takes place in the armature as stated below:

Assume Ta to be the torque developed by the armature and rotate at a speed N-rpm.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 = 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 … … … … … … (𝟏)
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻𝒂
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = … … … … … … … (𝟐)
𝟔𝟎
𝑾𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 ,

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 (𝟏) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟐)

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻𝒂
𝟔𝟎
= 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻𝒂 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂

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 𝟔𝟎
𝑻𝒂 = 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂
𝟐𝝅𝑵

𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝜱𝑵𝒁 𝑷𝜱𝑵𝒁
𝑻𝒂 = 𝟐𝝅𝑵 𝒙 𝟔𝟎𝑨
𝒙𝑰𝒂 ∵ 𝑬𝒃 = 𝟔𝟎𝑨

𝟏 𝑷𝜱𝒁
𝑻𝒂 = 𝒙 𝒙𝑰𝒂
𝟐𝝅 𝑨

𝑰
𝑻𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝑷𝜱𝒁 𝑨𝒂 𝑵𝑴

In a particular DC Motor, No. of conductor’s “Z”, No. of Poles “P”, No. of parallel paths “A” remains
constant
∴ 𝑻 ∝ 𝜱𝑰𝒂

Thus, it is concluded that torque produced in the armature of a DC machine is directly proportional to
flux per pole and armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the armature
depends upon the direction of flux or magnetic field and the direction of flow of current in the armature
conductors. If either of the two is reversed the direction of torque produced is reversed and hence the direction of
rotation. But when both are reversed the direction of torque (or rotation) does not change.

Shaft Torque
In DC motors whole of the electromagnetic torque (Ta) developed in the armature is not available at the
shaft. A part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses. Therefore, shaft
torque (Tsh) is somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature. Thus, in case of DC motors, the actual
torque available at the shaft for doing useful mechanical work is known as shaft torque.

The motor output is given by

Output = Tsh.2πN Watts provided Tsh is in N-m and N in rps.

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = 𝑵 − 𝒎, 𝑵 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒑𝒔
𝟐𝝅𝑵

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = 𝑵 − 𝒎, 𝑵 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝑵/𝟔𝟎

𝟔𝟎 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝑵−𝒎
𝟐𝝅 𝑵 𝑵

The difference (Ta – Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to iron and frictional losses of the motor.

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 Comparison of Generator and Motor Action
It has been seen that the same machine can be used as a DC generator or as a DC motor. When it converts
mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy (or power), it is called a DC generator and when it is used
for reversed operation, it is called a DC motor.
The comparison of generator and motor action is given below:

Generator action Motor action

In generating action, the rotation is due to mechanical In motoring action, the rotation is due to
torque, therefore, Tm and ω are in the same direction. electromagnetic torque, therefore, Te and ω are in the
same direction.
The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite direction to The frictional torque Tf acts in opposite direction
rotation ω. to rotation ω.
Electromagnetic torque Te acts in opposite direction to Mechanical torque Tm acts in opposite direction to
mechanical torque Tm so that ωTm = ωTe + ωTf. electromagnetic torque Te so that ωTe = ωTm + ωTf.
In generating action, an emf is induced in the armature In motoring action, current is impressed to the
conductors which circulates current in the armature armature against the induced emf (e), therefore current
when load is connected to it. Hence, e and i both are flows in opposite direction to that of induced emf.
in the same direction.
In generator action, E > V In motor action, E < V
In generating action, the torque angle θ is leading. In motoring action, the torque angle θ is lagging.
In generating action, mechanical energy is converted In motoring action, electrical energy is converted
into electrical energy. into mechanical energy.

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 Types of DC Motors
On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, DC motors can be classified as;

Separately excited DC motors:

The conventional diagram of a separately excited DC motor is shown
Fig.
Its voltage equation will be;
Eb = V – Ia Ra

SELF EXCITED DC MOTORS

(i) Shunt motors:

Their conventional diagram is shown in Fig.

Important relations:
𝐕
𝐈𝐬𝐡 =
𝐑 𝐬𝐡
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉
𝑬 𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹 𝒂
Series motor:
Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig.
Important relations:
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒔𝒆

𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 (𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 )

Compound motor:
Its conventional diagram (for long shunt) is shown in Fig.
Important relations:
𝐕
𝐈𝐬𝐡 =
𝐑 𝐬𝐡
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉
𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 (𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 )

Cumulative compound motors: Differential compound

In these motors, the flux produced by motors:
both the windings is in the same In these motors, the flux
direction, produced by the series field
i.e., 𝝓𝒓 = 𝝓𝒔𝒉 + 𝝓𝒔𝒆 winding is opposite to the flux
produced by the shunt field
winding,
i.e., 𝝓𝒓 = 𝝓𝒔𝒉 − 𝝓𝒔𝒆

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 Characteristics of DC Motors
The performance of a DC motor can be easily judged from its characteristic curves, known as motor
characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those curves which show relation between the two quantities.
On the basis of these quantities, the following characteristics can be obtained:

1. Speed and Armature current i.e., N – Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn between speed N and armature
current Ia. It is also known as speed characteristics.
2. Torque and Armature current i.e., T–Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn between torque developed in
the armature T and armature current Ia. It is also known as electrical characteristic.
3. Speed and Torque i.e., N–T characteristics: It is the curve drawn between speed N and torque developed in
the armature T. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.
The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing the motor characteristics:
𝑬𝒃
𝑬𝒃 = 𝑵𝝓 (𝒐𝒓) 𝑵 ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 ∝ 𝝓𝑰𝒂
𝝓
Characteristics of Shunt Motors

The conventional diagram of this motor is shown in Fig.

. In these motors, the shunt field current 𝑰𝒔𝒉 = 𝑽 𝑹 remains

𝒔𝒉
constant since the supply voltage V is constant.
Hence, the flux in DC shunt motors is practically constant
(although at heavy loads, somewhat flux decreases due to armature
reaction).

1. N – Ia characteristics
𝑬𝒃
We know that, 𝑵 ∝
𝝓

Since flux is constant; 𝑵 ∝ 𝑬𝒃 𝒐𝒓 𝑵 ∝ (𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 )

If the armature drop (IaRa) is negligible, the speed of the motor

will remain constant for all values of load as shown by the dotted line
AB in Fig.
But strictly speaking, as the armature current increases due to
the increase of load, armature drop IaRa increases and speed of the
motor decreases slightly as shown by the straight-line AC in Fig.
(neglecting armature reaction). Moreover, the characteristic curve does
not start from a point of zero armature current because a small current,
no-load armature current Iao, is necessary to maintain rotation of the
motor at no-load.

