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UNIT-IV
1. TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other at
the same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.

The block diagram of a transformer is

shown in Fig.
When the voltage is raised on the output
side (V2 > V1), the transformer is called a step-up
transformer, whereas, the transformer in which
the voltages is lowered on the output side
(V2 < V1) is called a step-down transformer.

2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction.
A single-phase transformer consists of two windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the winding having more number
of turns is called high voltage winding.

Also, the winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and the other one is called a
secondary winding to which load is connected. Once AC supply of voltage V1 is given to primary winding, an
alternating flux is set-up in the magnetic core which links with the primary and secondary winding. Consequently,
self-induced emf E1 and mutually-induced emf E2 are induced in primary and secondary, respectively. These induced
emf’s are developed in phase opposition to V1 as per Lenz’s law. The self-induced emf in the primary is also called
back emf since it acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage.
Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding, still electric power is
transferred from one circuit (primary side) to the other circuit (secondary side). It is all because of magnetic coupling,
i.e., the alternating flux which is set-up in the core linking with both the windings. The magnitude of induced emf in
a coil depends upon rate of change of flux linkages i.e., e α N. since, the rate of change of flux for both the winding
is the same, the magnitude of induced emf in primary and secondary will depend upon their number of turns, i.e.,
primary induced emf E1 α N1 and secondary induced emf E2 αN2. When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step-up
transformer, on the other hand, when N2< N1 the transformer is called step-down transformer.

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Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio,
i.e., Turns ratio = N1/N2
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage transformation
ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
𝐸 𝑁
𝐾= = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 𝛼 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 𝛼 𝑁 )
𝐸 𝑁

3. CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
The important part of the Transformer are
(i) Magnetic circuit mainly comprises of transformer core having limbs and yokes.
(ii) Electric circuits mainly comprise of windings, insulation and bushings.
(iii) Tank mainly comprises of cooling devices, conservator and ancillary apparatus.
3.1 Core Material
For core construction sheets of alloy steels are used. The main constituents of alloy steel are silicon and
carbon in small quantities which increases the permeability at low flux densities and reduces the hysteresis loss to
large extent. Addition of silicon also reduces the eddy currents to some extent because it increases the resistivity.
Now-a-days cold rolled grain-oriented steel (CRGOS) sheets are used for core construction.
3.2 Core Construction
In order to reduce eddy current loss, the core of the transformer is laminated. Since eddy current losses are
proportional to the square of the thickness of laminations, every effort is made to reduce their thickness as small as
possible. But there is a practical limit beyond which the thickness of laminations cannot be decreased further on
account of mechanical considerations. This practical limit of thickness of each lamination is 0.3 mm. The laminations
are usually made of 0.33 to 0.5 mm thick. These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin layer of oxide
coating or varnish.

Small transformers
have rectangular section
limbs with rectangular
coils or square section
limbs with circular coils as
shown in Figs. (a) and (b).

As the size of the transformer increases, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cores. For this purpose, the
cores are square shaped as shown in Fig.(a). The circle represents the inner surface of the tubular former carrying the
windings. This circle is known as the circumscribing circle. Clearly a lot of useful space is wasted, the length of
circumference of circumscribing circle being large in a comparison to its cross-section. This means that the length of
mean turn of winding is increased giving rise to higher I2R losses and conductor cost.
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Circular coils are preferred for winding a transformer as they can be easily wound on machines on a former,
conductors can easily be bent and winding does not bulge out due to radial forces developed during operation.
By increasing the number of steps, the area of circumscribing circle is more effectively utilised.
3.3 Transformer Winding
Transformer windings may be classified into two groups viz. concentric winding and sandwiched
winding.
Concentric windings are used in core type transformers as shown in Fig.(a).
Sandwiched windings are almost exclusively used in shell type transformers as shown in Fig.(b).

The positioning of the H.V. and L.V. windings with respect to the core is also very important from the point
of view of insulation requirement. The low-voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in the case of concentric
windings and on the outside positions in the case of sandwiched windings as shown in Figs. 2.5(a) and (b) on account
of less and easier insulation facilities.

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Concentric Windings
The concentric windings may be classified into four major groups, viz.
1. Spiral windings.
2. Helical winding.
3. Crossover winding.
4. Continuous disc winding.

4. TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
a. Core type of Transformer
b. Shell type of Transformer
4.1 Core-type Transformers
In Such transformers the magnetic core is built up of laminations to form a rectangular frame. The laminations
are cut in the form of L-shape strips as shown in Fig.(a). To eliminate high reluctance continuous joint, the laminations
are placed alternately as shown in Fig.(b).
The upper horizontal portion of the core is known a yoke and the vertical portion, as shown in Fig. (b), which
carries windings is called limb. Usually, the cross-sectional area of yoke is kept 15 to 20% more than the limbs
because it reduces the flux density and consequently reduces the iron losses.

In actual transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are interleaved to reduce the leakage
flux. Half of each winding is placed side by side or concentrically on either limb or leg of the core as shown in Fig.
However, for simplicity, the two windings are shown in Fig.(a) located on separate limbs of the core.
4.2 Shell-type Transformers
In such transformers, each lamination is cut in the shape of E’s and I’s as shown in Fig. To eliminate high
reluctance continuous joint, the laminations are placed alternately as shown in Fig.(a).

In a shell-type transformer, the core

has three limbs. The central limb carries
whole of the flux, whereas the side limbs
carry half of the flux.
Therefore, the width of the central
limb is about double to that of the outer limbs.

