Bahir Dar University

College of Science

Thermal and Mass Transfer Unit Operations

(Iche 4092)

Offered to 4th Year Industrial Chemistry Students

By Bitew E. (MSc.)

2017 E.C

November, 2024
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
 Chapter One
Introduction to Thermal and Mass Transfer Unit Operations
 What is a unit operation and unit Process?

 The chemical process is a combination of unit processes and unit operation.

 Unit operations involve bringing a physical change such as separation,

crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization,
distillation etc, which involve certain type of processes carried out in a
specific equipment.

 It is a basic step in a process because large processes can be broken into unit
operations in order to make them easier to analyze.

 For example, in milk processing, homogenization, pasteurization, chilling,

and packaging are each unit operations which are connected to create the
overall process.
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 Cont.…

 The unit process involves a chemical change such as hydrogenation, oxidation,

nitration, and other reactions, leading to the synthesis of various useful product.
 Unit Process provides basic information regarding the reaction temperature and
pressure, the extent of chemical conversions and yield of product of the reaction,
nature of reaction whether endothermic or exothermic, type of catalyst used.
 Chemical engineering unit operations can be grouped into five general classes:
1. Fluid flow processes
2. Heat transfer processes
3. Mass transfer processes
4. Thermodynamic processes
5. Mechanical processes

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 Cont.…
1. Fluid Flow Process
 Fluid flow processes: deals about fluids transportation and its dynamics.
 It includes fluids transportation (pump, compressor, blowers, pipes and fittings,),
gas-liquid two-phase flow, filtration, solids fluidization, mixing, etc.
2. Heat Transfer Processes
 Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems,
depending on the temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat.
 It includes heat exchange, evaporation, and condensation.
3. Mass Transfer Processes
 Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location to another.
 It occurs in many processes, such as absorption, distillation, extraction,
adsorption, and drying.

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 Cont.…
4. Thermodynamics Process
 A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic development of a
thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state.
 It includes:
 Refrigeration: there is a transfer of thermal energy from a place at a cold
temperature to a place at a higher temperature.
 Air Conditioning (AC): thermal energy is taken away to keep the air at a cool
temperature.
 Gas liquefaction: cooling a gas below its boiling point so that it can be stored and
transported as a liquid
5. Mechanical Unit Operation
 Mechanical unit operation includes:
 Solids transportation: different types of conveyors
 Crushing and pulverization: reducing sizes
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 Screening and sieving: separation of different particles based on their size.
 Heat transfer

 As you see from thermodynamic:

“Heat is defined as the energy-In-transit due to temperature difference.”
 Heat transfer take place whenever there is a temperature gradient within a
system.
 Heat transfer cannot be measured directly, but the effects produced by it can be
observed and measured. e.g. temperature change
 All heat transfer process must obey the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
 In addition to the laws of thermodynamics it is essential to apply laws of heat
transfer to estimate heat transfer rate.
 Estimating rate of heat transfer is a key requirement in the design and analysis
heat exchanger, refrigeration and air conditioning.

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 Cont.…

 The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate. The rate
of heat transfer is measured in watts (W), equal to joules per second.
 Heat flux: is the rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
 It is measured in watts per square meter (W/m 2 ).
 The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one.
 Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.

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 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

 Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other aspects

of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application areas of heat
transfer.
 The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings, and human
comfort is closely tied to the rate of this heat rejection.
 We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the
environmental conditions.
 Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using
the principles of heat transfer.

 Some examples include the heating and air-conditioning system,

the refrigerator and freezer, the water heater, and even the computer and the TV.

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 Cont.…

 Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many other devices, such as car
radiators, solar collectors, various components of power plants, and even

spacecraft.
 The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on hot
water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the basis of a

heat transfer analysis with economic consideration.

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Cont.…

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 Modes of Heat Transfer

 The basic modes are:

 Conduction
 Convection , and
 Radiation

 In most of the engineering problems, heat transfer takes place by more than one
mode simultaneously.
 Such kinds of heat transfer problems are called multi-mode heat transfer.

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 Cont.…

 Conduction
 It refers to the transport of energy in a mediums due to a temperature
gradient.
 The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.

 On a microscopic level, conduction heat transfer is due to:

 The elastic impact of molecules (due to the collisions and diffusion)

in fluids (liquids and gases), during their random motion.

 Molecular vibration and rotation about their lattice positions

(arrangement of particles) in solids, and

 Free electron migration in solids

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
 For heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier’s law.

 It is empirical equation which relates the rate of heat transfer with temperature
gradient and area of cross section.

q𝑥= −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥

q𝑥= Rate of heat transfer by conduction in x direction

𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥= Temperature gradient in x-direction

A = Area normal to x-direction

k = Thermal conductivity of the medium

 The negative sign is the consequence of thermodynamics as it says heat transfer

takes place spontaneously from system of high temperature to system of lower
temperature. So 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥 is always negative.
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 Cont.…
The Plane Wall

The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is

proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer.

Heat conduction through a large

Heat flux plane wall of thickness dx and
area A.

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 Cont.…
 Thermal conductivity(k):
The thermal conductivity of a
material is a measure of the ability
of the material to conduct heat.

 The rate of heat transfer through a

unit thickness of the material per
unit area per unit temperature
difference.

 A high value for thermal

conductivity indicates that the
material is a good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates that the
A simple experimental setup to
material is a poor heat conductor or determine the thermal conductivity

insulator. of a material.

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 Thermal Diffusivity
 In heat transfer analysis, the ratio of thermal conductivity to the heat capacity is an important
property termed the thermal diffusivity , which has units of m2/s.
 It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to
store thermal energy..
 Where
 k is thermal conductivity (W/(m·K))
 cp is specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K))
 ρ is density (kg/m3)
 Together, ρcp can be considered the volumetric heat capacity (J/(m3·K)).