Since there is no appreciable change in the speed of a DC shunt motor from no-load to full load that is
why it is considered to be a constant speed motor. This motor is best suited where almost constant speed is
required and the load may be thrown off totally and suddenly.

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2. T – la Characteristics

We know that, 𝑻 ∝ 𝝓𝑰𝒂

Since flux is constant, 𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝒂

Hence, the T – Ia characteristics is a straight line passing
through the origin as shown in Fig.
It is clear from the characteristic curve that a large armature
current is required at the start if machine is on heavy load. Thus, shunt
motor should never be started on load.

3. N – T Characteristics

The N – T characteristic is derived from the first two

characteristics.
𝑵 ∝ (𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 ) & 𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝒂
𝑵 ∝ (𝑽 − 𝑻𝑹𝒂 )
When load torque increases, armature current Ia
increases but speed decreases slightly.
Thus, with the increase in load or torque, the speed
decreases slightly as shown in Fig.

Characteristics of Series Motors

The conventional diagram a series motor is shown in Fig.

In these motors, the series field winding carries the armature
current.
Therefore, the flux produced by the series field winding is
proportional to the armature current before magnetic saturation, but after
magnetic saturation flux becomes constant.

1. N – Ia Characteristics
𝑬𝒃
We know that, 𝑵 ∝
𝝓

Where, 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 (𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 )

When armature current increases, the induced emf (back
emf) Eb decreases, due to Ia(Ra + Rse) drop whereas flux Φ
increases as 𝝓 ∝ 𝑰𝒂 before magnetic saturation.
However, under normal conditions Ia(Ra+ Rse) drop is
quite small and may be neglected.

8
Considering Eb to be constant,
𝟏 𝟏
𝑵∝ ∝
𝝓 𝑰𝒂
Thus, before magnetic saturation, the N – Ia curve follows the hyperbolic path as shown in Fig.
In this region, the speed decreases abruptly with the increase in load or armature current.
After magnetic saturation, flux becomes constant, then,
𝑵 ∝ 𝑬𝒃 ∝ 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 (𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 )
Thus, after magnetic saturation, the N – Ia curve follows a straight-line path and speed decreases slightly
as shown in Fig.
From this N – Ia characteristic, it can be concluded that the series motor is a variable speed motor, i.e.,
its speed changes when the armature current (or load) changes. As the load on this motor decreases, speed
increases. If this motor is connected to the supply without load, armature current will be very small and hence
speed will be dangerously high which may damage the motor due to heavy centrifugal forces.
Therefore, a series motor is never started on no-load. However, to start a series motor, mechanical load
(not belt driven load because belt slips over the pulley) is put on it first then started.
2. T – Ia Characteristics

We know that, 𝑻 ∝ 𝝓𝑰𝒂

In series motors, before magnetic saturation, 𝝓 ∝ 𝑰𝒂

𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝟐𝒂
Hence, before magnetic saturation the electromagnetic
torque produced in the armature is proportional to the square of
the armature current. Therefore, this portion of the curve (OA) is
a parabola passing through the origin as shown in Fig.
However, after magnetic saturation, the flux Φ becomes
constant. ∴ 𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝒂
Hence, after magnetic saturation, the curve (AB) becomes
a straight line.

It is seen that before magnetic saturation 𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝟐𝒂 . When load is applied to this motor at start, it
takes large current and heavy torque is produced which is proportional to square of this current.
Thus, this motor is capable to pick up heavy loads at the start and best suited for electric traction.
3. N – T Characteristics
𝟏
𝑵∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝒂 ∝ √𝑻
𝑰𝒂

𝟏
𝑵∝
√𝑻
This characteristic is derived from the first two
characteristics. At low value of load, Ia is small, torque is small
but the speed is very high.
As load increases, Ia increases, torque increases but
the speed decreases rapidly. Thus, for increasing torque, speed
decreases rapidly as shown in Fig. 9
 Characteristics of Compound Motors
There are two types of compound wound DC motors namely; cumulative compound motors and
differential compound motors.
Cumulative compound motors are most common. The characteristics of these motors lies between the
shunt and series motors. The N – Ia characteristics, T – Ia characteristics and N – T characteristics are shown in
Figs (a), (b) and (c), respectively.

However, the N–Ia, T–Ia and N–T characteristics of a differentially compound motor are shown in Figs.
(a), (b) and (c), respectively.

Applications of DC Motors
TYPE OF MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION
1. Separately excited Very accurate speeds can be obtained by these These motors are used in steel
motors motors. rolling mills, paper mills,
Moreover, these motors are best suited where speed diesel – electric propulsion of
variation is required from very low value to high ships, etc.
value.
2. Shunt motors From the characteristics of a shunt motor, we have As such the shunt motors are
seen that it is almost constant most suitable for industrial
speed motor. It is, therefore, used; drives such as lathes, drills,
(i) Where the speed between no-load to full load has grinders, shapers, spinning
to be maintained almost constant. and weaving machines, line
(ii) Where it is required to drive the load at various shafts in the group drive, etc.
speeds (various speeds are obtained by speed control
methods) and any one of the speeds is required to be
maintained almost constant for a relatively long
period.
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 3. Series motors The characteristics of a series motor reveal that it is As such the series motors are
variable speed motor i.e., the speed is low at higher most suitable for electric
torques and vice-versa. Moreover, at light loads or at traction, cranes, elevators,
no-load, the motor attains dangerously high speed. It vacuum cleaners, hair driers,
is, therefore, employed: sewing machines, fans and air
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of compressors, etc.
starting to accelerate heavy loads quickly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations
and speed is required to be adjusted automatically.
4. Compound motors The important characteristic of this motor is that the As such the cumulative
speed falls appreciably on heavy loads as in a series compound, motors are best
motor, but at light loads, the maximum speed is suited for punching and
limited to safe value. It is, therefore, used; shearing machines, rolling
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of mills, lifts and mine - hoists,
starting and where the load may be thrown off etc.
suddenly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations.

Starting of DC Motors
To start a DC motor, when it is switched–ON to the supply with full rated voltage, it draws heavy current
during starting period (more than its rated value). This excessive current overheats the armature winding and may
even damage the winding insulation. Therefore, during starting period a resistance called starter in connected in
series with the armature circuit to limit the starting current.
Necessity of Starter for a DC Motor
Under normal operating conditions, the voltage equation for a motor is given as
𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃

The armature current is given by the relation;

(𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃 )
𝑰𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂
When the motor is at rest, the induced emf Eb in the armature
is zero (𝑬𝒃 ∝ 𝑵). Consequently, if full voltage is applied across the
motor terminals, the armature will draw heavy current (Ia = V/Ra)
because armature resistance is relatively small.