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Both the primary and secondary windings are placed on the central limb side by side or concentrically. The
low voltage winding is placed nearer the core and high voltage winding is placed outside the low voltage winding to
reduce the cost of insulation placed between core and low voltage winding. In this case also the windings are form
wound is cylindrical shape and the core laminations are inserted later on.
The whole assembly i.e., core and winding are then usually placed in tank filled with transformer oil. The
transformer oil provides better cooling to the transformer and acts as a dielectric medium between winding and outer
tank which further reduces the size of outer tank of the transformer.
4.3. Comparison between Core-type and Shell type Transformers:
Sl. No. Core-type transformer Shell-type transformer
The windings surround a considerable portion The core surrounds considerable portion of the
1
of the core. windings.
Windings are of form-wound, and are of Winding are of sandwich-type. The coils are first
2 cylindrical-type. wound in the form of pancakes, and complete
winding consists of stacked discs.
More suitable for high voltage transformers. More suitable and economical for low voltage
3
transformers.
4 Mean length of coil turn is shorter. Mean length of coil turn is longer.
Core has two limbs to carry the windings. Core has three or more limbs but the central limb
5
carries the windings.

5. An Ideal Transformer
The following assumptions are made for an Ideal transformer
(i) Its coefficient of coupling (k) is unity.
(ii) Its primary and secondary windings are pure inductors having infinitely large value.
(iii) Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero.
(iv) Its self and mutual inductances are zero having no reactance or resistance.
(v) Its efficiency is 100 percent having no loss due to resistance, hysteresis or eddy current.
(vi) Its transformation ratio (or turn ratio) is equal to the ratio of its secondary to primary terminal voltage
and also as the ratio of its primary to secondary current.
(vii) Its core has permeability (µ) of infinite value.
A transformer is said to be ideal one, when it has no losses, i.e., copper or iron losses.
In actual practice, such a transformer cannot exist, but to begin with it may be considered so.
For an ideal transformer, the output must be equal to input (since it has no losses), therefore.
𝐸 𝐼
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐸 𝐼 cos 𝜙 = 𝐸 𝐼 cos 𝜙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸 𝐼 = 𝐸 𝐼 (𝑜𝑟) =
𝐸 𝐼
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 𝛼 𝑁 ; 𝐸 = 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 ≅ 𝑉 ; 𝐸 ≅ 𝑉

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𝑉 𝐸 𝑁 𝐼
= = = =𝐾 (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
𝑉 𝐸 𝑁 𝐼
Hence, primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary to primary turns is called transformation ratio. It is usually devoted
by letter ‘K’.
[Link] on DC
A transformer cannot work on DC. The basic working principle of a transformer is electro-magnetic
induction, i.e, when flux linking with a coil changes an emf is induced in it. If DC is applied to one of the windings
(primary) of a transformer, it will set a constant magnetic field in magnetic core. Hence no emf will be induced either
in primary or secondary. Then electric power cannot be transformed from one circuit (primary) to the other
(secondary).
Moreover, if rated DC voltage is applied to its primary, high current will be drawn by it since there is any
counter (self) induced emf which limits the current. Consequently, heaving heat will be produced and winding
insulation will burn.
Hence, a transformer cannot work on DC and it is never put-on rated DC supply.

7. EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

Let, 𝑁 = No. of turns in primary

𝑁 = No. of turns in secondary

𝛷 = Maximum flux in core in webers
=𝐵 𝑋𝐴
𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎. 𝑐. 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧.

The flux increases from its zero value to maximum value 𝛷 in one quarter of the cycle, ie.,
𝑖. 𝑒., second. (⸪ 𝑇 = )

⸫ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 =

( )

= 4𝑓𝛷 Wb/s or Volts

Now, the rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts

⸫ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 4𝑓𝛷 Volts

If flux 𝛷 varies sinusoidally, then, r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying the average value with
form factor.
. .
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11

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⸫ 𝑟. 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 1.11 𝑥 4𝑓𝛷 = 4.44𝑓𝛷 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Now, r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding

= (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓/𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 ) 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑬𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏 𝜱𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟏 𝑩𝒎 𝑨 Volts ………… (i)
Similarly, r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding is

𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟐 𝜱𝒎 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝟐 𝑩𝒎 𝑨 Volts …………. (ii)

= = 4.44𝑓𝛷 .

It means that e.m.f./turn is same in both the primary and secondary windings.

[Link] on No-load
A transformer is said to be on no-load when its secondary winding is kept open and no-load is connected
across it. As such, no current flows through the secondary i.e., I2 = 0. Hence, the secondary winding is not causing
any effect on the magnetic flux set-up in the core or on the current drawn by the primary. But the losses cannot be
ignored. At no-load, a transformer draws a small current I0 (usually 2 to 10% of the rated value). This current has to
supply the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper loss in the
primary (the primary copper losses are so small as compared to core losses that they are generally neglected moreover
secondary copper losses are zero as I2 is zero).
Therefore, current Io lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle Φ0 (called hysteresis angle of advance)
which is less than 90., as shown in Fig. (b). The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer.
The no-load current I0 has two components;
(i) One, Iw in phase with the applied voltage V1, called active or working component. It supplies the iron losses and
a small primary copper loss.
(ii) The other, Im in quadrature with the applied voltage V1, called reactive of magnetizing component. It produces
flux in the core and does not consume any power.