 A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat

capacity will obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.

 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the

propagation of heat into the medium.

 A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly

absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat is
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conducted further.
 Cont.…

Example 1
The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof

The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and
is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k=0.8 W/m°C . The
temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to
be 25°C and 0°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.

Determine:

(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and

(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the

cost of electricity is $0.2/kWh.

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 Cont.…
(a)Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and the area of
the roof is: A= 6 m×8 m=48 m2.
The steady rate of heat transfer through the roof is determined to be

𝑄=kA(T1-T2)/L= (0.8)(48 )(25-0)/0.25= 3840 W= 3.84 kW

(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour period and its cost
are determined from

Q = 𝑄Dt =(3.84 kW)(10 h) = 38.4 kWh

Cost/day = (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy)

= (38.4 kWh)($0.2/kWh) =$7.68

Cost/month = (cost/day)×(30day/month)= $7.68×30=$230.4

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 Cont.…

Example 2
A heat rate of 3 kW is conducted through a section of an insulating material of cross-
sectional area 10 m2 and thickness 2.5 cm. If the inner (hot) surface temperature is 415OC
and the thermal conductivity of the material is 0.2 W/m0C, what is the outer surface
temperature?

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 Cont.…
 CONVECTION
 Convection: The mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.

 Convection describes energy transfer between a

surface and a fluid moving over the surface.
 Convection includes energy transfer by both the bulk
Heat transfer from a hot surface to
fluid motion (advection) and the random motion air by convection.

of fluid molecules (conduction or diffusion).

 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

 In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
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 Types of Convection Heat Transfer

 Convection Heat Transfer can be categorized into two forms:-

 Forced convection: If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by

external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind.

 Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy

forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.

The cooling of a boiled egg by

forced and natural convection.

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 Cont.…

Newton’s law of cooling

 Newton’s law of cooling states that:|-
“The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and its surroundings.”

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

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 Cont.…

 The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the fluid.

 It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all

the variables influencing convection such as :|-

 The surface geometry

 The nature of fluid motion
 The properties of the fluid
 The bulk fluid velocity

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 Cont.…
Example
 A 20 mm diameter copper pipe is used to carry heated water, the external surface
of the pipe is subjected to a convective heat transfer coefficient of h = 6 W / m2
K , find the heat loss by convection per meter length of the pipe when the
external surface temperature is 80oC and the surroundings are at 20oC.

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Solution

 Calculate the surface area of the pipe per meter length:

As= 2 * π * r * L

Since we are considering per meter length, the length factor is 1

As= 2 * π * 0.01 = 0.0628 m2

 Temperature difference = Ts - Tf = 80°C - 20°C = 60°C

 Heat loss = h * As* dT

Heat loss = 6 * 0.0628 * 60 = 22.608 W/m

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 Cont.…
 RADIATION
 Radiation: is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.

 It is the process of emitting radiant energy in the form of waves/particles

 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening medium.

 Heat transfer by radiation is

fastest (at the speed of light).

 This is how the energy of the sun

reaches the earth.
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 Cont.…

 In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form
of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.

 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

 In Radiation, all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit

radiation to varying degrees.

 Stefan–Boltzmann law

 The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an

absolute temperature Ts is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as :

 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

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 Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
 Cont.…
Radiation emitted by real surfaces
 Emissivity () is the measure of an object's ability to emit infrared energy.
 Emitted energy indicates the temperature of the object.
 Emissivity can have a value from 0 (shiny mirror) to 1 (blackbody).
 Most organic, painted, or oxidized surfaces have emissivity values close to 0.95. (
=0   1).

 Blackbody radiation represents the

maximum amount of radiation that
can be emitted from a surface at a
specified temperature.
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 Cont.…

 High emissivity object is better able to radiate energy than a low emissivity object.

 A blackbody would have an emissivity of 1, meaning that it would emit 100%

efficiently.

 Net radiation heat transfer: is the difference between the rates of radiation
emitted by the surface and the radiation absorbed by another surface.

 If the rate of radiation absorption is greater than the rate of radiation emission, the
surface is said to be gaining energy by radiation. Otherwise, the surface is said
to be losing energy by radiation.

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 Cont.…
 The determination of the net rate of heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it depends on:

 The properties of the surfaces

 Their orientation relative to each other
 The interaction of the medium between the surfaces with radiation

 When a surface is completely enclosed by a

much larger (or black) surface at temperature
Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does
not intervene with radiation, the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by:

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 Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces surrounding.
 Cont.…
Example:

 Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C at all times. The inner
surfaces of the walls, floors, and the ceiling of the house are observed to be at an
average temperature of 10°C in winter and 25°C in summer. Determine the rate of
radiation heat transfer between this person and the surrounding surfaces if the
exposed surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the person are 1.4
m2 and 30°C, respectively. Given that The emissivity of a person is 0.95.

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 Cont.…

Example:

 Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of
heat transfer from this person if the exposed surface area and the average outer
surface temperature of the person are 1.6m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2· °C. The emissivity of a person is
0.95.

The total rate of heat transfer

is the sum of heat transfer
through convection and
radiation.

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 Cont.…

Summary

 Conduction & convection require a temperature difference across a medium (the

interactions of atoms/molecules)

 Radiation transport can occur across a vacuum/ does not require any medium…
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 Cont.…

Reading Assignment
On
 Thermal Resistance for the three mode of heat transfer
 Thermal Resistance in parallel and series configuration

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Cont.…

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