This heavy starting current has the following effects:

(i) It will blow out the fuses and prior to that it may damage the insulation of armature winding due to excessive
heating effect if starting period is more.
(ii) Excessive voltage drop will occur in the lines to which the motor is connected. Thus, the operation of the
appliances connected to the same line may be impaired and, in some cases, they may refuse to work.
To avoid this heavy current at start, a variable resistance is connected in series with the armature, as
shown in Fig., called a starting resistance or starter, and thus the armature current is limited to safe value
𝑽
𝑰𝒂 =
(𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹)
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 Once the motor picks up speed, emf is built up and current is reduced
(𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃𝟏 )
𝑰𝒂 =
(𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹)
After that the starting resistance is gradually reduced. Ultimately, whole of the resistance is taken out of
circuit when the motor attains normal speed.
Another important feature of a starter is that it contains protective devices such as overload protection
coil (or relay) which provides necessary protection to the motor against over loading and no-volt release coil.
Starters for DC Shunt and Compound Wound Motors
Three-point Shunt Motor Starter
Construction:
The schematic connection diagram of a shunt motor starter is shown in Fig. It consists of starting
resistance R divided into several sections. The tapping points of starting resistance are connected to number of
studs. The last stud of the starting resistance is connected to terminal A to which one terminal of the armature is
connected. The + ve supply line is connected to the line terminal L through main switch. From line terminal,
supply is connected to the starting lever SL through over load release coil OLRC. A spring S is placed over the
lever to bring it to the off position, when supply goes off. A soft iron piece SI is attached with the starting lever
which is pulled by the no volt release coil under normal running condition. The far end of the brass strip BS is
connected to the terminal Z through a no volt release coil NVRC. One end of the shunt field winding in connected
to Z terminal of the starter. An iron piece is lifted by OLRC under abnormal condition to short circuit the no-volt
release coil. The negative supply line is connected directly to the other ends of shunt field winding and armature
of the DC shunt motor.
Operation
First of all, the main switch is closed with
starting lever resting in off position. The handle is then
turned clockwise to the first stud and brass strip. As
soon as it comes in contact with first stud, whole of the
starting resistance R is inserted in series with the
armature and the field winding is directly connected
across the supply through brass strip. As the handle is
turned further the starting resistance is cut out of the
armature circuit in steps and finally entire starting
resistance is cut out of armature circuit.
No-volt Release Coil and its Function
A no-volt release coil is a small electromagnet
having many turns of fine wire. It is connected in series
with shunt field winding and therefore, carries a small
field current. When the handle is turned to on position,
the no-volt release coil is magnetized by the field
current and holds the starting lever at on position.

In case of failure or disconnection of the supply, this coil is demagnetized and the lever comes to the off
position due to spring tension. Consequently. The motor is disconnected from the supply. If the spring with the
no-volt release coil is not used the lever would remain in ON-position in case of supply failure. And again, when
the supply comes, the motor would be connected directly to the lines without starter.

12
 The other important advantage of connecting the no-volt release coil in series with the shunt field winding
is that due to an accident if the circuit of field winding becomes open, the NVRC will be demagnetized and the
starting lever is immediately pulled back to off position by the spring. Otherwise, the motor would have attained
dangerously high speed.

Over-load Release Coil and its Function

An over-load release coil is an electromagnet having small number of turns of thick wire. It is connected
in series with the motor and carries the line current. When the motor is over loaded (or short circuited), a heavy
current more than predetermined value will flow through it.
Then, the iron piece (armature or plunger) is lifted and short circuits the no-volt release coil. Hence the
starting lever is released and pulled back to the off position due to spring tension. Thus, the motor is disconnected
from the supply and is protected against over loading.

Four-point Starter

For speed control of DC shunt or compound motors, a rheostat (variable resistor Rh) is connected in series
with the field winding, as shown in Fig. In this case, if a three-point starter is used and the value of Rh is so
adjusted that the current flowing through the shunt field winding is very small. It may be seen that the same
current flows through the no-volt release coil, then the magnetic strength of the coil may be insufficient to hold
the plunger at its ON position. This is an undesirable feature of a three-point starter.

Operation

The working of a four-point starter is similar to a three-point starter with slight changes. In this case,
when the plunger touches the first stud, the line current is divided into the following three parts:
(i) First part passes through starting resistance and armature (as well as in series field for compound motors).
(ii) Second part passes through the field winding (and speed control resistance if applied) and
(iii) The third part passes through no-volt release coil and protective resistance connected in series with the coil.
13
 It is evident that is a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the field circuit.
Therefore, the change of current in the field circuit do not affect the pull exerted by the holding coil which remains
always sufficient to prevent the spiral spring from restoring the plunger to its OFF position.

While starting a motor with a four-point starter it is necessary to ensure that the field circuit is closed and
the rheostat connected in series with the shunt field winding must be at zero resistance position. Moreover, whole
of the starting resistance must come in series with the armature.

Whenever a shunt motor is required to be stopped, it must be stopped by opening the line switch. In fact,
this switch can be opened without any appreciable arc since the motor develops back emf nearly equal to applied
voltage and the net voltage across the switch contacts is very small. The electromagnetic energy stored in the field
does not appear at the switch but it gradually discharges through the armature. The motor should never be stopped
by bringing the plunger (starting arm) back to the OFF position, because in such cases, when the field circuit
breaks at the last stud placed near the OFF position, a heavy spark occurs owing to the inductive nature of the
field. Usually, this sparking burns the contact.

Moreover, while stopping the motor, the value of resistance connected in the field circuit should always
be reduced to zero so that speed of motor falls to its normal value. This ensures that, when the motor is started
next time, it must start with a strong field and higher starting torque.

Series Motor Starter

Two Point Starter

A series motor starter is also called a two-point

starter. Its internal and external connections are shown
in Fig.
Here, for starting the motor, the control arm or plunger
is moved in clockwise direction from its OFF position
to ON position against the spring tension. In the
beginning, all the sections of the starting resistance are
connected in series with the armature to limit the current
to predetermined value. As the starting arm moves,
various steps of the starting resistance are cut out of
circuit and ultimately whole of the starting resistance is
cut-out and the control arm is held in the ON position
by an electromagnet. The hold-on (no-volt release) coil
is connected in series with the armature circuit.
If the motor loses its load, current drawn by the
motor decreases which decreases the strength of the
hold-on coil. Immediately the arm goes back to the OFF
position due to strong spring tension; thus, preventing
the motor from over-speed.