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𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐼 cos 𝜙

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐼 sin 𝜙

𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = (𝐼 + 𝐼 )

𝐼
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, cos 𝜙 =
𝐼

𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙

𝑉
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 =
𝐼
𝑉
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑋 =
𝐼

Here, R0 represents the exciting resistance of the transformer which carries power loss component of no-load
current, i.e., Iw used to meet with the no-load losses in the transformer, whereas X0 represents the exciting reactance
of the transformer which carries wattless component of no-load current, i.e., Im used to set-up magnetic field in the
core.

9. Transformer on Load
(Neglecting winding resistance and leakage flux)

When a certain load is connected across the

secondary, a current I2 flows through it as shown in
Fig. (i). The magnitude of current I2 depends upon
terminal voltage V2 and impedance of the load. The
phase angle of secondary current I2 with respect to
V2 depends upon the nature of load i.e., whether the
load is resistive, inductive or capacitive.

The operation of the transformer on load is explained below with the help of number of diagrams;
(i) When the transformer is on no-load as shown in Fig. (ii)(a) it draws no-load current I 0 from the
supply mains. The no-load current I0 produces an mmf N1 I0 which sets up flux in the core.

(ii) When the transformer is loaded, current I2 flows in the secondary winding. This secondary current
I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 which sets up flux Φ2 in the core. As per Lenz’s law this flux opposes the
main flux Φ, as shown in Fig.(ii)(b).

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(iii) As 𝜙2 is set-up in opposite direction to the main flux, the resultant flux tends to decrease and causes
the reduction of self-induced emf E1 momentarily. Thus, V1 predominates over E1 causing additional
primary current 𝐼 , drawn from the supply mains. The amount of this additional current 𝐼 , is such that
the original conditions i.e., flux in the core must be restored. so that V1 = E2. The current I1 is in
phase opposition with I2 and is called primary counter balancing current. This additional current 𝐼 ,
produces an mmf N1 𝐼 , which sets up flux𝜙 , , in the same direction as that of 𝜙 as shown in Fig.
(ii)(c), and cancels the flux 𝜙 set up by mmf N2 I2.
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑁 𝐼 , = 𝑁 𝐼
𝑁
𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐾𝐼
𝑁
(iv) Thus, the flux is restored to its original value as shown in Fig. (ii)(d). The total primary current I 1 is
the vector sum of current I0 and 𝐼 , i.e., 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 , .
This shows that flux in the core of a transformer remains the same from no-load to full-load; this is the reason
why iron losses in a transformer remain the same from no-load to full-load.
10. Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Transformer
Since the voltage drops in both the windings of the transformer are neglected, therefore,
V1 = E1 and E2 = V2
While drawing the phasor diagram the following important points are to be considered.
(i) For simplicity, let the transformation ratio K = l be considered, therefore, E1 = E2.
(ii) The secondary current I2 is in phase, lags behind and leads the secondary terminal voltage V2 by an angle
𝜙 for resistive, inductive and capacitive load, respectively.
(iii) The counter balancing current, 𝐼 = 𝐼

(i.e.,𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐾𝐼 , ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 = 1, ∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 180° 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐼

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(iv) The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of no-load primary current I0 and counter balancing
current 𝐼 .
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 (𝑜𝑟 ) 𝐼 = (𝐼 ) + (𝐼 ) + 2𝐼 𝐼 cos 𝜃

Where θ is the phase angle between I0 and 𝐼 .

(v) The p.f. on the primary side is cos 𝜙 which is less than the load p.f. cos 𝜙 on the secondary side.
Its value is determined by the relation;
𝐼 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼 cos 𝜙
cos 𝜙 =
𝐼
The phasor diagrams of the transformer for resistance, inductive and capacitive loads are shown in Figs. (a),
(b) and (c), respectively.

11. Transformer with Winding Resistance

In an actual transformer, the primary and

secondary windings have some resistance
represented by R1 and R2, respectively.
These resistances are shown external to the
windings in Fig.
To make the calculations easy the resistance
of the two windings can be transferred to either
side.

The resistance is transferred from one side to the other in such a manner that losses remain the same when
represented on either side.
Let the primary resistance R1 be transferred to the secondary side and the new value of this resistance be
𝑹𝟏 called equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary side as shown in Fig.(a).

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I1 and I2 be the full load primary and secondary currents, respectively.
The copper loss in the primary is 𝐼 𝑅 . This loss is supplied by secondary which takes a current of I 2.
Hence, if 𝑹𝟏 is the equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary side which would have caused
the same loss as 𝑹𝟏 in the primary.

Then, 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑅 = 𝐼 𝐼 𝑅

𝐼
If we neglect no-load current, I0, then 𝐼 = 𝐾, 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 =𝐾 𝑅

Similarly, equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary, 𝑅 = 𝑅 /𝐾

Now, Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary.
𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝐾 𝑅
Similarly, Total equivalent resistance referred to primary.
𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 +
𝐾

12. Mutual and Leakage Fluxes

So far, it is assumed that, when AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer, an alternating
flux is set up in the core and whole of this flux links with both the primary and secondary windings. However, in an
actual transformer, both the windings produce some flux that links only with the winding that produces it.

The flux that links with both the

windings of the transformer is called
mutual flux.
Tthe flux which links only with
one winding of the transformer and not to
the other is called leakage flux.