The control arm or plunger also goes back to the OFF position when supply goes OFF or when the supply
voltage decreases appreciably. L and Y are the two points of the starter through which supply line terminal and
the motor (series field) terminal is connected. For stopping the motor, the line switch should always be opened
rather than bringing the control arm back to its OFF position. If it is done a heavy sparking occurs at the last stud
placed near the OFF position. This sparking occurs due to dissipation of energy stored in the magnetic field of
series field winding.
14
 Speed Control of DC Motors

The speed of a DC motor is given by the relation,

𝑬𝒃
𝑵∝ ; Where, 𝑬𝒃 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
𝝓

𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹 𝒂
𝑵∝
𝝓
From the above equation it is clear that the speed of DC motors can be controlled;
1. By varying flux per pole Φ. This is known as flux or field control method.
2. By varying the armature drop, i.e., by varying the resistance of armature circuit. This is known as armature
control method.
3. By varying the applied voltage. This is known as voltage control method.
Speed Control of Shunt Motors
Field Control Method
The speed of a DC motor can be increased by weakening the field and it can be decreased by strengthening
the field. In DC shunt motors, the speed adjustments can be made by field control method by employing any one
of the following methods:
1. Field-rheostat control method
2. Reluctance control method
3. Field-voltage control method
1. Field rheostat control method
The flux produced by the shunt field winding depends upon the current flowing through it.
𝑽
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝝓 = 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒔𝒉 =
𝑹𝒔𝒉

When a variable resistance R is connected in series with the shunt field winding as shown in Fig.(a).
𝑽
The shunt field current 𝑰𝒔𝒉 = (𝑹 𝑹)
is reduced and hence the flux Φ.
𝒂
𝟏
Consequently, the motor runs at a speed higher than the normal speed (since, 𝑵 ∝ ), as shown in Fig.
𝝓
(b). The amount of increase in speed depends upon the value of variable resistance R.
This method is most common since very little power (𝑰𝟐𝒔𝒉 𝑹𝒔𝒉) is wasted in the shunt field variable
resistance due to relatively small value of Ish.
In this method speed can be only increased, thus we can obtain speeds above normal. The other limitations
and drawbacks of this method are:

15
 (i) Speeds below normal cannot be obtained.
(ii) The speeds above normal can be obtained by weakening the field. The advantage of high speed cannot
be considered for increase in power output rather to compensate the power, armature has to draw extra current
from the mains.
(iii) To obtain high speed, the field is very weak, to obtain certain load torque, armature draws extra
current which may cause overheating of armature winding; poor commutation and instability.
2. Reluctance control method. The flux or field can also be controlled by controlling the reluctance of
the magnetic circuit, but this can only be obtained by employing some special mechanical features which increases
the cost of machine. Therefore, practically this method is not employed.
3. Field-Voltage control method. The flux or field can also be controlled by supplying variable voltage
to the field winding. This can only be achieved by disconnecting the field winding from the armature and
supplying variable voltage from some other source. Then the motor is treated as separately excited DC motor.
Armature Control Method
In this method, voltage applied to the armature is changed without altering the field current. This cannot
be achieved by just changing the common supply voltage because it will also affect the field simultaneously and
the combined effect will have little change in the speed of shunt motor. Hence, to adjust the speed of DC shunt
motors by armature control method, different arrangements are made and the methods are known as:
1. Armature-resistance control method
2. Shunted-armature control method
3. Armature terminal-voltage control method
1. Armature resistance control method.
In a shunt motor, flux is constant when applied terminal voltage and shunt field resistance are constant.
Therefore, speed of the motor is directly proportional to induced emf (i.e., N α Eb and Eb= V – Ia Ra). The value
of Eb depends upon the drop in the armature circuit. When a variable resistance is connected in series with the
armature as shown in Fig. (a) the induced emf [Eb = V – Ia (Ra + R)] is reduced and hence the speed.
Thus, the motor runs at a speed lower than the normal speed as shown in Fig. (b).

For a constant load, the armature current remains the same so the input to the motor remains the same but
the output decreases in proportion to the speed. Therefore, for the loads such as fans and centrifugal pumps where
the load torque decreases with the fall in speed, this method of speed control is quite convenient and economical.
The major disadvantage of this method of speed control is that
(i) There is heavy loss of power in the control rheostat.
(ii) the speed of the motor can be reduced to any low value and creeping speed (only a few rpm) can
be developed so easily, as shown in Fig. (c).
16
2. Shunted-armature control method.
A shunt diverted is used across the armature in addition to series resistance, as shown in Fig.(a). By this
arrangement, the changes in armature current due to change in load torque will not be so effective to change the
voltage across armature and hence the speed of the motor remains almost constant.
Figure (b) shows the speed-torque characteristics for shunted armature control method. In this method,
the ideal no-load speed of the motor (N’0) will be less than that obtained by conventional series resistance method
(N0).

3. Armature terminal-voltage control method.

In this method, speed of a DC shunt motor is changed by changing the voltage applied across the
armature. This can be achieved only by providing a separate voltage source. Although this method avoids the
disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low efficiency, but it is very expensive and has very high initial cost.
It is because an adjustable voltage generator or an adjustable electronic regulator is required to supply variable
voltage to the armature. Both these machines are very costly.

Speed Control of Separately Excited Motors

Ward-Leonard System
This system is used to supply variable voltage to the motor. As shown in Fig., a DC generator G
is mechanically coupled with a prime mover PM which rotates the generator at constant speed. The field
winding of the DC generator is connected to a constant voltage DC supply line through a field regulator
and reversing switch. The DC motor M is fed from the generator G and its field winding is connected
directly to a constant DC supply line.

The voltage of the generator fed to the

motor, can be varied from zero to its
maximum value by means of its field
regulator. By reversing the direction of the
field current by means of the reversing
switch, the polarity of the generated voltage
can be reversed and hence the direction of
rotation of motor M. Hence, by this method,
the speed and direction of rotation both can
be controlled very accurately.

17
 Speed Control of DC Series Motors
The speed of DC series motors can be controlled by any one of the following methods:
(i) Armature control method
(ii) Field control method
(iii) Series – parallel control method

(i) Armature Control Method

By making various adjustments in the armature circuit of a DC series motor its speed can be controlled.
According to the adjustments made, these methods are known as;
1. Armature series resistance control method
2. Shunted armature control method
3. Armature terminal voltage control method.

1. Armature series resistance control method. In this method, a variable resistance is connected in series
with the armature or motor as shown in Fig.(a). If the load and torque developed by the machine is constant, the
speed of the motor depends upon back emf i.e., N α Eb. When no addition resistance is connected in series with
the armature, then Eb1 = V – I a (Ra + Rse). However, when an additional resistance R is connected in series with
the armature, then back emf, Eb2 = V – Ia (Ra + Rse + R). Obviously Eb2 < Eb1 accordingly N2 < N1. Hence, by
connecting an additional resistance is series with the armature we can obtain speeds below normal. The speed-
torque characteristics of a DC series motor without additional resistance and with additional series resistance is
shown in Fig.(b).

2. Shunt armature control method.

In this method, combination of a rheostat R2 shunting the
armature and a rheostat R1 in series with armature, as shown in
Fig. is used. It provides slow speeds at light loads. This is an
arrangement which accomplishes the speed control both by
lowering the voltage applied to the armature and by varying the
flux. In fact, the voltage applied to the armature terminals is
varied by varying series rheostat R1 whereas the exciting current
is varied by varying the shunting rheostat R2 keeping the
armature current constant. A wide range of speeds below normal
can be obtained by taking different ratios of R1 and R2.

3. Armature terminal voltage control method. In this method, a variable voltage power supply is used to
change the supply voltage which changes the speed of a DC series motor. But the cost of such equipment is so
high that this method is rarely applied.
18
(ii) Field Control Method

The speed of series motors can be controlled by varying the flux produced by the series field winding.
The variation of flux can be brought about by anyone of the following ways;

1. Field diverters:
In this method, a variable resistance R is connected
in parallel with the series field winding as shown in Fig. Its
effect is that it diverts the path of the current IL drawn by the
motor. A part of the current ID flows through diverter and the
current flowing through the series field winding is reduced
which reduces the flux Φ. Consequently, the speed of the
motor is increased (N α I/Φ). Thus, by this method, only
speeds above normal can be obtained.

2. Armature diverter:

In this method, variable resistance R is connected in

parallel with the armature is shown in Fig. Its effect is that it
diverts the path of the line current IL. Some of the current ID
flows through the diverter and reduces the armature current Ia.
For a given constant load torque, if Ia is reduced then Φ must
increase (T α ΦIa). This results in increase in current drawn by
the motor and a fall in speed (N α 1/Φ). By adjusting the value
of diverter resistance, any speed below normal can be obtained
by this method.

3. Tapped field control:

In this method, the number of turns of the series field

winding can be changed by short circuiting a part of it as shown
in Fig. We know that flux produced by the winding depends upon
the ampere-turns (i.e., Φ α Ise × No. of turns). As the number of
turns are reduced, the speed of the motor is increased (N α 1/Φ).
Thus, only speeds above normal can be obtained by this method.

Speed Regulation

The speed regulation of a DC motor is defined as the change in speed from full load to no-load and is
expressed as a percentage of the full load speed.
𝑵𝒐 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 − 𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝑵𝒐 − 𝑵
∴ % 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝑵

19
 Losses in a DC Machine
A DC machine is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa. While doing so,
the whole of input energy does not appear at the output but a part of it is lost in the form of heat in the surroundings.
This wasted energy is called losses in the machine.
These losses affect the efficiency of the machine. A reduction in these losses leads to higher efficiency.
Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is to reduce these losses. The various losses occurring
in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses.
3. Mechanical losses
1. Copper losses:
The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some resistance. When current flows
through them, there will be power loss proportional to the square of their respective currents. These power losses
are called copper losses.
In general, the various copper losses in a DC machine are:
(𝒊) 𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂
(𝒊𝒊) 𝑺𝒉𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒔𝒉 𝑹𝒔𝒉
(𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒔𝒆 𝑹𝒔𝒆

(𝒊𝒗) 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒊 𝑹𝒊 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒊

(𝒗) 𝑩𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒃 = 𝟐𝑰𝒂 𝑽𝒃
2. Iron losses: The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC machine are called iron losses or core losses or
magnetic losses. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss: Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, this loss
occurs. It is due to retentivity (a property) of the magnetic material. It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by
the following expression:

𝑷𝒉 = 𝑲𝒉 𝑽𝒇𝑩𝟏.𝟔
𝒎

Where, 𝐾 = hysteresis constant in J/m3 i.e., energy loss per unit volume of magnetic material
during one magnetic reversal, its value depends upon nature of material;
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
It occurs in the rotating armature. To minimize this loss, the armature core is made of silicon steel which
has low hysteresis constant.
(ii) Eddy current loss: When flux linking with the magnetic material changes (or flux is cut by the
magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which circulates eddy currents through it. These eddy currents produce
eddy current loss in the form of heat. It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by the expression:

𝑷𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆 𝑽𝒇𝟐 𝒕𝟐 𝑩𝟐𝒎
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑲𝒆 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 called co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of
magnetic material;
𝒕 = 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒎; 𝑽, 𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒎 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆.
20
 The major part of this loss occurs in the armature core. To minimize this loss, the armature core is
laminated into thin sheets (0·3 to 0·5 mm) since this loss is directly proportional to the square of thickness
of the laminations.

3. Mechanical losses: As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss).
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses proper lubrication is done at the bearings.

Constant and Variable Losses

The losses in a DC machine may also be sub-divided into two categories, i.e.,
1. Constant losses; 2. Variable losses.
1. Constant losses: The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads are called constant
losses. The constant losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field copper losses.
2. Variable losses: The losses in a DC machine which vary with load are called variable losses.
The variable losses in a DC machine are:
(i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss; (iii) Interpole winding copper loss.
Stray Losses
The sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss in a DC machine are known as stray losses i.e.,
Stray losses = Iron loss + Mechanical loss.
Power Flow Diagram
(i) When machine is working as a generator

The mechanical power (ω Tm) is supplied to the generator which is converted into electrical power (VIL). While
conversion, various losses occur in the machine.
(ii) When machine is working as a Motor