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The primary ampere turns produce some flux 𝜙 which is set up in air and links only with primary winding,
as shown in Fig. (a), is called primary leakage flux.
Similarly, secondary ampere turns produce some flux 𝜙 which is set up in air and links only with secondary
winding called is secondary leakage flux.
The primary leakage flux 𝜙 is proportional to the primary current I1 and secondary leakage flux 𝜙 is
proportional to secondary current I2.
The primary leakage flux 𝜙 produces self-inductance L1=N1𝜙 /I1, which in turn produces leakage
reactance 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 .
Similarly, secondary leakage flux 𝜙 produces leakage reactance X2 =2𝜋𝑓𝐿 .
The leakage reactance (inductive) has been shown external to the windings in Fig. (b).

13. Equivalent Reactance

To make the calculations easy the reactance’s of the two winding can be transferred to any one side. The
reactance from one side to the other is transferred in such a manner that percentage voltage drop remains the same
when represented on either side.
Let the primary reactance X1 be transferred to the secondary and the new value of this reactance is 𝑿𝟏 called
equivalent reactance of primary referred to secondary, as shown in Fig. (a).

𝐼 𝑋 𝐼𝑋
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑋 100 = 𝑋 100
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑥𝑋 = 𝐾 𝑋
𝐼 𝑉

⸫ Total equivalent reactance referred to secondary.

𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝐾 𝑋
Now, let us consider secondary reactance X2 when it is transferred to primary side its new value is 𝑿𝟐 called
equivalent reactance of secondary referred to primary, as shown in Fig. (c).
𝐼𝑋 𝐼 𝑋
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑋 100 = 𝑋 100
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 𝑉 𝑋
𝑜𝑟, 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑥𝑋 =
𝐼 𝑉 𝐾
⸫ Total equivalent reactance referred to primary.
𝑋
𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 = 𝑋 +
𝐾

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14. Actual Transformer
An actual transformer has
(i) Primary and secondary resistances R1 and R2,
(ii) Primary and secondary leakage reactances X1 and X2
(iii) Iron and copper losses and
(iv) Exciting resistance R0 and exciting reactance X0. The equivalent circuit of an actual transformer is
shown in Fig.

Primary impedance, Z1 = R1 + j X1
Supply voltage is V2. The resistance and leakage reactance of primary winding are responsible for some
voltage drop in primary winding.
⸫ 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 ) = 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑍
Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼
Secondary impedance, Z2 = R2+ j X2
Similarly, the resistance and leakage reactance of secondary winding are responsible for some
voltage drop in secondary winding. Hence,
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 ) = 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑍

The phasor (vector) diagrams of an actual transformer for resistive, inductive and capacitive loads are shown
in Figs. (a), (b) and (c), respectively. The drops in resistances are drawn in phase with current vectors and drops in
reactance’s are drawn perpendicular to the current vectors.

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15. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in predetermination of the behaviour of the
device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit representation of the equation describing the
performance of the device.

E1 and E2 are related to each other by the expression

𝐸 𝑁
= =𝐾
𝐸 𝑁
To make transformer calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer voltage, current and impedance either
to the primary or the secondary. In that case, that case, we would have to work in one winding only which is more
convenient.
𝐸
The primary equivalent of the secondary induced voltage is 𝐸 = 𝐾= 𝐸
𝑉
Similarly, primary equivalent of secondary terminal or output voltage is 𝑉 = 𝐾
Primary equivalent of the secondary current is 𝐼 = 𝐾𝐼
For transferring secondary impedance to primary 𝐾 is used.
𝑅 𝑋 𝑍
𝑅 = ; 𝑋 = ; 𝑍 =
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
The same relationship is used for shifting an external load to the primary.
The secondary circuit and its equivalent primary values are shown below

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The total equivalent circuit of

the transformer is obtained by
adding in the primary
impedance as shown in fig.
This is known as the exact
equivalent circuit but it
presents a harder circuit to
solve the problem.

The no load current 𝐼 is a small fraction of the full load primary current 𝐼 is practically equal to 𝐼 . The
equivalent circuit can be simplified by transferring the parallel branch consisting of 𝑅 and 𝑋 to the extreme left
position.

This circuit shown below is referred as approximate equivalent circuit.

16. Transformer Tests

16.1. Polarity Test
Polarity test is performed to determine the terminals with same instantaneous polarity of the two windings
when terminals are not being marked. The relative polarities of the primary and secondary terminals are required to
be known for
(i) interconnecting two or more transformers in parallel.
(ii) connecting three single-phase transformers while doing poly-phase transformation of power.
(iii) connecting windings of the same transformer in parallel or series.
For determining the relative polarity of the two windings of a transformer, the two winding are connected in
series and a voltmeter is connected across them as shown in Fig. One of the winding (preferably HV winding) is
excited from a suitable AC voltage (less than rated value).

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If the polarities of the windings are as

marked on the diagram, then the windings will
have a subtractive polarity and the voltmeter will
read the difference of E1 and E2 (i.e., E1 – E2). If
the voltmeter reads E1 + E2 the polarity marking
of one of the windings must be reversed.

While performing polarity test, subtractive polarity method is preferred over additive polarity method,
because in this case, the voltage between A and A’ or that between B and B’ is reduced. The leads connected between
these terminals and two windings are not subjected to high voltage stresses. Whereas, in case of additive polarity the
two windings and leads connected between AA’ and BB’ are subjected to high voltage stresses.

16.2 OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER

The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining the parameter of the transformer like
their efficiency, voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are performed without the actual loading and
because of this reason the very less power is required for the test. The open circuit and the short circuit test give the
very accurate result as compared to the full load test.
16.2.1. Open Circuit Test:
The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the transformer because
of which their no-load parameter are determined. This test is performed on the primary winding of the transformer.
The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are connected to their primary winding. The nominal rated voltage is supplied
to their primary winding with the help of the ac source.