Although losses in a DC machine are the same whether it works as a generator or as a motor but the flow of power
is opposite.
21
Efficiency of a DC Machine
The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC machine is called its efficiency.
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝜼 = ;
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
(i) When machine is working as a generator
Power output = VIL
Power input = Power Output + Variable losses + Constant losses
Since the shunt field current Ish is very small as compared to line current,
IL = Ia – Ish ; ⸫ IL ≈ Ia
∴ 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 ; 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑷𝒄
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑰𝑳 + 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑷𝒄
𝑽𝑰𝑳
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝜼=
𝑽𝑰𝑳 + 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑷𝒄
(ii) when machine is working as a motor.
Power Input = VIL
Power Output = Power Input – Variable losses – Constant losses
= 𝑽𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 − 𝑷𝒄

𝑽𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 − 𝑷𝒄
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝜼=
𝑽𝑰𝑳
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

The efficiency of a DC generator is given as:

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼= … … … . (𝟏)
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 + 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 + 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝑽𝑰𝑳
𝜼=
𝑽𝑰𝑳 + 𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑷𝒄
Now, efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of eq. (1) is minimum i.e.,
𝒅 𝑰 𝑳 𝑹 𝒂 𝑷𝒄
𝟏+ + =𝟎
𝒅𝑰𝑳 𝑽 𝑽𝑰𝑳
𝑹𝒂 𝑷𝒄 𝑹𝒂 𝑷𝒄
(𝒐𝒓) − =𝟎 (𝒐𝒓) =
𝑽 𝑽𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑽 𝑽𝑰𝟐𝑳

𝑰𝟐𝑳 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑷𝒄
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

Hence, the efficiency of a DC machine will be maximum when the line current is such that
constant loss is equal to the variable loss.

𝑷𝒄
The line current at which the efficiency of DC machine is maximum. 𝑰𝑳 =
𝑹𝒂

22
 Test Performed to Determine Efficiency of DC Machines

To determine the efficiency of a DC machine namely, three methods can be used direct method,
indirect method and regenerative method.

1. Direct Method. In this method, full load is applied to the machine and output is directly measured.
Although, this method looks to be very simple but it is very difficult and inconvenient to apply full load
to large size machines. Therefore, this method is restricted only to determine the efficiency of small
sized machines. Brake test comes under this category.
2. Indirect Method. In this method, the losses are determined without actually loading the machine.
The power is required to supply the losses only; therefore, large machines can be tested by applying this
method. Accordingly, this method is usually employed to determine the efficiency of large DC shunt
and compound wound machines. The major drawback of this method is that the temperature rise of the
winding on load and commutating qualities cannot be assessed since the machine is operated at light
loads. Swinburne’s test falls in this category.
3. Regenerative Method. In this method, two identical, mechanically coupled machines are used. One
acts as a motor drawing power from the supply and the other acts as a generator which feeds the
generated power back to the supply. Thus, motor draws power equal to the total losses of the two
machines at rated speed and load. Very large machines can be tested by this method. Moreover, the
machines can be operated (or tested) for long duration and their performance regarding commutation,
temperature rise, etc., can be studied conveniently. Hopkinson’s test falls in this category.
1. Direct Method.
Brake Test:
It is a direct method of determining the efficiency of a DC motor. This test is performed only
with small motors. The brake is applied to a pulley (either air cooled or water cooled) mounted on the
motor shaft as shown in Fig. The load on the motor is increased by tightening the belt mounted on the
pulley. The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

Let, Spring balance reading on tight side = W1 kg

Spring balance reading on loose side = W2 kg

Motor speed = N rpm (reading taken by tachometer)
23
 Radius of pulley = r metre
Thickness of belt = t metre
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒌𝒈𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑿𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑵𝒎/ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑻 = (𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 )𝒓
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = (𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 )𝒓𝑿 𝑿𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑵𝒎/ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝟔𝟎

If voltmeter reading = V volt

Armature reading = I ampere
Motor input = VI watt
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 (𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 )𝒓𝑿 𝑿𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 , 𝜼 = = 𝟔𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑰
This method of measuring efficiency has the following drawbacks:
(i) We cannot determine the efficiency of large machines because such facilities of loading are not
available.
(ii) The output measured by this method is not accurate because belt is not offering a constant load
(usually belt slips over the pulley)

2. Indirect Method
Swinburne’s Test Swinburne’s test is performed determine the constant losses in
a DC shunt machine. In this test, the machine is operated as a motor on
no-load. This no-load test is also known as Swinburne’s test. A
voltmeter and two ammeters A1 and A2 are connected in the circuit as
shown in Fig. The normal rated voltage V is applied to the motor
terminals. The ammeter A1 and A2 measure the no-load line current IL0
and shunt field current Ish respectively. The voltmeter measures the
applied voltage. As there is no output at no-load, all the power supplied
to the motor, given by the product of current IL0 and voltage V, is being
utilised to meet with losses only.

The following are the losses at no-load:

(i) Iron losses in the core
(ii) Windage and friction losses at bearing and commutator.
(iii) Shunt field copper losses.
(iii) Armature copper losses at no-load (very small)

24
Except the armature copper loss all other losses are the constant losses.
No-load input power to the machine = V IL0 watt
No-load armature current, Ia0 = IL0 – Ish
The resistance of armature circuit including the inter pole winding, etc., is determined (measured) by
disconnecting one end of the shunt field circuit. Let its value be Ra.
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑷𝒄 = 𝑽𝑰𝑳𝒐 − 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒐 𝑹𝒂 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
(For all practical purposes the copper losses in the armature at no-load may be neglected being very small.)
After determining the constant losses, the efficiency of the machine, when it is working as a motor or
generator can be calculated at any load, as discussed below:
Let IL be the line current at which efficiency is to be calculated.
(i) When the machine is working as a motor:
𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉

𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝑰𝑳

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 − 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

= 𝑽𝑰𝑳 − 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑰𝑳 − (𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 )

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 , 𝜼 = =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑰𝑳

(ii) When the machine is working as a Generatorr:

𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 _ + 𝑰𝒔𝒉

𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝑰𝑳

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

= 𝑽𝑰𝑳 + 𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑰𝑳
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 , 𝜼 = =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑰𝑳 + (𝑷𝒄 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 )

Advantages:
1. Very convenient and economical method since power required is very small.
2. Stray or constant losses are determined, therefore, efficiency at any desired value of load can be determined.

25
Disadvantages
1. Since the test is performed at no-load, the effect of temperature rise and performance of commutator cannot be
assessed properly.
2. This test cannot be performed with DC series motors because at no-load series motors obtain dangerously high
speeds.
3. The change in iron losses from no-load to full-load are not accounted for, although this change is prominent
due to armature reaction.

3. Regenerative Method.
Hopkinson’s Test
Hopkinson’s test is basically a regenerative test. It is also known as back-to-back test. To perform this
test, two identical machines are required. These machines are mechanically coupled to each other. One of them
works as a motor which acts as a prime-mover for the other machine which works as a generator.
The electrical power or energy supplied to the motor is converted into mechanical energy which is further
converted into electrical energy by the second machine coupled to it, and fed back to the motor through supply
system. In the process, in fact, the two machines draw electrical power or energy to meet with the losses of the
two machines. Since the mechanics are identical, the losses in each machine are determined by dividing the input
into two equal parts. Usually, this test is performed on large size machines at full-load for longer duration.
Circuit Arrangements and Procedure of Performing the Test

Connect machine-I to the supply through its main switch (motor) and starter keeping main switch of the
other machine-II open. Operate machine-I to its rated speed and adjust the field current I shg of second machine
such that the voltage developed by this machine (working as a generator) is 1 to 2V more than the mains voltage
having same polarity as that of bus-bars. The voltage and polarity can be checked with the help of a paralleling
voltmeter V. Now, connect the second machine (generator) to the mains through its main switch.
It may be noted that a machine with smaller excitation acts as a motor and a machine with larger
excitation acts as a generator.

26
 To increase the load, the excitation of machine-I (i.e., motor) is decreased gradually. With the decrease in
excitation its back emf decreases due to which motor draws more current from the mains. This process goes on
till the machine draws its full-load current as per the rating. During this process, the supply voltage must be
maintained at its rated value.
The value of the resistances involved in the armature circuit such as armature winding resistance
including brush contact, interpole winding resistance, compensating winding resistance of the two machines are
measured by passing full-load current through them after the completion of whole procedure when these windings
attain their final temperature at full-load.
Let various ammeters A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5 connected in the circuit shown in Fig. measure line current
IL, motor current Im, motor shunt field current Ishm, generator current Ig and generator shunt field current Ishg
respectively.
Where, motor current, Im = IL + Ig (as per Kirchhoff’s current law)
Motor input = VIm
and generator output = VIg
where V is bus = bar voltage.
If, ηm and ηg are the efficiencies of motor and generator respectively,

Then, Motor output = 𝑽𝑰𝒎 𝜼𝒎

𝑽𝑰𝒈
And, Generator input =
𝜼𝒈

Motor Output = Generator Input

𝑽𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈
𝑽𝑰𝒎 𝜼𝒎 = (or) 𝜼𝒎 𝜼𝒈 =
𝜼𝒈 𝑰𝒎

Since armature, field and stray power losses in both of the machines are considered to be equal
Then, 𝜼𝒎 = 𝜼𝒈

𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒎 𝑰𝑳
Thus, 𝜼𝒎 = 𝜼𝒈 = = =
𝑰𝒎 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝑳 𝑰𝒎

This assumption is true for large machines since there is very slight difference in their armature and
excitation current, but in case of small machines, the difference between the armature currents and shunt field
currents is large. To obtain accurate results, armature and shunt field losses are determined separately and stray
losses are assumed to be equal in both the machines.
Current supplied by the mains, IL = Im – Ig
Current drawn by motor = Im
Motor shunt field current = Ishm
Motor armature current, Iam = (Im – Ishm)
Current supplied by generator = Ig
Generator shunt field current = Ishg
Generator armature current, Iag = (Ig + Ishg)
Terminal voltage = V
Total losses of both machines = Power supplied by the mains = VI L

27
 Armature copper loss in motor = (Im – Ishm)2 Ram
Armature copper loss in generator = (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag
Shunt field copper loss in motor = VIshm
Shunt field copper loss in generator = VIshg
Total copper losses = (Im – Ishm)2 Ram + (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag + VIshm + VIshg
Stray losses of both the machines, PS = VIL – [Im – Ishm]2 Ram + (Ig + Ishg)2 Rag + V (Ishm + Ishg)]
𝑷𝒔
Stray loss of each machine =
𝟐

For efficiency of motor (machine-I)

Motor input = VIm
Total losses in the motor = Armature loss + field loss + stray loss
𝑷𝒔
= (𝑰𝒎 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒎 )𝟐 𝑹𝒂𝒎 + 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒎 +
𝟐
𝑷𝒔
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑰𝒎 − (𝑰𝒎 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒎 )𝟐 𝑹𝒂𝒎 + 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒎 + 𝟐
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒓
Motor efficiency, 𝜼𝒈 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

For efficiency of generator (machine-II)

Generator output = VIg
Total losses in the generator = Armature loss + field loss + stray loss
𝟐 𝑷𝒔
= 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒈 𝑹𝒂𝒈 + 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒈 +
𝟐
𝟐 𝑷𝒔
𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒈 𝑹𝒂𝒈 + 𝑽𝑰𝒔𝒉𝒈 +
𝟐
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒓
Generator efficiency, 𝜼𝒈 = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎

Thus, the efficiency of motor and generator can be determined from the data available from the test.
Advantages
(i) It is economical since small power is required.
(ii) The performance of the machines regarding commutation and temperature rise, etc., can be conveniently
studied as the machines are tested at full-load, that too for long duration.
(iii) Accurate results are obtained since the efficiency is determined under load conditions and the stray load loss
are being taken into account.
Disadvantage
The main disadvantage of this test is that there is necessity of two identical machines which are rarely available.
ELECTRIC BRAKING
When load is removed from an electric motor and supply is disconnected, it continues to run for
some time due to inertia. This continuous rotation may cause damage to equipment or to the
manufactured product and even loss of human life. Therefore, quick stopping of a motor is essential in
such cases.
Thus, the method by which an electric motor or drive is brought to rest quickly when load on it is removed
and supply is disconnected is called braking.
28
 Braking may be employed to bring the drive to rest or it may be employed to lower down the
speed when load is reduced. The device employed for braking has to absorb the kinetic and potential
energy of the moving parts.
Objectives of Braking

While stopping the drive, braking may be used for any one of the following objectives:
(i) Reducing the time of stopping i.e., reducing the time of continuous running when drive is switched
– OFF.
(ii) Stopping the drive exactly at specified point, e.g., in lifts; for safety reasons, the drive has to be
stopped at a specific point.
(iii) For feeding back some of the energy to the supply system.
Essential Features of Braking

(i) It should be quick and reliable in action.

(ii) Braking force should be controllable.
(iii) Suitable means must be provided for dissipating the stored energy of the rotating parts.
(iii) A failure of any part of the braking system should result in the application of brakes.