The secondary winding

of the transformer is kept open
and the voltmeter is connected to
their terminal.
This voltmeter measures
the secondary induced voltage.
As the secondary of the
transformer is open the no-load
current flows through the primary
winding
The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated current. The copper loss occurs only
on the primary winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is open. The reading of the wattmeter
only represents the core and iron losses. The core loss of the transformer is same for all types of loads.

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Calculation of open circuit test:
Let, 𝑊 − 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼 − 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Then the Iron loss of transformer 𝑃 = 𝑊
Where, 𝑊 = 𝑉 𝐼 cos ∅ … … … (1)
The no-load power factor is
𝑊
𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ =
𝑉𝐼
Working component Iw is
𝑊
𝐼 = … … … . (2)
𝑉
Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value of working component as
𝐼 = 𝐼 cos ∅
Magnetizing component is 𝐼 − 𝐼

𝐼 = 𝐼 − 𝐼

No load parameters are given below

Equivalent exciting resistance is
𝑉
𝑅 =
𝐼
Equivalent exciting reactance is
𝑉
𝑋 =
𝐼
The iron losses measured by the open circuit test are used for calculating the efficiency of the transformer
16.2.2. Short Circuit Test:
The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the transformer.
• It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for finding the efficiency of the
transformer.
• The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known by the short circuit test. The short circuit
test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer. The measuring instrument like
wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the High voltage winding of the transformer. Their primary
winding is short circuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter which is connected to their terminal.
The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full load current
flows from both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load current is measured by the
ammeter connected across their secondary winding.
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The low voltage source is

applied across the secondary winding
which is approximately 5 to 10% of the
normal rated voltage. The flux is set up
in the core of the transformer. The
magnitude of the flux is small as
compared to the normal flux.

The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less occurred in the short circuit test because of the
low value of flux. The reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss in their windings. The voltmeter
measures the voltage applied to their high voltage winding. The secondary current induces in the transformer because
of the applied voltage.
Calculation of Short Circuit Test:
Let, 𝑊 − 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼 − 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by
𝑊 = 𝐼 𝑅
Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is
𝑊
𝑅 =
𝐼
Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by
𝑉
𝑍 =
𝐼
The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by

𝑋 = (𝑍 ) − (𝑅 )
The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor after knowing the
values of Zes and Res.
In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses including core loss but the value of core loss are
very small as compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected.

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16.3. BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER
The full load test on a small transformer is very convenient, but on the large transformer, it is very difficult.
The maximum temperature rise in a large transformer is determined by the full load test. This test is called, back-to-
back test, regenerative test or Sumpner’s test.
The suitable load which absorbs the full load power of a large transformer will not easily be available. Hence
a large amount of energy will be wasted. The back-to-back test determines the maximum temperature rise in a
transformer, and hence the load is chosen according to the capability of the transformer
Back-to-Back Test Circuit:
The two identical transformers are used for the back-to-back test. Consider the Tr1and Tr2 are the primary
windings of the transformer connected parallel to each other. The nominal rated voltage and frequency is supplied to
their primary winding. The voltmeter and ammeter are connected on their primary side for the measurement of the
input voltage and current.
The secondary winding of the transformer is connected in series with the each other but with opposite polarity. The
voltmeter V2 is connected to the terminal of the secondary winding for the measurement of the voltage.
The series opposition of the secondary winding is determined by connecting there any two terminals; the
voltmeter is connected across their remaining terminals. If it is connected in series opposition, the voltmeter gives
the zero reading. The open terminal is used for measuring the parameter of the transformer.

The above figure shows that the terminal B and C are connected to each other, and the voltage is measured
across the terminal A and D.

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Finding Losses with Sumpner's Test on Transformer
The secondaries of the transformer are so connected that their potentials are in opposition to each other. This
would so if VAB = VCD and A is joined to C at the same time as B is joined to D. In that case, there would be no
secondary current flowing around the loop formed by the two secondaries.
T is an auxiliary low voltage transformer [Regulation Transformer]. which can be adjusted to give a variable
voltage and hence current in the secondary loop circuit. By proper adjustment of T, full-load secondary current I 2 can
be made to flow as shown. It is seen, that I2 flows from D to C and then from A to B. Flow of I1 is confined to the
loop FEJLGHMF and it does not pass through W1. Hence, W1continues to read the core loss and W2 measures full-
load Cu loss (or at any other load current value I2). Obviously, the power taken in is twice the losses of a single
transformer.
i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.
i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.
From results of Sumpner’s test, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as

% full load efficiency of each transformer = 𝑋 100

Advantages of Sumpner's Test

1. Low power is required to conduct this test. Because no external load is connecting
2. Full load copper losses and iron losses of both transformers determined.
3. Increase in transformer temperature can be found.

Determination of Temperature Rise

The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by measuring the temperature of their oil after every particular
interval of time. The transformer is operating back to back for the long time which increases their oil temperature.
By measuring the temperature of their oil the withstand capacity of the transformer under high temperature is
determined.
Determination of Iron Loss
The wattmeter W1 measures the power loss which is equal to the iron loss of the transformer. For determining the
iron loss, the primary circuit of the transformer is kept closed. Because of the primary closed circuit, no current flows
through the secondary windings of the transformer. The secondary winding behaves like an open circuit. The
wattmeter is connected to their secondary terminal for the measurement of iron loss.
Determination of Copper Loss
The copper loss of the transformer is determined when the full load current flows through their primary and secondary
windings. The additional regulating transformer is used for exciting the secondary windings. The full load current
flows from the secondary to the primary winding. The wattmeter W2 measures the full load copper loss of the two
transformers.
17. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to connect more than one transformer’s in parallel, for example, for
supplying excess load of the rating of existing transformer. If two or more transformers are connected to a same
supply on the primary side and to a same load on the secondary side, this is called as parallel operation of transformers.