Braking Systems
Broadly, in electric drives, two systems of braking can be applied:
1. Mechanical braking: In mechanical braking the stored energy of rotating parts is dissipated in the
form of heat where frictional torque acts against the rotation. The motor may be stopped by using a
brake shoe or brake band or brake drum.
2. Electrical braking: In electrical braking, the kinetic energy of the motor is converted into electrical
energy and is dissipated as heat in a resistance or returned to the supply system.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrical Braking over Mechanical Braking
Advantages
(i) Saving; no replacement cost: In case of mechanical braking, due to friction there is excessive wear on brake
lining which needs frequent and costly replacement. But in electric braking no such replacement is required hence
saves money.
(ii) Small maintenance cost: In case of mechanical braking there is more wear and tear which increases the
maintenance cost. There is no wear and tear in case of electric braking which reduces the maintenance cost to
very low value.
(iii) Energy saving: In regenerative braking, a part of energy is returned to the supply this reduces the operating
cost. This is only possible in electric braking.
(iv) Reliability: In case of mechanical braking, the heat produced at brake blocks may result in failure of brakes.
But in case of electric braking, the heat produced does not affect the braking system this improves its reliability.
(v) Smooth operation: Mechanical braking may produce jerks but electric braking never produces jerks.
(vi) System Capacity: By employing electric braking the capacity of the system can be increased by way of higher
speeds and handling of heavy loads.

29
Disadvantages or Limitations
(i) It cannot hold the machine or load stationary: In case of electric braking, the driving motor starts working as
a generator during braking period. But at stand-still the machine (motor) cannot work as generator. Therefore, an
electric brake can reduce the speed of the machine or load and bring it to almost at stand-still condition but it
cannot hold it stationary. Hence, electric brake alone cannot fulfil the purpose, friction (mechanical) brake is
always provided in addition to it.
(ii) Cost: Addition equipment employed for electric braking increases the cost.
(iii) Choice of motor is limited: In case of electric braking system, the motor has to function as a generator and
must have suitable braking characteristics. Thus, the choice of motor is limited.
Electric braking is superior to mechanical braking since it is much quicker and eliminates the cost of
maintenance of mechanical brakes. However, in order to finally bring the motor to a standstill position and hold
it there, friction brakes are also essential.
Types of Electric Braking
There are three types of electric braking.
(i) Plugging
(ii) Rheostatic braking
(iii) Regenerative braking.
(i) Plugging
This is also called a counter-current braking. It is simplest type of braking and involves the reversing of
the connections to the armature of the motor so that it tends to run in the reverse direction. In order to stop the
machine, a special device must be installed to cut off the supply as soon as it comes to rest. This method can be
applied to DC motors, induction motors and synchronous motors. It is particularly suitable where the drive has to
be rapidly reversed such as in planning machines, etc.
(a) Plugging applied to DC Shunt motors: The direction of rotation of DC shunt motor can be reversed by
reversing the current flowing through the armature. The expression for the armature current is
𝑽 − 𝑬𝒃
𝑰𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂
During normal running, the back emf
Eb is opposite to the applied voltage
‘V’ but at the instant of reversal a
voltage equal to V + Eb is impressed
across armature. This will cause a
great rush of current (almost double
the normal) in the armature circuit.
To prevent this the starting
resistance is reinserted in the circuit
as shown in Fig.

(b) Plugging applied to DC series motors:

The method is same as in case of DC shunt motor. The changeover of connections is shown in Fig.

In both cases, the motor must be disconnected

from the supply when it comes to rest
otherwise it may rotate in the opposite
direction.

30
(ii) Rheostatic Braking

This is also called a dynamic braking. With this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply
and used as a generator driven by the momentum of the equipment to be braked and supplying current to
resistance; DC or synchronous motors can be braked in this way. The induction motors, however, require a
separate source of DC excitation during this type of braking. This type of braking is applied to different motors
as explained below;
(a) DC shunt motors: The armature is disconnected from the
supply and a resistance is connected
across it, as shown in Fig. The motor then
works as a separately excited generator
and the braking torque is applied by the
current flowing in the resistance. The
magnitude of the braking effect can be
controlled by varying either the resistance
in the armature circuit or the field current.
The braking is not effective if the supply
fails during this period.

(b) DC series motors: The motor after being disconnected

from the supply mains, works as a self
excited series generator. Sometimes, in
order to build up more field flux the
connections of armature are reversed as
shown in Fig.
In such cases if the resistance is above
a certain critical value equal to the
initial slope of the current-voltage
characteristics, the machine will not be
self-excited, therefore, resistance
should be low enough.

(iii) Regenerative Braking

This type of braking is mostly employed in electric traction. The kinetic energy of the motor is converted
into electrical energy, which is fed back to the supply lines instead of wasting it in a rheostat. This method can be
applied to DC motors and induction motors.

(a) DC shunt motors:

If the emf generated by the motor is greater than the supply voltage, power will be fed back to the supply.
The emf in a shunt motor depends upon the field flux and speed. During this type of braking the field is
disconnected from the armature and connected to a separate supply as shown in Fig. The field current is so
adjusted that E > V and this is returned to the mains.

Alternatively, if the field excitation does

not change but the load causes the speed to
increase, the induced emf may become more than
the supply voltage and power will be fed back to
the supply.

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(b) DC series motors:

Regenerative braking cannot be applied to DC series motors in an ordinary way. For regenerative braking, the
motor should work as a generator this is achieved by reversing the connections of series field.

But even if the field connections are

reversed at the exact moment, this method would
still be not successful, because at the instant of
reversal, the emf induced in the motor will be
small, so the current will flow through the field
winding in wrong direction, which will reverse the
field and cause the motor emf to help the supply
voltage. This will result in short circuit of supply.
Due to these complications, this method is not used
for common industrial purposes. However,
regenerative braking can be applied with series
motors used for traction purposes but in this case,
either the field windings are modified or the
machines are supplied with separate exciting
windings.
One method of regenerative braking with series motors is French method. If there is a single series motor,
it is provided with one main series field winding and 2 or 3 auxiliary field windings.

During normal running the main and auxiliary field windings are placed in parallel with each other as
shown in Fig. (a). During regenerative braking, the auxiliary windings are placed in series with each other and
combination is connected in parallel across the armature and main series field winding as shown in Fig. (b). In
this case the machine works as a differentially compound generator and sends back power to supply lines.

In locomotives there are four to

six motors and therefore, no auxiliary
windings are required. The regenerative
braking can be applied in this case as
shown in Fig.
An alternative method of
regenerative braking is applied by using
an exciter for controlling the excitation of
the field windings during regeneration.

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