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17.1. Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers:
Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of existing transformer, another transformer
may be connected in parallel with the existing transformer to supply the increased load.
Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer is not available which can meet the total requirement
of load, two or more small transformers can be connected in parallel to increase the capacity.
Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a fault occurs in one transformer, then the
other parallel transformers still continue to serve the load. And the faulty transformer can be taken out for the
maintenance.
Transportation is easier for small transformers: If installation site is located far away, then transportation of
smaller units is easier and may be economical.
17.2. Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers:
There are various conditions that must fulfill for the successful operation of transformers as follows.
1. The line voltage ratio of two transformers must be equal.
2. The per unit impedance of each transformer should be equal and they should have same ratio of equivalent
leakage reactance to the equal resistance(X/R).
3. The transformers should have same secondary winding polarity.
4. The Transformers should have same phase sequence (Three phase transformer)
5. The transformers should have the zero relative phase replacement between the secondary line
voltages.(Three phase transformers)
17.3 Load Sharing between Two Transformers Connected in Parallel
(i) When the two transformers have the same voltage ratios and their impedance voltage
triangles are identical in size and shape.
The condition for which the transformers have the same voltage ratio and impedance voltage triangles is
known ideal condition or ideal case. Let E be the no-load secondary voltage of each transformer and V the terminal
voltage.
Figure shows the equivalent circuit in which I1 and I2 are the currents supplied by the transformers A and B,
respectively. I be the total load current lagging behind the voltage V by an angle Φ. The impedance voltage triangles
of the individual transformers are identical in shape and size and are therefore, represented by a single triangle VAB
with the resistance drop (side VA) parallel to the load current vector OI. The current I1 and I2 in the individual
transformers are both in phase with the load current I and are inversely proportional to their respective impedances.
𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 = impedances of the two transformers
𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = the currents of the two transformers
̅ total load current
𝐼=
𝑉 = common terminal voltage.

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Total current 𝐼 ̅ is given by

∴ 𝐼̅ = 𝐼 + 𝐼

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐼 𝑍 = 𝐼 𝑍
𝐼 𝑍
𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼 𝑍

𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = .𝐼 ……..(ii)

Substituting the value of 𝐼 in eq,(i), we get,

𝐼̅ = .𝐼 +𝐼 = 𝐼 +1 =𝐼

𝑍
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝑋 𝐼̅
𝑍 +𝑍
𝑍
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝐼 = 𝑋 𝐼̅
𝑍 +𝑍
Multiplying both sides by the terminal voltage V,

we get, 𝐼𝑉= 𝑉𝐼 ̅

𝑍
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝐼 𝑉= 𝑉𝐼 ̅
𝑍 +𝑍

𝑍
∴ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑋 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑍 +𝑍
𝑍
𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑋 𝐾𝑉𝐴
𝑍 +𝑍

(ii) When the two transformers have the same voltage ratios but different voltage triangles
In this case, no-load voltages of both secondary are equal in magnitude as well as in phase i.e., there is no
phase difference between E1 and E2 which will only be possible if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers
are not very different from each other or nearly the same. Under these conditions, both sides of two transformers can
be connected in parallel, and no current will circulate between them on no-load.

Figure shows the equivalent circuit diagram when the parallel connected transformers are sharing the load
current I, and it represents two impedances in parallel. The impedance voltage triangle is now represented by two
triangles VAB, VA’B having common hypotenuse VB. The resistance drops sides of the triangles VA, VA’ are parallel
to the phasors OI1 and OI2 of the respective secondary currents. The sum of these vectors OI 1 and OI2 represents the
load current OI

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𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 = impedances of the two
transformers
𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = the currents of the two
transformers
̅ total load current
𝐼=
𝑉 = common terminal voltage.
Total current 𝐼 ̅ is given by

∴ 𝐼̅ = 𝐼 + 𝐼

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐼 𝑍 = 𝐼 𝑍 = v
Since Z1 and Z2 are in parallel,
the equivalent impedance Z
1 1 1
= +
𝑍̅ 𝑍 𝑍
𝑍 𝑍
𝑍 =
(𝑍 + 𝑍 )
⸫ The total combined current
𝑣 𝑣(𝑍 + 𝑍 )
𝐼̅ = =
𝑍̅ 𝑍 𝑍

Or 𝑣̅ = ( )
𝑋 𝐼̅

𝑍1 𝑍2
∴ 𝐼 𝑍 =
𝑍2 +𝑍1
𝑋 𝐼̅

𝑍1
Or 𝐼 =
𝑍2 +𝑍1
𝑋 𝐼 ̅ ……..(i)

𝑍2
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝐼 =
𝑍2 +𝑍1
𝑋 𝐼 ̅ ……..(2)

Multiplying both sides by the terminal voltage V,

we get, 𝐼𝑉= 𝑉𝐼 ̅

𝑍
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝐼 𝑉= 𝑉𝐼 ̅
𝑍 +𝑍

∴ 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑋 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ; Where KVA1 is the load shared by transformer A

𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑋 𝐾𝑉𝐴 ; Where KVA2 is the load shared by transformer B

and KVA is the combined load.

𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑍
⸫ =
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑍
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i.e., the load shared by each transformer is inversely proportional to their impedances.
Again, from equation (ii) or (ii), we get,

𝐼 = 𝑋𝐼 ̅

𝐼 = 𝑋𝐼 ̅

Equation (vi) shows that the load shared by each transformer depends upon the ratio of impedances,
so the unit in which they are measured does not matter.
18. Efficiency of a Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power, the two being measured
in same units (either in watts or in kW).
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂=
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙
𝜂=
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 + 𝑃 + 𝑃
Where, 𝑉 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑝. 𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠)
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑅 (𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠)
If x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at this fraction is given by the relation;
𝑥 𝑋 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙
𝜂 = =
𝑥 𝑋 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑥𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 + 𝑃 + 𝑥 𝐼 𝑅
The copper losses vary as the square of the fraction of the load.
18.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer at a given load and p.f. is expressed by the relation
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝑉 cos 𝜙
𝜂= = … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 + 𝑃 + 𝐼 𝑅 𝑃
𝑉 cos 𝜙 + + 𝐼 𝑅
𝐼
The terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given p.f., efficiency depends upon the load
current I2.
In expression (i), the numerator is constant and the efficiency will be maximum if denominator is minimum.
Thus, the maximum condition is obtained by differentiating the quantity in the denominator w.r.t. the variables I 2 and
equating that to zero i.e.,

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𝑑 𝑃
𝑉 cos 𝜙 + + 𝐼 𝑅 =0
𝑑𝐼 𝐼

or 0− +𝑅 =0

or 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑃 ……….(ii)
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 = 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
Thus, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper (or variable) losses are equal to iron
(or constant) losses.
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙
∴ 𝜂 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝑃 )
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 + 2𝑃
From equation (ii), the value of output current I2 at which the efficiency of the transformer will be maximum
is given by;

𝑃
𝐼 =
𝑅

If x is the fraction of full load kVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑃 (where Pc is the full load Cu losses)
𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃

𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑥 𝑃 =𝑃 ⟹ 𝑥=
𝑃

∴ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑃
= 𝑥 𝑋 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑋
𝑃

𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
= 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑋
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

18.2 All-day Efficiency

The load on certain transformers fluctuates throughout the day. The distribution transformers are energised
for 24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for major portion of the day. Thus, iron losses occur for whole day but
copper losses occur only when the transformer is loaded. Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be
judged by the commercial efficiency, but it can be judged by all-day efficiency also known as operational efficiency
or energy efficiency which is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a period of 24 hours.
The all-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kWh (or Wh) to the input in kWh (or Wh) of a
transformer over 24 hours.
∴ 𝐴𝑙𝑙 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂 = (for 24 hours)

To find this all-day efficiency, we have to know the load cycle on the transformer.

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19. Voltage Regulation
When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes due to voltage
drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e., primary and secondary resistances and inductive reactance.
The voltage drop at the terminals also depends upon the load and its power factor.
The change in terminal voltage from no-load (E2) to full-load at constant supply voltage (V2) with respect
to no-load voltage is known as voltage regulation of the transformer.
Let, E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no-load.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.
𝐸 −𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐸
𝐸 −𝑉
𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, % 𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑋 100
𝐸
19.1 Expression for No-load Secondary Voltage
(i) EXACT EXPRESSION (ii) APPROXIMATE EXPRESSION
(a) for a lagging p.f. (inductive load) (a) for a lagging p.f. (inductive load

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑂𝐻𝐶, 𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐻) + (𝐻𝐶) 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑂𝐸𝐶,

(𝑂𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻) + (𝐻𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) 𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐹

𝑂𝐶 =
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝐼 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
∴ 𝐸 = (𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼 𝑅 ) + (𝑉 sin 𝜙 + 𝐼 𝑋 )
𝐸 −𝑉
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑋 100
𝐸

(b) for unity p.f., (resistive load) (b) for unity p.f., (resistive load)

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𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑂𝐵𝐶, 𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐵) + (𝐵𝐶) 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑂𝐵𝐶

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵) + (𝐵𝐶) 𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵

∴ 𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 ) + (𝐼 𝑋 ) ∴ 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝐸 −𝑉
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑋 100
𝐸
(c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load) (c) for leading p.f. (capacitive load

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑂𝐻𝐶, 𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐻) + (𝐻𝐶) 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 ∆ 𝑂𝐸𝐶

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻) + (𝐻𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) 𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐷𝐸

∴ 𝐸 = (𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼 𝑅 ) + (𝑉 sin 𝜙 − 𝐼 𝑋 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝐼 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

𝐸 −𝑉
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔 = 𝑋 100
𝐸
Generalized equation:

𝐸 = (𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼 𝑅 ) + (𝑉 sin 𝜙 ± 𝐼 𝑋 ) ;
Where ‘+’ for lagging power factor &
‘-‘ for leading power factor

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19.2 Kapp Regulation Diagram
It is observed that the secondary terminal voltage of a transformer changes when the load on it changes. The
change in terminal voltage (rise of fall) does not only depend upon the magnitude of load but it also depends upon pf of
the load. For finding the voltage drop (or rise) which is further used to determine the regulation of the transformer, a
graphical construction is employed called Kapp regulation diagram as proposed by late Dr. Kapp.
For drawing Kapp regulation diagram, it is necessary to know the equivalent resistance and reactance as referred
to secondary i.e., Res and Xes. If I2 is the secondary load current then, secondary terminal voltage on load, V2, is obtained
by subtracting I2Res and I2Xes voltage drops vectorially from secondary no-load, E2.
Now, E2 is constant, hence it can be represented by a circle of constant radius OC as shown in Fig. This circle
is known as No-load or open-circuit emf circle.
For a given load OI2 represents the load current and is taken as the reference vector. AB represents I2Res and is
parallel to vector OI2, BC represents I2Xes and is drawn at right angles to AB. Vector OA obviously represents secondary
terminal voltage V2. Since I2 is constant, the drop triangle ABC remains constant in size. It is seen that end point A of
V2 lies on another circle whose centre is O’. This point O’ lies at a distance of I2Xes vertically below the point O and a
distance of I2Res to its left.
O’B’ = AB and OB’ = BC

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To determine the voltage drop at full-load lagging pf cos Φ, radius OLP inclined at an angle of Φ with OX. LM
= I2Res and is drawn horizontal. MN = I2Xes and is drawn perpendicular to LM. Obviously ON is No-load voltage E2.
Now ON = OP = E2. Similarly, OL is V2. The voltage drop = OP – OL = LP.

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100 = 𝑋 100

It is seen that for finding voltage drop, the drop triangle LMN need not be drawn, but simply the radius OLP is
sufficient to determine regulation.
The diagram shows clearly how the secondary terminal voltages falls as the angle of lag increases. Conversely, for a
leading power factor, the fall in secondary terminal voltage decreases till for an angle of Φ OR leading the fall becomes
zero; hence V2 = E2. For angles greater than ΦOR, the secondary terminal voltage V2 (i.e., OS) becomes greater than E2
and voltage regulation comes out to be negative.
The Kapp diagram is very useful in determining the variation of regulation with power factor. But it is not so
accurate since the lengths of the sides of the impedance triangle are very small as compared to the radii of the circles.
To obtain desired accuracy, the diagram has to be drawn on a sufficiently large scale.

20. Applications
Main applications of the transformers are given below:
(a) To change the level of voltage and current in electric power systems.
(b) As impedance-matching device for maximum power transfer in low-power electronic and control circuits.
(c) As a coupling device is electronic circuits
(d) To isolate one circuit from another, since primary and secondary are not electrically connected.
(e) To measure voltage and currents; these are known as instrument transformers.

21. EXCITATION PHENOMENON IN TRANSFORMERS

The no-load current in a transformer is non-sinusoidal. The basic cause for this phenomenon, which lies in
hysteresis and saturation non-linearities of the core material, will now be investigated; this can only be accomplished
graphically.
Assume that the voltage V1 applied to the transformer is sinusoidal. Since the ohmic drop is assumed
negligible compared to the magnitude of the applied voltage, the induced emf which balances the applied voltage
must also be sinusoidal and so must be the flux established in the core. Further, the flux must lag the induced emf by
90° as shown in the emf and flux waveforms drawn. The current necessary to set up sinusoidal flux can be obtained
graphically by looking up the hysteresis curve.
Assume that the steady-state operation has been reached so that hysteresis loop of Fig. is being repeated in
successive cycles of the applied voltage. Consider the instant when the flux has a value – Φ 1, the corresponding
exciting current being zero. When the flux becomes zero (at time instant t 1), the current is a small positive value i01.
When the flux has a positive value Φ2 as shown in the figure, there are two possible values of current, i 02 when the
flux is on the increasing part of the hysteresis loop and i03 when the flux is on the decreasing part of the loop; i 02 >
i03. The flux maximum +Φmax coincides with the current maximum + i0 max. The current becomes zero once again
for flux + f1. So far, the positive half of exciting current has been traced out; the negative half will be symmetrical
(odd symmetry) to it because of the inherent symmetry of the magnetic hysteresis loop. The complete cycle of the
exciting current is sketched in Fig.

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From the exciting current wave shape of Fig., it is observed that it is nonsinusoidal and peaky. While odd
symmetry is preserved and the current and flux maximas occur simultaneously, the current zeros are advanced in time
with respect to the flux wave shape. As a consequence, the current has fundamental and odd harmonics, the strongest
being the third harmonic which can be as large as 40% of the fundamental. Further, the fundamental of the exciting
current leads the flux by a small angle 𝛼 ; so that the current fundamental has a component in phase with flux and a
much smaller component in quadrature to the flux (leading) or in phase with voltage. While I m is responsible for
creation of core flux, 𝑖 accounts for the power lost in the core due to hysteresis.

Current Ic must of course be modified to account for the eddy-current loss in the core. The corresponding
current component apart from being in phase with V1 is sinusoidal in nature as it balances the effect of sinusoidal
eddy-currents caused by the sinusoidal core flux. It is, therefore, seen that eddy-currents do not introduce any
harmonics in the exciting current.

When the transformer feeds current to a linear load, the load current is sinusoidal and being much larger than
the excitation current would ‘swamp out’ the nonsinusoidalness in the resultant primary current; as a consequence
the primary current on load is sinusoidal for all practical purposes.

In certain 3-phase transformer connections, third-harmonic current cannot flow , as a result the magnetizing current im
is almost sinusoidal. To satisfy the B-H curve, the core flux must then be nonsinusoidal; it is a flat-topped wave. This can be
verified by assuming a sinusoidal im and then finding out the f wave shape from the f-im relationship, the normal magnetizing
curve†. Since the flux is flat-topped, the emf which is its derivative will now be peaky with a strong third-harmonic content. The
various waveforms are illustrated in Fig.

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